Parts I and II of this study provided a socio-economic and political context for curriculum development and identified the need for curriculum change in Vietnam. In order to bring about this change, appropriate strategies, approaches and methodologies are required. In addition, it is important to identify the critical parameters on which curriculum development is based, as well as resources that are needed. These issues are the focus of Part III.
In addition to affecting the socio-economic and political system of the country, Doi Moi is having an impact upon the demand for human resources. The challenge for the university education system in Vietnam is, therefore, to ensure the supply of high quality, trained, human resources for a multi-sector economy to contribute to the sustainable development of the country. The Law on Education issued in 1998 reflects the education philosophy. Article four of this Law provides a framework for education contents and methods. Contents should be basic, integrated, practical and systematic with special emphasis on civil spirit and cultural tradition.
Curriculum development aims to enhance the training capacity to achieve national socio-economic development objectives. In the circumstances of fast and intensive changes in society, the economy and politics, the objectives and strategies of training for foresters must be change accordingly. Changing training objectives and strategies must start with changes in curricula.
In a National Workshop on Social Forestry Training (1996) it became clear that, unlike before, foresters must work in a radically different socio-economic and political setting. This requires complete changes in their awareness, and attitudes and social relations must be addressed and reflected in the new curricula.
A 1996 national forestry training needs assessment (TNA) identified some shortcomings of present foresters. These included; a lack of interdisciplinary knowledge, particularly in cultivation and livestock breeding; a lack of social knowledge and skills, including ethnology, community organization, and gender; a lack of knowledge and skills needed to mobilize the people and their community, including facilitation and communication skills, and; a lack of knowledge about the management of natural resources at the community and household levels.
The TNA also found that many foresters could not meet the new demands and challenges of society, especially concerning groups and individuals such as farmers in upland regions who now need support in order to use and manage forestland which they have been recently allocated.
Previously, curricula were mainly imported from European forestry management training modes. These curricula were based mainly on silviculture techniques and specialized for different fields. Due to the separation of the functions of training, research and extension, many of these curricula were often not linked with field practices, and were unrealistic and overly academic.
The shift in focus from a traditional to a social forestry system in which farmers play a more active role in managing forest land in combination with other natural resources is creating a requirement for a different set of skills, knowledge, and attitudes for those who need to deal with the demands of farmers. Whereas much forest training has until recently, been technology-based, there is now a need to build an interdisciplinary capacity in many foresters and extensionists, encouraging an understanding of social principles and processes.
New target groups for training are also emerging, ranging from policy makers to farmers, with each group having different training needs. Forestry education will have to take into account the varied and multiple production systems of farmers living under highly diverse conditions, the needs, capabilities of rural people, and the entire relationship between local people and the forests and trees growing on land under their control. The focus must no longer be on uniformity and technology; forestry training programmes will need to become more relevant and flexible, diverse, and yet well integrated (Taylor, 1999).
While there are limits to national resources, growing international linkages with regional countries in research and training and the establishment of a network of experts for research and information exchange have encouraged changes for co-operation and sharing in curriculum development. New approaches and methods in forestry development have been established thanks to the support of projects and programmes in social forestry development and rural development from different international organizations and non-governmental organizations, as well as from the Government of Vietnam. This has created a solid theoretical and practical basis for the development of new curricula.
In 1998, MARD and MOED approved the introduction of a "major" in social forestry. Additionally, existing forestry degree programmes are currently being revised. As described earlier, the establishment of the Social Forestry Training Network created an important premise and foundation for change for the development of forestry curricula in Vietnam. For example, a Social Forestry Training Centre was established at the Forestry University (XMUF) with the approval of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. This was the first forestry training institution in Vietnam dedicated to social forestry, and it now plays a key role in social forestry-related curriculum development.
A joint curriculum development programme is now being undertaken by members of the Social Forestry Training Network. There are also several international rural development projects and programmes in Vietnam (including, SIDA, CARE, IFAD, JICA, GTZ, FAO, UNDP, IIRR, RECOFTC, WFP and ICRAF among others) which are involved with the curriculum development process in varying ways. These organizations have contributed to curriculum development by participating in Training Needs Assessments and Curriculum Development Review Workshops, or by providing training in methods of curriculum development, learning material development and learner-centred teaching methods.
In the case of forestry education in Vietnam, philosophies and principles for curriculum development are now becoming based on people-centred training strategies. Strategies for university forester training in Vietnam require the identification of an orientation for forestry professionals which meets both current and future needs. In order to develop such a model, it is necessary for it to be based on the practice of the current forester model as well as on the identification of the needs and requirements of the future working environment.
The TNA in 1996 was an attempt to understand the roles and responsibilities of future foresters in Vietnam. It began with an analysis of the responsibilities of current foresters, and what they would be in the future. The results of the TNA revealed the nature of the "old model forester" was to carry out basic functions of technical forestry instruction and forest resource management, mainly for State-owned forestry enterprises. Identifying the knowledge, skills and attitudes required by the "forester of the future" was more difficult because of the dynamic context of the forestry sector. It was, to a large extent, an exercise in "fortune-telling". Nevertheless, through a series of analyses and workshops, a model for the future forester was developed. A field forester should be, at the same time, a technician, a manager, a trainer and a facilitator of agricultural, forestry and rural development activities.
Based on these human resource development objectives, two main curriculum development strategies were identified. The first is based on the education of a technically oriented forester, in line with what currently exists. The second, however, is based on a more interdisciplinary approach. These strategies are identified below in Figure 3.
Figure 3: Curriculum development strategies in forestry education in Vietnam
As Figure 3 indicates, in addition to forest resource management, training is required not only in silvicultural techniques, but also in agriculture and management. State-owned forest enterprises should themselves offer training in natural resource, household and community management. They would need training methodologies and facilitation skills in order for them to work with farmers and community members.
The following issues seem critical:
Curriculum development in Vietnam throughout the 1990s can be divided into three main development stages, which follow different approaches and methods. These are described in Figure 4.
Figure 4: Approaches (three) to curriculum development for forestry education in Vietnam, during the 1990's
It is important to differentiate between the classical or traditional approach to curriculum development and the participatory approach. In the classical approach, all the learners are treated alike; they are assumed to all have the same needs, to use the same processes to learn the same things at the same time, and the curriculum seeks to achieve the same goals for all the students. This approach is usually based on clearly defined objectives which may be set by curriculum writers or experts, such as those at the "top" of the system in the Ministries and Planning Departments. There is a systematic planning procedure and the provision of adequate expertise, resources and technology to allow the objectives to be achieved. Planning, implementation and evaluation, within the classical approach, is top-down in nature.
A PCD approach, however, assumes that the learners will all start from different points and have different needs; they will learn in different ways and will therefore learn the different things they will need by themselves. There will be a combination of open and closed goals, which are set out and achieved through participatory processes. Individual perception and behaviour is recognized, and the learning process is based upon an understanding of the constantly shifting social context. Curriculum planning, implementation and evaluation may still be systematic, but it involves a range of stakeholders whose interests are acknowledged and taken into consideration throughout the entire curriculum development process (Taylor, 1999).
Before 1993, experts mainly carried out curriculum development for technical and economic sectors. A workbook was prepared, followed by a textbook. This text would be published and then served as the foundation for the entire learning and teaching process. Training content was based on the training objectives and links between the subjects. Training needs were not mentioned in relation to the training content. Lecturers and students simply implemented the curricula and were supervised and evaluated according to the criteria retained by the institutions.
Between 1994 and 1997, the first phase of the Social Forestry Support Programme at the Forestry University focused mainly on social forestry curriculum development. It was the first time that a TNA (with participation of five universities) was implemented on a national scale. A framework for a social forestry major and lectures for social forestry specialization were developed with intensive consultation, involving training experts, teachers, project managers from within Vietnam and abroad, students, graduated foresters, government and NGOs. Lecturers at the universities together developed curriculum frameworks for several subjects, and then lecturers at the Forestry University developed the detailed content and teaching methods for all subjects. It was the first time that students and graduated foresters had an opportunity to participate in content development and assessment of each subject, as well as more widely in the training course through the use of participatory methods.
In the period between 1998 and 1999, the first two years of the second phase of the Social Forestry Support Programme, there were some fundamental changes towards participatory curriculum development. Four subjects - introductory social forestry, extension of forestry and agriculture, social forestry project management and agroforestry - were developed by all of the universities, including the development of curriculum, content, methods and teaching materials. Through workshops, many researchers, trainers and project managers contributed to the content and training procedures. Lecturers teaching at the university level agreed on the curriculum and presented the subject matter. Field research results were used to update and extend the course materials. For the first time, trainers, researchers and forestry extensionists together were not only developing a curriculum, but collaborating in research activities at a provincial level. The steps of this process are described in more detail in Part IV of this case study.
Curriculum development should be based on certain foundations and some boundaries need to be defined in order to establish a manageable process. In Vietnam, forestry curriculum development focused, for the most part, on the following parameters that guide and inform the whole process:
(a) Legal system on education, and regulations adopted by the Ministry of Education and Training.
In recent years, the Vietnamese Government has promulgated laws on training and education and has implemented relevant reform policies as well as other regulations on training. The laws regulate forms of training (formal and non-formal) and the time allowed for different training levels. This is the initial basis for curriculum development for each specific major.
The training and educational reform policies focus on the establishment of interdisciplinary universities, strengthening the development of universities in different areas and reducing the concentration of universities in large cities. At the same time these policies aim to promote the development of colleges, secondary schools and vocational schools and create appropriate links between training levels. These reform policies require university training curricula to focus on indigenous and ecological characteristics and links with the curricula of colleges and vocational schools.
Regulations for training from the MOET prescribe some required subjects, duties and responsibilities for universities in curriculum development. They also clarify some regulations for the examination, assessment and testing of subjects and graduation evaluation. These factors have an impact on subject schedule, design of monitoring and evaluation forms of each subject, as well as on the writing of the graduation thesis. Universities can only adjust some content within their functions and responsibilities.
(b) Legal system and regulations on natural resource management adopted by Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development.
Some policies in forestry and agricultural development, as well as changes in the organization and management systems of agricultural and rural development, are also considered parameters for curriculum development, with a focus on work that students may have to undertake after their graduation. Interdisciplinary development, with a focus on general agricultural development, is an orientation that must be provided by the programme. Effective natural resource use policies and development strategies of the forestry sector must also serve as a basis for curriculum development.
(c) Legal system and other related policies of the government
Certain government policies can influence whether some topics are included in the curriculum. Examples of this range from administrative reform and priorities for ethnic groups and sparse and remote areas, to policies on gender or on preservation of national cultural identity and biodiversity.
(d) Results of training needs assessment
Results of national and local training need assessments are also key parameters for curriculum development. The results reflect social needs, and reflect gaps in knowledge, skills and attitudes that should be addressed through education and training.
The PCD approach draws on two techniques: participation and curriculum development (FAO,1998). Although the participatory approach and its concepts and methodologies were introduced to Vietnam in 1980 as a component of sustainable forest resource management, it has been confined to some PRA exercises at the community level. The decision to apply the approach in curriculum development is therefore considered as a way to broaden the approach and to address education and training methodologies. The process is therefore considered to be the first participatory action research in education in Vietnam.
The premise behind the application of a participatory approach in curriculum development is that forestry education must internalize the emerging paradigm of forestry and environmental management which has been recognized globally, so that lecturers and other stakeholders can re-align their vision, mission, strategies, programs and organization based on this trend. These premises have motivated university staff to recognize the need to analyse the complexity of the multi-stakeholder context. This has involved the use of participatory tools and methods to co-ordinate different perspectives and needs in the curriculum development process, from training need identification and objective setting, to the development of relevant training materials and implementation of training activities.
The following pages describe the methodology for PCD, which follows a rather classic training cycle, as illustrated in Figure 5. A description about how this methodology was applied in Vietnam, with examples of the outputs which emerged, are provided in Part IV.
Figure 5: The Participatory curriculum development cycle
The PCD process requires stakeholder involvement. Different stakeholders may be involved in various ways and at different stages of this process. The first step in this process is stakeholder analysis.
The stakeholders participating in forestry curriculum development in Vietnam since 1994 consist of two groups: those associated with the five universities, and stakeholders outside those training institutions. The procedure for the selection of stakeholders is illustrated in Figure 6.
Figure 6: Procedure for the selection of stakeholders in PCD
The initial basis for the choice of who should participate in curriculum development is to identify objectives of curriculum development, and the roles and responsibilities of various stakeholders at different stages in the cycle. Based on these objectives and roles, a list of stakeholders participating in curriculum development can be made. Analysis and choice of stakeholders are often based on the interest and potential roles and functions of each stakeholder, as well as the degree of influence which stakeholders may have on curriculum development. The process of stakeholder analysis has been adapted from a tool used quite commonly in the development of community development projects and programmes.
A stakeholder analysis is undertaken for the following reasons:
Stakeholder participation should enable stakeholders to play an active role in decision-making and in the consequent activities which affect them.
Therefore:
The main steps of a stakeholder analysis are as follows:
1. List the stakeholders;
2. Group them into "outsiders" and "insiders";
3. Identify their interests in the training (expectations, benefits, resources offered);
4. Note conflicting interests;
5. Highlight relationships between stakeholders (-/+);
6. Assess impact of developing the curriculum/providing training on these interests (+/-/?);
7. Construct a table, as follows:
8. Develop an "importance and influence" matrix (as follows:)
Analysis of the Importance-Influence Matrix and its Application
BOX A: this group will require special initiatives to protect their interests;
BOX B: a good working relationship must be created with this group;
BOX C: this group may be a source of risk, and will need careful monitoring and management;
BOX D: this group may have some limited involvement in evaluation but are, relatively, of low priority.
9. Develop a stakeholder participation matrix (as follows:)
Type of participation Stage in cycle |
INFORM |
CONSULT |
PARTNERSHIP |
CONTROL |
TNA |
||||
AIMS |
||||
PLANNING |
||||
IMPLEMENTATION |
||||
EVALUATION |
The levels of participation (inform, consult, partnership and control) reflect the fact that not all stakeholders are able or have the capacity to participate in curriculum development to the same extent. Some stakeholders (for example, those who have relatively low importance and influence), need only to be informed. There may be benefits, however from consulting those who have either high importance or influence, either to facilitate the process, or to avoid obstacles and blockages at a later stage. Farmers and students, for example, may be consulted during a TNA. Policy makers may need to be consulted when major curriculum change is being considered. Stakeholders who are both important and influential should participate more fully, however, according to the stage of the curriculum development process. Students and teachers may develop a partnership during implementation and evaluation steps. Ultimately, there will always be an individual or a group having control over decisions, and it is important to identify exactly who these are in order to ensure that the process fits in with the existing institutional arrangements of the local context.
Some of the key stakeholders identified in Vietnam forestry education were teachers, students, foresters, farmers, managers, extensionists, Governmental and Non-Governmental organizations.
Once the stakeholders have been identified and their importance and influence (as well as the steps in which they can participate) are clear, it is necessary to identify appropriate methods for working with them. Some individuals or organizations will not find it easy, or won't be willing to support this process; others will be more supportive. One method for engaging stakeholders is to interview individuals separately with questionnaires, or by using open questioning techniques. The various opinions collected should then be summarized so that any overlap can be identified. This method has several advantages: (i) it provides opportunities for many stakeholders to participate; (ii) it recognizes areas where expectations for curricula are the same for different groups and interests, and; (iii) it ensures the effective contribution of experience and expertise of busy people.
However, it should be noted that this method will not in itself bring about any exchange and discussion between stakeholders, which often creates new ideas. Questioning techniques may also lead to relevant ideas being ignored, simply because these ideas are presented by an individual. Suggestions made by a large group may have a wider acceptance. A disadvantage of methods that work only with individuals is that they tend not to bring about a high level of agreement and enthusiasm.
Another more expensive but collective method is through workshops. Participants may be divided into groups to discuss the need for different kinds of knowledge, skills and attitudes with the intention of arriving at a consensus for curricula revision. This interactive method has several advantages. Discussion and debate between different interest groups will often bring higher productivity than separate interviews. Some stakeholders will not want to spend time participating in this manner however, or may not be able to attend at times that are convenient for other stakeholders.
For some stakeholders, participatory rural appraisal (PRA) may be used - with farmers for example - if extensionists want to gain an understanding about the knowledge, skills and attitudes that are needed for a training course.
A post-hoc evaluation can be appropriate for some groups of stakeholders. It is possible to seek the views of some clients, employers, staff, government organizations about the capacity of the former participants of the course once they have finished their training and have returned to work. The views of former learners and sometimes of their parents can also be obtained through their children's learning.
In the end, a mixture of methods seems to be most effective. The following are examples:
In addition to looking at the organizational, job and individual needs, there are a range of external (outside the training institution) and internal (inside the training institution) factors to be considered which may enable curriculum developers to better understand the teaching and learning environment.
The following factors may be examined in more or less detail, depending on the local conditions:
Information on the above factors may be collected in different ways. The following are some examples of these methods:
An aim is used to articulate what a programme of education or training (and particularly the teacher or trainer) intends to achieve. Aims give shape and direction to curriculum. They should emerge as a result of understanding the existing context in which a course will be developed. Different stakeholders may guide the setting of aims within the context of a curriculum-planning workshop, for example.
The planning stage involves the identification of objectives and main topics. The initial product of planning is likely to be a broad curriculum framework that contains all of these elements, and then moves on to the more detailed planning of curricula, lesson plans and required teaching methods and materials. This is often a lengthy and intensive process that may involve a wide range of stakeholders who can make various contributions.
During the implementation stage, the curriculum is "delivered". This is the moment when plans become real, and various stakeholders come together to participate in the learning process. Although teachers (trainers) and students (learners) are the main stakeholders involved at this stage, other resource people may also play key roles. Where field practice is involved, other stakeholders such as farmers and extensionists may also make important contributions.
One evaluation method, which lends itself well to the PCD approach, is the model of context, inputs, process, and products (CIPP). Again, a wide range of stakeholders may be involved in the evaluation process, for example students who were trained in the course, lecturers who taught the course or employers and farmers who participated.
Curriculum development, particularly using a participatory approach, may require a variety of resources for collecting, analysing, and synthesizing information as well as teaching and learning materials development. Some equipment may be required to collect field information including technical equipment such as a camera, video recorder, a computer and printer, scanner and photocopier. All of these can be used to document and develop teaching and learning materials. Teaching and learning equipment, such as an overhead projector (OHP), video and slides, can have a great effect on the reform of textbook writing.
Archives and libraries play an important role as repositories of information as well as centres from which the experiences and lessons of individuals and training institutions can be disseminated. In Vietnam, forestry curriculum has encouraged the establishment of information exchange systems between domestic and foreign training institutions.
Human resources are also vital and include education experts, teachers, students and other participants from related institutions.
Participatory curriculum development is a lengthy, dynamic and continuous process. This means that PCD requires both a longer time frame and greater financial inputs than do more traditional approaches to curriculum development.
PCD strategies should be based on the human resource development objectives of the agricultural and forestry sector. Different sets of knowledge, skills and attitudes are required in order for existing forestry cadres to implement their tasks, both practically and successfully. The PCD approach seems most effective for forestry education in Vietnam. An appropriate methodology for PCD should be followed systematically, involving a cycle with five steps: situation and stakeholder analysis; aims setting; planning; implementation and evaluation.
In this section, the conceptual foundations of PCD have been presented from an abstract perspective. In Part IV, the specific application of a PCD approach in Vietnam is described in more detail.
