COMPENDIUM GLOSSARY ON RATTAN TERMS IN AFRICA

Note: This compendium glossary of terms and definitions used in rattan research and development with a special emphasis on Africa is intended to complement the Rattan Glossary through providing additional definitions from the rattan sector in Africa.

RATTAN RESOURCES

BIOLOGY AND SYSTEMATICS

Adaptation	Any morphological, physiological, developmental of behavioural character that enhances survival and reproductive success of an organism.
Allopatric	Species occupying different and disjunct populations.
Aggregate inflorescence	A seemingly single large inflorescence actually comprised of many individual inflorescences. Common in hapaxanthic (q.v.) taxa.
Ancistrophyllum	A synonym of the rattan genus, Laccosperma.
Calamus	A predominantly Asian genus of rattans with a single representative in Africa.
Centre of diversity	The point at which organisms exhibit their greatest diversity.
Cincinnus	A flower cluster wherein each successive flower arises in the axil of the bracteole on the preceding flower stalk.
Congo Basin	The watershed of the Congo River which contains the largest single tract of forest in the world outside of Amazonia.
Endemic	Native to, and restricted to, a particular biogeographical region.
Eremospatha	Genus of rattan endemic to Africa, represented by eleven species.
Exsiccatae	An index of herbarium collections for a particularly taxonomic group usually listed by collector.
Exserted	Protruding beyond the surrounding parts.
Guineo-Congolian	A phytochorian of African vegetation representing the humid lowland forest of the Congo Basin.
Inflorescence unit	A single inflorescence within an aggregated inflorescence (q.v).
Juvenile	A young individual that may possess morphology distinct from the adult.
*Laccosperma*	A genus of rattan endemic to Africa represented by six species.
Monospecific	Of a genus, often containing a single species but also often used to describe extensive groups of a single species within a habitat.
Monotypic	Having only one representative.
Neotype	A specimen assigned as the type in the absence of the holotype.
Onococalamineae	Palm subtribe which includes the genus Oncocalamus.
Oncocalamus	A rattan genus endemic to Africa represented by four species.
Polymorphic	Consisting of many forms, highly variable.
Polytypic	Having many representatives.
Sympatric	Species occurring together in the same geographical area.
Terre firma	Land that is not seasonally inundated.
Trilete	Describing a narrow flower opening with three lobes.
Upper Guinea	The forested region from Eastern Nigeria to Guinea.
Vicariance	The existence of closely-related taxa in different geographical areas that have been separated by the formation of a natural barrier.

ANATOMY AND MORPHOLOGY

Aerial branching	The production of shoots in the aerial axils, producing branches.
Aphlebiae	A term formerly used to describe the reduced lowermost leaflets of a rattan that often reflex and clasp the stem.
Attenuate	Drawn out and gradually narrowing.
Baccate	Berry-like.
Basal	At the base of an organ.
Caducous	Falling off early.
“Cat's claw”	Flagella are often armed with groups of recurved prickles resembling a cat's claw.
Ciliate	Fringed with long hairs.
Concolorous	Having the same colour throughout.
Cuneate	Wedge-shaped.
Discolorous	Having two or more shades of colour throughout.
Elaminate rachis	A rachis devoid of true leaflets.
Equidistant	Occurring at regular intervals.
Flabellate	Fan shaped.
Geniculus	Technical term for the “knee”.
Inequidistant	Occurring at irregular intervals.
Lanceolate	Lance-shaped.
Lobe	Any division of an organ, particularly if the part is rounded.
Monosulcate	Referring to pollen grains; having a single groove.
Mucilage	A sticky or slimy substance or solution.
Oblanceolate	Inversely lanceolate (q.v.).
Obovate	Inversely ovate (q.v.).
Orbicular	Circular.
Ovate	With an egg-shaped outline.
Orthotropic	Growing directly towards to source of the stimulus (positively orthotropic) or away from the source of the stimulus (negatively orthotropic).
Papillose	Bearing minute rounded projections.
Papyraceous	Thin, membranous, paper-like.
Plumose	Feathery.
Praemorse	Irregularly truncate, appearing as if bitten off at the apex.
Proximal	Situated closest to the point of attachment.
Reflexed	Bent abruptly backwards.
Ruminate	Refers to endosperm, where in-folding of seed coat causes discoloration.
Spathulate	Spatula-shaped.
Spear leaf	The emerging apical leaf.
Striate	Lined.
Trapeziform	Shaped like a trapezium i.e. with only two of its sides parallel.
Truncate	Appearing as if cut off at the base.
Velamen	The outer layer of aerial roots.
Vestigial	Imperfect development of an organ which was fully developed in some ancestral form.
“Wrinkle”	A linear ridge of the ocrea of a number of species of Eremospatha.
Warty	Pitted.

PHYSIOLOGY

Iteroparus	An ecological term synonymous with polycarpy.
Primary axis	The main vegetative structure.
Semelparous	An ecological term synonymous with monocarpy

MANAGEMENT AND PLANTATIONS

Abundance	The total number of individuals of a species in an area (volume, population of community).
Beating up	The replacement of dead seedlings post-planting.
Certification	The process of formal accreditation in recognition of sustainable, ethical and equitable harvest and trade.
Cutting grass	A rodent (Thryonomys swinderianus); the most common pest of rattan in cultivation in Africa.
Inventory	The process of evaluating stocking of a resource.
Natural regeneration	The process by which successive populations replace through reproductive events (recruitment) in natural environmental conditions.
Parent crop	The tree crop used as shade or support.
Permanent sample plots	Permanently demarcated sample plots of variable size, which are enumerated and re-measured at pre-defined intervals to determine changes in ecological and dynamic processes.
Production-to-consumption	A study of the chain of custody of rattan from harvest to the sale of the final product.
Provenance	The place of origin.
Skid trail	A linear disturbance in forest where logs have been mechanically dragged through the vegetation.
Stool management	The management of individual rattan clusters.

HARVESTING

Community forestry	The formal and legally recognized management of forest resources by communities in their proximity.
Customary laws	Local rules and regulations applying to the use of forest resource.
Cutlass	A sturdy hand-held long blade used throughout Africa.
Harvest regime	The prescribed management process by which harvest is controlled to maximize yield while ensuring future supplies.
Harvestable cane length	The proportion of the length of a single cane stem of commercial value.
Informal taxation	The process by which money changes hands informally (e.g. bribe).
Land tenure	The rights of an individual or group to own and manage land.
Libation	A ceremony consisting of the sprinkling and drinking of alcohol to appease the ancestors prior to entering the forest. Common throughout West and Central Africa.
Machete	Another word for a cutlass (q.v.).
Open-access	Unregulated access to a forest resource.
Resource tenure	The rights of an individual or group to own and manage a particular resource.
Sloughing	Refers to the gradual flaking off of the sheath as the rattan stem matures.
Stranger	Common term in Anglophone Africa for a person not from the area.
Sustainable harvest	The utilization of a resource in such a way that future supplies are not deleteriously affected.

RATTAN AS A RAW MATERIAL

TRADE

Artisan	An individual craftsman.
Cottage industry	Often unregulated, small-scale, processing or manufacturing businesses.
Marché des fleurs	Central rattan market and processing centre, Douala, Cameroon.
Maryland	Central rattan market and processing centre in Lagos, Nigeria.
Mvog-Mbi	Central rattan market and processing centre in Yaounde, Cameroon.
Non-timber forest product (NTFP)	Forest products other than timber, such as rattan.

TRANSPORT

Head

portering The transportation of products on the head.

PROCESSING

AT LOCAL ARTISANAL LEVEL

*Atelier* (French)	Workshop.
*Cintrage* (French)	Word for bending of large-diameter cane using a blow torch.
*Raclage* (French)	Word from stripping and cleaning the cane.
Raw cane	Natural untreated rattan.
Transformation	All processes applied to rattan stems in order to produce finished goods.
*Vannier* (French)	Word for weaver, but colloquially referring to artisan.
Weaver	Rattan artisans who are specialised in weaving, especially baskets.

MISCELLANEOUS

African Rattan Research Programme	A research initiative of University College, London and the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
Chewing stick	A vegetative portion of a plant used in dental hygiene.
Domatia	Small structures made by ants on host plants.
Kenja	Common name for traditional rattan farm basket.
Myrmecodomatia	Structures provided by plants for ant colonization.
Hammock bridge	Single-span woven bridges made from rattan cane common in Central Africa.
Herbivory	The consumption of vegetative material by faunal agents.
Hornbills	A group of birds comprised of many species, commonly cited as being the greatest dispersal agent of rattan seed.
Palm heart	The soft growing point in the apical bud which is often edible.
Pradera (Spanish)	Term for deep white sand savannahs characteristic of coastal areas of the Congo Basin.
Predation	The consumption (and often destruction) of seed by faunal agents.
Sanaga River	A well-known biogeographical barrier bisecting Cameroon.
Socio-economic status	Differentiation of farmers according to different wealth categories and social backgrounds.
Yam-ban	Shelf constructed with rattan cane used for storage of yams common in Nigeria.
Yam-tie	Strips of split cane sued to tie young yam shoots to supporting poles.

VERNACULAR NAMES

Bantu	The name applied to a group of languages of tribal groups dispersed from SE Nigeria to Kenya and the United Republic of Tanzania and southwards to South Africa.
Eastern Bantu	Tribal groups of the Bantu family occurring in East Africa.
Kinship metaphors	The use of vernacular names for plants that impart relationships to other species.
Niger-Congo	The family of languages that dominates the forest zone from Senegal to Lake Chad.
Non-Bantu	Tribal groups within the Niger-Congo linguistic family (q.v.).
Pidgin English	A corrupted form of English similar to Creole used as form of communication particularly in Anglophone Africa.
Polysemous	A vernacular name for an organism that is the equivalent of a product.
Western Bantu	Tribal groups of the Bantu language family common in sub-Saharan Africa.

THE RATTANS OF AFRICA - SUMMARY OF TAXONOMY AND UTILIZATION1

Genus	Species	Description	Distribution	Cane use	Non-cane uses
Calamus	deërratus G. Mann & H. Wendl.	Clustering flagellate species; stems to 20 m long up to 35 mm in diameter; leaves ecirrate	Senegal to Angola, west to Uganda	Yes, but only in absence of other, more desirable species	Many
Eremospatha	barendii Sunderland	Clustering; stems to 30m long, up to 25 mm in diameter; conspicuous knee and bracts on inflorescence	Southern Cameroon	None recorded	None recorded
	cabrae (De Wild. & Th. Dur.) De Wild.	Clustering; stems to 50 m long, up to 25 mm in diameter; leaflets obovate; papillose inflorescence	Gabon & DR Congo to northern Angola	Yes,	Few
	dransfieldii sp. nov.	Clustering; stems to 30 m, up to 30 mm in diameter; knee conspicuous; lowermost leaflets clasping stem	Upper Guinea forests (Sierra Leone to W. Nigeria)	Yes, particularly traded in Ghana	Few
	cuspidata (G. Mann & H. Wendl.) H. Wendl.	Clustering; stems to 15 m long, 25 cm in diameter; leaflets with conspicuous apiculum	Congo Basin	Few	None recorded
	haullevilleana De Wild.	Clustering; stems to 25 m long, up to 25 mm in diameter; ocrea striate; leaflets spathulate - ovate	Congo Basin	Yes, highly prized and widely traded	Many
	hookeri (G. Mann & H. Wendl.) H. Wendl.	Clustering; stems to 30 m, up to 30 mm in diameter; knee conspicuous, leaflets rhomboid to obovate	Eastern Nigeria to Gabon	No	Few
	laurentii De Wild.	Clustering; stems to 30 m, up to 30 mm in diameter; knee conspicuous; lowermost leaflets clasping stem	Congo Basin with outliers in Upper Guinea forest	Few recorded	None recorded
	macrocarpa (G. Mann & H. Wendl.) H. Wendl.	Clustering; stems to 50 m long, 10-18mm in diameter; juvenile leaves bifid, adult leaflets linear lanceolate	Senegal to DR Congo	Yes, juvenile form reputed to be the best small-diameter cane in Africa. Widely traded	Many
	quinquecostulata Becc.	Clustering; stems to 15 m long, 10 mm in diameter	SE Nigeria to southern Cameroon	Few	None recorded
	tessmanniana Becc.	Clustering; stems to 100 m long (although branching is common), up to 15 cm in diameter; glaucous grey-green leaflets	Southern Cameroon to E. Guinea	None recorded	None recorded
	wendlandiana Dammer ex Becc.	Clustering; stems to 60 m, up to 30 mm in diameter; conspicuous knee and rhomboid leaflets	SE Nigeria to Gabon	Yes, but poor quality cane
Laccosperma	acutiflorum (Becc.) J. Dransf.	Clustering; stems to 70 m, up to 60 mm in diameter; yellowish appearance; non-pendulous leaflets	Upper Guinea to DR Congo	None recorded	None recorded
	korupensis sp. nov.	Clustering; stems often branching, to 10 m, up to 15 mm in diameter; acanthophylls absent	Coastal forests of Cameroon	None recorded	None recorded
	laeve (G. Mann & H. Wendl.) H. Wendl.	Clustering; stems often branching, to 10 m, up to 15 mm in diameter; leaflet margins unarmed; seeds smooth	Upper Guinea to DR Congo	None	Few
	opacum (G. Mann & H. Wendl.) Drude	Clustering; stems often branching, to 10 m, up to 15 mm in diameter; leaflet margins armed; seeds warty	Upper Guinea to DR Congo	Yes, but poor quality cane	Few
	robustum (Becc.) J. Dransf.	Clustering; stems to 45 m, 50 mm in diameter; leaflets conspicuously pendulous, glaucous blue-green	SE Nigeria to DR Congo	Yes, highly prized cane; traded widely	Many
	secundiflorum (P. Beauv.) Kuntze	Clustering; stems to 30 m, up to 35 mm in diameter; leaflets sigmoid, dark green	Senegal to DR Congo	Yes, highly prized cane; traded widely	Many
Oncocalamus	macrospathus Burr.	Clustering; stems to 35 m, up to 30 mm in diameter, sheaths well armed; rachillae bright yellow, seeds smooth.	Southern Cameroon to northern Angola	No; poor quality cane	None recorded
	mannii (H. Wendl.) H. Wendl.	Clustering; stems to 30m, 28 mm in diameter, sheaths well-armed; rachillae bright crimson, seeds warty	Southern Cameroon to Gabon	No; poor quality cane	None recorded
	tuleyi Sunderland	Clustering; stems to 30 m, up to 45 mm in diameter, sheaths sparsely or unarmed; seeds smooth	SE Nigera and SW Cameroon	No; poor quality cane	None recorded
	wrightianus Hutch.	Clustering ?; stems to 10 m, up to 10 mm in diameter; leaflets sigmoid	Southern Nigeria	Yes, but for cane rope and twine only	Few

CROSS-LISTING OF RATTAN GENUS/SPECIES TO VERNACULAR NAMES BY COUNTRY (language in parentheses)

Calamus deërratus G. Mann & H. Wendl.	BENIN: akete (Defi); dekun wéwé (Gun-Gbe)CAMEROON: nding (Bulu) CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC: bioh (Banda-Yangere): CÔTE D'IVOIRE: ailé-mlé (Anyin); gapapa (Godié)DR CONGO: kpude (Zande); ma-ndakele (Ngbaka-Ma'bo); ikonga (Lombo); babio (Mongo-Nkundu); lekwe (BaMbuti)GAMBIA: tambo (Mandinka)GHANA: demmeré (Twi, also trade name); néné, (Akan); ayeka (Anufo); ayeka (Sehwi); keteku (Éwé); ayeké (Nzema)GUINEA: tambo (Mandinka); tâbi (Malinke)GUINEA-BISSAU: quitite (Balanta); batanou (Biafada); mantampa de sera (Crioulo, Upper Guinea); tambem (Fulfulde-Pulaar); tambo (Mandinka); ecapate (Mandyak); quito (Papel)EQUATORIAL GUINEA: nzing (Fang)LIBERIA: kpa kala (Mano)NIGERIA: erogbo, erugbo (Edo); ekwe-oji, iye (Igbo); apié (the plant itself, or the cane-rope made from it) (Ijo-Izon), bwálàm (a cane) (Pero); erogbo, erugbo (Yoruba)SENEGAL: ki tid (Balanta); kintem (Bainouk); mantampa da sera (Crioulo, Upper Guinea); bu kètao bu ketav, fu fiaf, ka kèt, ka tay, ke hiya, kékiya (Jola-Fogny); tambem (Fula-Pulaar); tambi (Tukulor); tambo (Mandinka); tãbi (Malinke); e kapat (Mandyak); ratlan (Wolof)SIERRA LEONE: lumboinyo-lando (Kisi); kanga-mese (Kono); tambe (Loko); tambi (Maninka); tamba (def. tembui) (Mende); tambi (Susu); ra-gbet (Themne); tambu-na (Yalunka)UGANDA: bi-lekwe (Amba)
Eremospatha barendii Sunderland	none recorded
Eremospatha cabrae (De Wild. & Th. Dur.) De Wild.	ANGOLA: m'bamba (Mbundu-Luanda)DR CONGO: li-findo (Lombo); lu-bambi (Kituba); e-safa (Mongo-Nkundu); ki-sakata (Kete)GABON: osono (Tsogo); osono (Pinji); ozono (Myene); li-bamba (Vili); nkolé (Kélé); nkolu (Seki); du-bamba (Barama); du-bamba (Lumbu); ivéta (Duma); iló-lóngo (Kota); u-lóngo (Benga); lé-mbumu (Ndumu); nlong (Fang)
Eremospatha cuspidata (G. Mann & H. Wendl.) H. Wendl.	EQUATORIAL GUINEA: ndera (Fang)
Eremospatha dransfieldii sp. nov.	GHANA: Mfia (Twi)NIGERIA: epa-emele (Yoruba); inima ború (Ijo-Izon)SIERRA LEONE: balu (Kono); mbalu (def. -ui) (Mende); ra-thamp (Themne)
Eremospatha haullevilleana De Wild.	CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC: pongbo (Ngombe)CONGO: mbaama (Téké)DR CONGO: li-findo (Lombo); mbowe (Zande); lu-popi ((Nandi)); n'kele (Bangala); m'bio (Bangi); lo-koli (Kele); ke-kele (Lingala); lu-kodi (Luba-Shari); lu-busi (Tembo); lu-bubi (Lega-Mwenga); yofoko (Mungo-Nkundu); lo-keko (Lusengo); kodi (Luba-Kasai); tukpuru (Bhele)TANZANIA: urugage (Ha)UGANDA: bibbobbi (Amba); enga (Luganda)
Eremospatha hookeri (G. Mann & H. Wendl.) H. Wendl.	CAMEROON: ki-yince (Balundu-Bima); mbunden (Bakundu-Balue)EQUATORIAL GUINEA: alua-nlong (Fang)GABON: gigorula (Sira)NIGERIA: itomi (Ekit)
Eremospatha laurentii De Wild.	CAMEROON: kpakpa (Ewondo)CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC: bo-kondi (Banda-Yangere)DR CONGO: bo-ngale (Mongo-Nkundu); ikonga (Lombo); nkelele mo-none (Lingala); nkoli (Bali)EQUATORIAL GUINEA: ebuat (Fang)SIERRA LEONE: bongei (Mende)
Eremospatha macrocarpa (G. Mann & H. Wendl.) H. Wendl.	BENIN: dekon (Defi); dekun vovo (Gun-Gbe)CAMEROON: filet (Trade); cane rope (Pidgin); echié (Denya); nlong (indef.) melong (def.) (Bulu); bana ndongo = young cane (bana = child) (Balundu-Bima); nloun (Baasa)CÔTE D'IVOIRE: ailè-mlé (Anyin)EQUATORIAL GUINEA: nlong (indef.) mi-long (def.) = juvenile stems, ongam = adult (Fang)GABON: ke-gèma (Lumbu); nyèvila (Sira); ongam (Fang); ndètèse (Kota); iganga-tsungu (Punu); songu (Vumbu); tongo (Tsogo); mbubi (Ndumu)GHANA: mfia (Akan-Asanti); néné (Nzima)LIBERIA: bele de bele (Mano)NIGERIA: íkan (Edo); odu-ana (Igbo); bórú (Ijo-Izon); ukan (Yoruba); ekakieri = male (i.e. with no fruits), irrumka = female (with fruits) (Ekit); iro (Esan)SIERRA LEONE: penden (Kissi); balu (Kono); mbalu (Loko); mbalu, koto mbalu = juvenile (Mende); ra-thamp (Themne)
Eremospatha quinquecostulata Becc.	CAMEROON: calumé-echié (Denya)GABON: di-bula (Sira)
Eremospatha tessmanniana Becc.	CAMEROON: calumé echié (Denya)EQUATORIAL GUINEA: ongam-akot (Fang)
Eremospatha wendlandiana Dammer ex Becc.	CAMEROON: cane basket (Pidgin); mua-echié (Denya)CONGO: ma-bulu (Téké)EQUATORIAL GUINEA: akot (Fang)GABON: égoo (Tsogo); ngundju (Punu); ngundju (Vumbu)NIGERIA: eghounka (Ekit)
Laccosperma acutiflorum (Becc.) J. Dransf.	CAMEROON: giant cane (Pidgin)EQUATORIAL GUINEA: ekwass (Fang)NIGERIA: ukpekpe (Ekit)
Laccosperma korupensis sp. nov.	None recorded
Laccosperma laeve(G. Mann & H. Wendl.) H. Wendl.	CAMEROON: ge- nomé-echié = “slave to cane rope” (Denya)CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC: gao (Banda-Yangeri)CÔTE D'IVOIRE: ailé-mla (Anyin)EQUATORIAL GUINEA: ndele (Fang)GABON: munyengi (Sira); tèkè (Tsogo)GHANA: nguni (Wasa); tenan muhunu = “it lives in the world for nothing” (Twi)NIGERIA: itunibia (Ekit)
Laccosperma opacum (G. Mann & H. Wendl.) Drude	CAMEROON: liko ko'ko = “close to cane” (Mokpwe); ge- nomé-echié = “slave to cane rope” (Denya)CONGO: kimbana ki mukaana (Téké)EQUATORIAL GUINEA: npue-nkan (Fang)GABON: ibulu (Myene); di-bulu (Sira); di-bulu (Lumbu); abulo (Kele); éboa (Tsogo) ulóngó-mwa-iki (Benga)GHANA: eholobaka (Nzema); sayai (Akan-Asanti); edem (Kwawu)NIGERIA: abu (Edo); ekwe oya = cane for tie-tie (Igbo)
Laccosperma robustum (Burr.) J. Dransf.	CAMEROON: eka (Ewondo); nkan, aka = cleaned cane (Bulu); dikah (indef.) mekah (def.) (Bakundu-Balue); gekwiya (Denya); makak (Trade)CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC: gao (Banda-Yangere)DR CONGO: ekpale-ekpale (Bwa): li-sele (Lombo); nkao (Ngbaka-Ma'bo); ikoonga (Lombo)EQUATORIAL GUINEA: nkan, aka = cleaned cane (Fang)GABON: asperge (nom forestier)
Laccosperma secundiflorum (P. Beauv.) Küntze	ANGOLA: mi-cau (Mbundu-Luanda)BENIN: kpanon (Defi); kpacha (Gun-Gbe)CAMEROON: ka-kawa (Baka): ekwos (Balundu-Bima); nde-gekwiya (Denya)CONGO: mukaana a nguomo (Téké)CÔTE D'IVOIRE: kumh (Attié); agué (Ebrié); djoho, djolo (Krumen); ahika (Anyin); gblé (Godié)DR CONGO: ma-kauw, bo-kauw (def.) (Lingala); bo-nganga (Mongo-Nkundu); nkau (Kongo)GABON: nkan (Fang); nkanda (Kélé); ikandji (Kota); okana (Ndumu); mokangé (Pinji); mokangé (Tsogo); mukanda (Sira); mukanda (Duma); mukanda (Lumbu); nkogu (Myene); nkanyi (Seki)GHANA: willow (Trade); ayié (Akan-Asanti); ayike = large rattan (Nzema)GUINEA-BISSAU: tambem-hadje (Fulfulde-Pulaar); tambendjom (indef.), tambendjom-ô (def.) (Mandinka)NIGERIA: ohwara (Urhobo); okankan = whole cane, ukwen = when split (Edo); òbóng (Efik); ukpé = cane rope made of this species (Ijo-Izon); iga (Ekpeye); añà (Igbo); epe-nla, ikan-ikó = a hook (Yoruba)SENEGAL: ka-likut (Jola-Fogny)SIERRA LEONE: lumboinyo-piando (Kisi); kangane (Kono); kafo (Loko); kavo (def. kavui) (Mende); ka-gbesu = whole stems, e-gbak = leafless part of the stem (Themne)
Oncocalamus macrospathus Burr.	CAMEROON: eboti (Ewondo)
Oncocalamus mannii H. Wendl.) H. Wendl	CAMEROON: mfop n'lon (Bulu)CONGO: mituo (Téké)EQUATORIAL GUINEA: asa-nlong (juvenile), ndoro (adult) (Fang)
Oncocalamus tuleyi Sunderland	CAMEROON: madame (Trade/Pidgin); mo'ap (Balundu-Bima); edju (Bakundu-Balue); moa-echié (Denya)NIGERIA: iboh (Ekit)
Oncocalamus wrightianus Hutch	BENIN: hofle (Defi); gbe-dekun (Gun-Gbe)NIGERIA: akwal´ (Igbo); pankéré (Yoruba).

LIFE FORM AND INTERMEDIATE FOLK CLASSIFICATION OF RATTAN CANES IN SELECTED AFRICAN LANGUAGE GROUPS

Folk name (-root)	Language (country)	Language subgroup2	Ethnobiological category
-ailé (all spp. except large diameter Laccosperma spp.)-ahike (large diameter Laccosperma spp.)	Anyin (Côte d'Ivoire)	non-Bantu	IntermediateGeneric
-nwatia (all climbing palms)	Akan-Asanti (Ghana)	non-Bantu	Life form
-dekun (all climbing palms)	Gun-Gbe (Benin)	non-Bantu	Life form
-ikan (all climbing palms)	Edo (Nigeria)	non-Bantu	Life form
-egbèé (all climbing palms)	Yoruba (Nigeria)	non-Bantu	Life form
-kogiri (all climbing palms)	Fulfulde	non-Bantu	Life form
-kwagiri (all climbing palms)	Hausa	non-Bantu	Life form
-uga (all climbing palms)	Igbo (Nigeria)	non-Bantu	Life form
-echié (all spp. except large diameter Laccosperma spp.)-gekwiya (large diameter Laccosperma spp.)	Denya (Cameroon)	Bantu	IntermediateGeneric
-edju (Oncocalamus spp.)-ndongo (Eremospatha spp.)-mekah (large diameter Laccosperma spp.)	Oroko language group (Cameroon)	non-Bantu	GenericGenericGeneric
-nloun (all spp. except large diameter Laccosperma spp.)-? (large diameter Laccosperma spp.)	Bassa (Cameroon)	Bantu	IntermediateGeneric
-mokolo (small diameter canes)-mekah (large diameter Laccosperma spp.)	Bakossi (Cameroon)	Bantu	IntermediateGeneric
-nlon (all spp. except large diameter Laccosperma spp.)-nkan (all Laccosperma spp.)	Bulu (Cameroon)	Bantu	IntermediateGeneric
-nlong (all spp. except large diameter Laccosperma spp.)-nkan (all Laccosperma spp.)	Fang (Equatorial Guinea & Gabon)	Bantu	IntermediateGeneric
-mikaana (all climbing palms)	Téké (Congo)	Bantu	Life form
-kekelé (small diameter canes)-likaw (large diameter Laccosperma spp.)	Zande, Lingala, Swahili-DRC	Bantu	IntermediateGeneric

SELECTED CANE PRODUCTS AND THEIR NOMENCLATURE

Product	Name	Language (country)	Notes
Palm heart	mekah*	Balundu-Bima (Cameroon)	Apex of L. robustum
	baa ndanga	Téké (Congo)	Apex of E. haullevilleana
	mukaana a ngomu*	Téké (Congo)	Apex of L. secundiflorum
	mukaana a buulu*	Téké (Congo)	Apex of E. wendlandiana
	ngodji	Lomdo (DR Congo)	Apex of L. robustum
Cane and cane rope	aka	Fang (Equatorial Guinea)	Cleaned stems of L. robustum / L. secundiflorum
	ukpa	Ijo-Izon (Nigeria)	Split stems of L. secundiflorum
	ukwen	Edo (Nigeria)	Split stems of L. secundiflorum
	ekwe oya*	Igbo (Nigeria)	Split stems of L. opacum for tie-tie
	ekwele / akwala	Igbo (Nigeria)	Split stems of O. wrightianus (coarse cordage)
	udo	Igbo (Nigeria)	Split stems of O. wrightianus (fine twine)
	elili	Igbo (Nigeria)	Split stems of O. wrightianus (string or thread)
	apié*	Igbo (Nigeria)	Cane rope of C. deërratus
Baskets	kenten	Akan-Asanti (Ghana)	Long baskets made from stems of L. opacum
	penja	Bakossi (Cameroon)	All cane baskets
	mbaka	Denya (Cameroon)	Farm baskets made from E. macrocarpa
	bi-dong	Fang (Equatorial Guinea)	Fish baskets made from split stems of L. robustum & E. macrocarpa
	be-koro	Fang (Equatorial Guinea)	Fish traps made from split stems of L. robustum & E. macrocarpa
	nkeuiñ	Fang (Equatorial Guinea)	Farm baskets made from split stems of L. robustum & E. macrocarpa
	maa kutu	Téké (Congo)	Baskets made from E. haullevilleana (baana = small; mwana kutu = medium; kiana = large)

* indicates the product name that is also the generic category, or derived directly from it

SUMMARY OF THE NON-CANE USES OF AFRICAN RATTANS

Species	Use	Region
Calamus deërratus	Palm heart eaten Young shoots roasted and eaten Grilled leaves macerated and made into tea to promote weight loss and to treat oedema caused vitamin deficiencies Ash from burned roots used as salt substitute Sheath twisted and used to clean cooking pans Sheath twisted to make rope	Ghana, Sierra Leone Ghana Senegal Guinea-Bissau Ghana Nigeria
Eremospatha cabrae	Base of leaf sheath used as a chewstick	DR Congo
E. haullevilleana	Palm heart eaten Fruits used for decoration Acanthophylls used as fish hooks Sap used as arbortifacient	Congo DR Congo DR Congo DR Congo
E. macrocarpa	Powdered root used to treat syphilis	Ghana, Nigeria
E. wendlandiana	Palm heart eaten Base of leaf sheath used as a chewstick	Congo Cameroon
Laccosperma laeve	Roasted roots eaten to improve virility	Central African Republic
L. opacum	Sap potable and drunk by forest workers Palm heart eaten	Gabon Congo
L. robustum	Palm heart eaten Young leaves eaten in stews	Cameroon to Gabon Equatorial Guinea
L. secundiflorum	Palm heart eaten Young shoots eaten Sap potable and drunk by forest workers Tea from young shoots used as vermifuge Sap, when mixed with other species, used to treat dysentary	Throughout its range Throughout its range Senegal, Gabon Ghana, Gabon DR Congo
Oncocalamus tuleyi	Base of leaf sheath used as a chewstick	Cameroon
O. wrightianus	Base of leaf sheath used as a chewstick	Nigeria

CURRENTLY RECOGNIZED NAMES AND SYNONYMS FOR AFRICAN RATTANS3

CALAMUS

Calamus deërratus G. Mann & H. Wendl.

EREMOSPATHA

Eremospatha barendii Sunderland

Eremospatha cabrae (De Wild. & Th. Dur.) De Wild.
syn. Calamus cabrae De Wild. & Th. Dur.
Eremospatha rhomboidea Burr.
Eremospatha suborbicularis Burr.

Eremospatha cuspidata (G. Mann & H. Wendl.) H. Wendl.
syn. Calamus (Eremospatha) cuspidatus G. Mann & H. Wendl.

Eremospatha dransfieldii sp. nov.

Eremospatha haullevilleana De Wild.

Eremospatha hookeri (G. Mann & H. Wendl.) H. Wendl.
syn. Calamus (Eremospatha) hookeri G. Mann & H. Wendl.

Eremospatha laurentii De Wild.

Eremospatha macrocarpa (G. Mann & H. Wendl.) H. Wendl.
syn. Calamus (Eremospatha) macrocarpus G. Mann & H. Wendl.
Eremospatha sapini De Wild.

Eremospatha quinquecostulata Becc.

Eremospatha tessmanniana Becc.

Eremospatha wendlandiana Dammer ex Becc.
syn. Eremospatha korthalsiaefolia Becc.

LACCOSPERMA

Laccosperma acutiflorum (Becc.) J. Dransf.
syn. Ancistrophyllum acutiflorum Becc.

Laccosperma korupensis sp. nov.

Laccosperma laeve (G. Mann & H. Wendl.) H. Wendl.
syn. Ancistrophyllum laeve (G. Mann & H. Wendl.) Drude
Calamus (subgen. Laccosperma) laevis G. Mann & H. Wendl.

Laccosperma opacum (G. Mann & H. Wendl.) Drude
syn. Ancistrophyllum opacum (G. Mann & H. Wendl.) Drude
Calamus (subgen. Laccosperma) opacus G. Mann & H. Wendl.

Laccosperma robustum (Burr.) J. Dransf.
syn. Ancistrophyllum robustum Burr.

Laccosperma secundiflorum (P. Beauv.) Küntze
syn. Ancistrophyllum secundiflorum (P. Beauv.) H. Wendl.
Calamus (subgen. Ancistrophyllum) secundiflorus G. Mann & H. Wendl.
Calamus secundiflorus P. Beauv.
Laccosperma laurentii (De Wild.) J. Dransf.
Ancistrophyllum laurentii De Wild.
Ancistrophyllum majus Burr.

ONCOCALAMUS

Oncocalamus macrospathus Burr.

Oncocalamus mannii (H. Wendl.) H. Wendl.
syn. Calamus (Oncocalamus) mannii H. Wendl.
Oncocalamus acanthocnemis Drude
Oncocalamus phaeobalanus Burr.
Calamus niger Braun & Schum.

Oncocalamus tuleyi Sunderland

Oncocalamus wrightianus Hutch.

¹ Disclaimer: This paper is not a taxonomic work and should not be considered the place of first publication for any new taxon or synonym it contains.
² Bantu linguistics is characterized by the possession of root terms that are distinguished into singular/plural by independent prefixes. These root terms are commonly shared between related languages and it is variation within the prefixes that is reflected in the variation in names for plants, for example.
³ Disclaimer: This paper is not a taxonomic work and should not be considered the place of first publication for any new taxon or synonym it contains.