Mahgoub Zaroug
Agricultural Officer, Crops and Grassland Service
Plant Production and Protection Division
FAO, Italy
1. INTRODUCTION
The Near East Region (RNEA) covers 1.498 million hectares of land comprising savannah, desert, sub tropical (Mediterranean) and temperate vegetation zones. The region is endowed by a large livestock population (Table 1) kept under various husbandry systems ranging from nomadism to modern sophisticated animal production units. Most countries of RNEA are witnessing large increases in livestock population.
TABLE 1
Livestock Population in RNEA ('000)
| Type of livestock | RNEA Population | % the world total |
|---|---|---|
| Camels | 11.474 | 67,3 |
| Cattle | 79.747 | 6,5 |
| Sheep | 229.216 | 19,8 |
| Goats | 132.509 | 31,7 |
* After FAO Production Yearbook 1982.
Rangelands of RNEA rank as a major natural resource whether measured by area supporting livestock raising and animal production, or watershed. In many areas the damage to range vegetation is in an advanced stage and may be difficult to reverse. Range deterioration is widespread and many sites are depleted of their forage species. Limitations on agricultural land exerted by the exploding population and the increased need for food has induced society to expand cultivation at the expense of some of the prime grazing areas, with little thought about irrigated or dryland fodder production to compensate for the lost grazing resources. The present rangeland deterioration and subsequent desertification in the Region is mostly the result of human impact through excessive grazing of livestock and irrational cutting of woody species, in absence of sound regeneration and afforestation programs.
Traditional livestock movement from dry to wet seasons or from low to high elevation grazing formed a simple rotation, whereby range vegetation was utilized for specific periods, and then the livestock was moved to another area. Availability of water from temporary dug-outs and natural ponds govern the period during which livestock remain in a grazing area, hence range have a chance to recover during the time when livestock move out of the area. This rotation gives herbage a chance for regeneration, seed formation and carbohydrate storage. Interruption of this pattern due to drilling and installation of permanent watering stations, hauling of water by tankers, cultivation, expansion of veterinary services and large scale vaccination campaigns, overuse of supplementary feeds, redistribution of human settlements have upset the traditional rotation and resulted in excessive utilization of range vegetation.
In their preliminary survey of the Gulf and the Arabian Countries, Juneidi and Huss (1978) indicated that with the limited information they obtained about the original vegetation of that area, it was obvious that today both quantity and quality of forage from rangelands have declined as compared to the past. This is applicable to most over-utilized sites in RNEA. Several reports (Costin 1972, Beskok 1974, DECARP 1976, Juneidi and Huss 1978, Draz 1980) have independently brought to attention the large scale destruction and undesirable shifts in range cover, i.e., reduction or elimination of desirable species and the dominance and invasion of undesirable or toxic ones.
The flora of RNEA comprises several palatable tree and shrub species, which have other uses beside their feeding value. Limited work has been done on the propagation and establishment of these species and the assessment of their value as animal feed, and may be for other uses. In some instances there may be local realization of the importance of native fodder trees and shrubs, but it has not been carried out far enough in practical efforts to improve forage productivity from arid and semi-arid rangelands.
In many areas local communities satisfy some requirements from native and/or naturalized stands of trees and shrubs, e.g., forage, fuel, construction wood, shade and shelter, human food, medicinal material, etc. As many of these woody species can maintain green shoots, they are able to supplement the quality of animal feed during the dry season. This ability reduces the need to buy supplementary feeds and grains, which are beyond the financial capacities of traditional livestock holders. Fodder trees and shrubs can provide suplementary feed when grasses and forbs are dry and are of low nutritive value. Through their ability to improve nutrient availability in the top soil, woody species enhance growth and forage quality of the grass and forb species growing under their canopies. It is therefore important to properly manage fodder trees and shrubs under different situations, so that they remain a viable and renewable source of animal feed, besides their other uses. Heady (1983) emphasized that development of browse from woody plants has high potential to relieve livestock nutritional problems.
Browse is an important feed item in Mediterranean areas during the autumm, and in tropical and semi-arid areas during the dry season. Leaves and twigs make the bulk of the forage ingested by goats, camels and, to a lower degree, by sheep, with an important contribution to the feed from green or dry pods in case of leguminous trees and shrubs. The usefulness of these fodder species is more pronounced because of:
Fodder trees and shrubs are utilized in some areas as part of an overall solution to the phenomenom of sharp increases in livestock population and, consequently, the high demand for feed, and to the serious deterioration of range vegetation and its declining productivity. Juneidi and Huss (1978) recommended establishment of shrubs on areas beyond recovery through natural processes. Such woody species could be equally used as part of the plant cover for rehabilitation of abandoned crop areas and marginal lands subjected to accelerated erosion and desertification.
It is customary to see areas covered by mature trees and shrubs without young plants and seedlings, an indication of severe interruption of stand regeneration. Seedlings of these species may not be able to establish due to constant grazing and trampling by livestock. Reduce tree and shrub regeneration may also be attributed to the effect of excessive grazing by animals in compacting soils due to their weight and movement; and the reduction of litter and organic matter accumulation. Both these conditions reduce infiltration and soil moisture holding ability. Deferment for grazing and trampling during the rainy season or full year rest may assist regeneration and seedling establishment.
Fuelwood is an acute problem in many areas of the Near East Region. Even in oil and gas producing countries there is demand for wood and charcoal to prepare certain types of food. Observation in Erzurum Province in Turkey revealed that housewives in rural areas collect manure, spread it on the ground to dry it, and then cut it into small blocks (manure cakes) to be used as fuel. Collection of manure for cooking purposes is also practiced in the Sudan. Regulations that allow collection of dead wood and prohibit cutting of living trees and shrubs are established in several countries. This is observed particularly in the Jiddat-Harasis area, where an important project for re-introduction of the Arabian Oryx to its former habitat is being implemented. However, destruction of shrubs by excessive browsing can be observed in some sites outside the fenced perimeters used for rearing the animals before being released to the wild.
Fodder trees and shrubs adaptable to long rainless dry season, aridity and/or salinity may be utilized to transform large areas in RNEA, presently of low productivity and threatened by desertification, into more productive systems. Particular research in Western Australia has shown that salt tolerant perennial shrubs provide grazing for sheep at a stocking rate almost equivalent to adjacent non saline annual pastures (Malcolm 1982). Several countries in the Region are attempting to utilize salt tolerant woody species to alleviate shortage of livestock feed and, perhaps, fuelwood supplies.
2. USES OF FODDER TREES AND SHRUBS
2.1 Nutrient Cycling and Soil Fertility
Several tree and shrub species, through their deep root systems, have the remarkable ability of bringing nutrients from a soil depth which is out of reach of the roots of many grasses and forbs. Some of these nutrients may become available to other species through leaf fall, leaching by rain, fire, urine and droppings of animals, etc. Woody legumes that symbiotically fix nitrogen may benefit associated vegetation by increasing the availability of this essential plant nutrient, which is deficient in many soils. The efficiency of perennial woody vegetation in conserving mineral nutrients is applicable to tropical or temperate forests, and to woodland communities. The experience of the Hubbard Brook Project showed the large amounts of minerals, K, Ca, Mg and Na, which are lost from land cleared of its vegetation, as compared to forest land (Lickenset al. 1970).
Leguminous fodder trees and shrubs can add nitrogen to soils, hence benefiting grasses and other non-legume species. This may have significant value, particularly in efforts of establishing vegetation in areas with sandy soil, or which are affected by moving sand dunes. Nursery seedlings used for such purposes should be inoculated with effective Rhizobium strains, to give them a competitive advantage, and in order to enhance the addition of Nitrogen to the system.
Some Acacia and Prosopis species have been shown to nodulate and fix atmospheric nitrogen (Habbish and Khairi 1970; Felker and Clark 1980; Mann and Shank 1980). Because of their wider distribution in the Near East Region, the Acacia nitrogen fixation system may be more beneficial to associated non-leguminous vegetation and cultivated crops. Observations of better grass and forb growth under woody species may partially be an effect of improved soil fertility under trees and shrubs, as a result of leaching of nutrients by raindrops or condensing mist, decomposition of plant material and addition of animal feces and urine. In the Sultanate of Oman it is not uncommon to find a rich layer or organic matter and litter under Proposis cineraria. Beneath the tree improved grass and forb growth may double biomass production of the herbaceous layer. In Sharqiya Region of that country, the deep rooted P. cineraria may bring nutrients from a greater depth to fertilize the sandy soil, which supports several herbaceous vegetation. However, excessive and early grazing of grasses and palatable Tribulus macropterus allows unpalatable forbs as Zygophyllum and Arnebia species to make use of the released nutrients.
Leguminous fodder trees and shrubs could benefit a grass-dominated range by adding nitrogen to the soil, and by supplementing the low protein grass by providing protein-rich leaves, twigs and pods during the dry season.
Shifting cultivation and crop-Acacia rotations have been practiced in some parts of the Region to regenerate soil fertility by allowing growth of Acacia and native vegetation after a few years of cropping. This cycle has been disturbed by the increase in population and the need for additional food, excessive grazing and browsing, and the cutting of trees and shrubs to provide fuelwood and construction material. The cycle has become shorter, as in the gum belt of the Sudan. The land is relieved from cultivation for a shorter period, thus less time is given to Acacia senegal and associated natural vegetation to grow and assist in regaining soil fertility. Consequently, erosion is accelerated with the resulting rapid loss of the more fertile top soil, so that large expanses of land become semi-sterile and support scanty weedy growth. In the sand dune country of western Sudan, A. senegal has been replaced on a wide belt by Leptadenia pyrotechnica (DECARP 1976).
Such a change is considered a severe deterioration in the productivity of those areas. Encouraging an appropiate agro-sylvo-pastoral system in such areas may be necessary to integrate livestock, field crops, fodder legumes and gum production from Acacia senegal. Such a system can meet the requirements of local communities and arrest the large scale land desertification. Acacia albida and A. seyal could lend themselves to a similar system. In the Sahelian zone of Africa, A. albida plays an important role in improving soil fertility. Increased yields of grain crops were correlated with a several-fold increase in the soil nitrogen, organic matter content and improved soil water holding capacity under A. albida (Felker 1981). Similar favourable response was reported by Mann and Shank(1980) for crops grown under P. cineraria in India. Both P. cineraria and A. albida have been shown to nodulate (Mann and Shank 1980; Habbish and Khairi 1970). Shed leaves of Prosopis farcat, native to Iraq and some other countries of the Region, were believed to improve soil fertility (Townsend 1974). Other legume trees and shrubs may contribute to soil fertility and soil organic matter content. Large amount of fresh and partially decomposed litter was observed under A. cyanophylla growing on sandy soil at the Bir El-Ghanam range perimeter in Libya. Although no measurement was carried out, such material will increase organic matter content of these soils and may consequently improve both soil fertility and moisture holding ability. This would bring favourable effects on native grasses and barley crop that can be grown between the rows of A. cyanophylla. The results of the work of Costin et al. (1981) in the Popular Democratic Republic (PDR) Yemen support this observation. They found that shelterbelts established at 50 meters distance were efficient in preventing land movement and improving soil fertility. The species used formed layers of litter which were thickest, in a descending order, under Parkinsonia, Albizzia, Prosopis, Azadirachta and Conocarpus (Table 2). The sandy areas between two consecutive windbreaks started to be covered with a thin layer of fine soil material, which formed a continuos film darker in colour and more compact than the normal sandy soil of the site. They suggested that with the use of supplementary fertilization and irrigation such areas could be put under agricultural production, e.g., fodder crops. Mixed pasture for direct grazing may prove to be a better choice to enhance build up of organic matter and increase nutrient availability, as compared to cut and carry system.
TABLE 2
| Species | Depth of litter in cm | Quantity of litter | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| kg per sq. meter | ton per km of shelterbelt | ||||
| raw | decomposed | total | |||
| Prosopis cineraria | 5.5 | 6.4 | 1.1 | 7.5 | 99 |
| Albizzia lebbek | 7.0 | 4.5 | 2.5 | 7.0 | 85 |
| Parkinsonia aculeata | 8.5 | 3.4 | 3.1 | 6.5 | 47 |
| Azadirachta indica | 5.0 | 2.3 | 1.9 | 4.2 | 27 |
| Conocarpus lancifolius | 3.5 | 2.1 | 1.6 | 3.7 | 22 |
2.2 Forage for Livestock and Wildlife
Fodder trees and shrubs provide animal feed in form of leaves, twigs and fruits (including pods). This feed is rich in protein, minerals, vitamins and provides some energy and fibre. The lack of high quality feed in the dry season is an important constraint on livestock raised on arid and semi-arid rangelands of the Near East Region. The dry grass is deficient in protein, some vitamins and minerals; hence, it does not enhance production.
Heady (1983) argued that the increase in availability of crude protein to grazing animals is a reason for establishing and managing shrubs in grazing plants. He went further to indicate that analysis and feeding experiments revealed that browse from man-made plantations should be considered as protein supplements to low quality feed as, for instance, dry grass. This emphasizes the value of browse in areas where livestock owners face shortage and/or high prices of protein supplements.
Woody species are also a significant source of feed during droughts. Field observation in Mauritania during 1979 revealed that when the Sahelian drought struck that area, herdsmen reverted to widescale lopping and, in some cases, felling of trees and shrubs to bring forage material within the reach of their animals. Excessive lopping of these species, particularly under the stress of drought, have accentuated the death of many trees and shrubs, as was observed on the undulating sand dune area between Nouakchott and Kiffa. Lopping of Acacia (and may be other species) for drought feed should be left to grow (Heady 1983).
Realizing the shortage of grains and seed cakes in most RNEA countries, Prosopis and Acacia pods should be an alternative supplement to livestock. Mesquite pods were used as forage or concentrate in rations for cattle, sheep and goats in Mexico (Felker 1981). Prosopis pods are utilized to feed livestock in various areas in RNEA. These Prosopis trees are either naturally growing, as is the case of P. juliflora, P. chilensis, P. cineraria in PDR Yemen, Sudan and Mauritania. In the latter country, livestock owners collect dry Prosopis pods to feed their animals. P. cineraria is an important source of browse for camels, goats and some wildlife species. In Sharqiya Region of the Sultanate of Oman, Bedouins lop these trees to feed their animals on tender twigs and leaves. Fallen pods and leaves are quickly consumed by small ruminants. The same species is considered the best browse plant for cattle, sheep and camels in Jodhpur, India, on the basis of availability, palatability and nutritive value (Kaul and Nambiar 1966). P. farcat covers large areas of barren land in some parts of Iraq (Townsend 1974). It is thus of most importance to shepherds, since it supplies sheep with forage in the dry season, after the annual herbs have dried and when grazing is scarce.
Several other tree and shrub species belonging to the Leguminosae or other families are important source of animal feed. The significant role of the Acacia mellifera thickets for the Butana grazing, in the semi-desert zone of the Sudan, is one example. In these treeless plains the grass cover is deficient in palatable legumes. Acacia mellifera leaves and twigs may supply protein, some vitamins and minerals to nomadic herds during dry season. In the mountain area of the Southern Region of Oman, Anogeissus dhofarica is an important browse for camels, and cattle eat the fallen leaves (Lawton 1983). Herdsmen may bend some branches and partially cut them to bring forage within reach of camels. When browsing is excessive, this tree is reduced to a shrub. Contribution of this species to livestock feed is confined to the monsoon season and up to December, when it becomes deciduous. When cyclonic storms occur outside the normal monsoon period, this tree responds by initiating new leaves that form additional browse for camels. The establishment of young Anogeissus seedlings is checked by goats, resulting in stands dominated by mature trees. It is also subjected in some degree to felling by woodcutters. A closely related tree, A. bentii, native of PDR Yemen interior wadis, is also considered good browse, but it is exposed to intensive lobbing and browsing, which can exterminate it from the wild if prompt measures are not taken immediately. Fortunately, the Forestry and Range Section of the Agricultural Research Centre at Al-Kod commenced a propagation programme at its nursery to make use of this important tree for the production of poles, construction wood, browse, and as a component of shelterbelts.
In the Sudan Balanites aegyptiaca normally provides browse for camels, but goats utilize it heavily if other palatable shrubs are not available. Field observations in PDR Yemen during the 1983 autumm indicated that this species was being excessively browsed by goats, while the nearbyAcacia mellifera and A. tortilis were apparently not touched. If this was due to ecotypic variations in Balanites growing in different countries or was the result of seasonal differences in palability between this species and Acacia, needs to be determined.
Acacia tortilis and A. tortilis sub-species raddiana are widely distributed in RNEA, supplying browse and pods, of significance to the feeding of livestock in the arid parts of the Region. Indeed, in some areas they form the majority of the roughage obtained by goats and camels from rangelands. In some countries, e.g. Sudan, Oman and PDR Yemen, livestock owners beat these Acacia, when they are out of reach of their animals, to drop pods and leaves for sheep and goats congregating beneath the trees. Lopping of branches containing leaves and pods is also carried out. Collection and storage of pods is not widely practiced.
Calatropis procera is generally considered an unpalatable toxic shrub. Livestock normally avoid it, unless forced by lack of other forage. In PDR Yemen, at the dry interior wadis, a livestock owner was offering chopped partially-wilted Calatropis leaves and twigs for goats. The owner indicated that he followed such a practice without any apparent adverse effects on his animals. In that location, herbaceous vegetation was scant and almost all the A. tortilis trees present were out of reach of goats. A report from the Northern Territory of Australia (Askew and Mitchel 1978) described Calatropis as a shrub of good nutritive value and moderate palatability, eaten usually during the late dry season. Such a discrepancy is repeated in the case of Indigofera spinosa. In the Olea africana woodlands of Yemen Arab Republic, O. spinosa was reported an undesirable shrub.
The same species was observed to be heavily browsed in an area where both A. mellifera and A. tortilis are growing in PDR Yemen. It seems that palatability is affected by local factors, and it may be necessary, when evaluating such a parameter, to indicate season of the year, stage of growth of the species, presence of other forage plants and type of livestock, to allow reasonable comparison of the value of a particular species in different locations.
2.3 Edible Products
More research is necessary to identify the different edible products from fodder trees and shrubs in RNEA, and how they could be rationally used on local or regional basis. Edible material, mainly in the form of fruits, is produced by, for instance, Ziziphus spp. “Nabag”, Capparis decidua “Humbuk”, Balanites aegyptiaca “Laloab”. Pods of P. juliflora are chewed by children in some parts of the Sudan. Gum arabic from A. senegal enters in the manufacture of confectionaries.
2.4 Shelterbelts, Sand Dune Fixation and Soil Erosion Control
Soil erosion is reducing the productivity of large expanses of land in RNEA, particularly following vegetation clearing for cultivation, fuelwood extraction or by excessive livestock grazing. Moving sand dunes are a menace in several countries of the Region. They threaten paved roads, railway lines, residential areas, agricultural land and irrigation facilities. Several countries have taken measures to fix sand dunes and protect establishment and agricultural areas by shelterbelts.
In Iran Haloxylon persicum was succesfully planted to protect railway lines from sand dune movement (Le Houérou 1975). This author reported success in direct seeding of Haloxylon for sand dune fixation in the above country. Furrows were prepared in the autumn and seeds broadcasted in February/March, after a rainfall of at least 10 mm was received. He indicated that using this method reduced the cost of planting by 20 percent when compared to the use of nursery-raised seedlings. Other species native to the region are useful for sand dune fixation. Capparis decidua, Balanites aegyptiaca and Ziziphus nummularia were planted in shifting sand dune areas in the arid zone of India. Seedlings of these species are only watered on site at planting time (Raheja 1963).
Le Houérou suggested that for some montane plains of Yemen Arab Republic (average annual rainfall 300–500 mm), the contour-terraced field could easily be sorrounded by windbreaks or hedges of fodder trees and shrubs without reducing the area of cropped land or yields. He even went further to indicate that better yields would be expected from crops protected from wind and advective energy, both of which raise water use and exert stress on the grown plants. Besides increasing the supply of forage in the farm, the planted trees and shrubs also have the additional benefits of protecting terraces from erosion and providing fuelwood, hence relieving manure —presently used as fuel— to fertilize cropland.
Some fodder trees native to the Region are used for establishing shelterbelts. In PDR Yemen Prosopis cineraria was used on an experimental basis in shelterbelts, in combination with other trees. Balanites aegyptiaca and Acacia arabica were used for shelterbelts in India (Raheja 1963). The latter species is utilized to the same purpose around date palm gardens in some parts of the Sultanate of Oman. At one site in Wadi Hadramout in PDR Yemen, a windbreak was established by planting P. cineraria, Parkinsonia aculeata, Tamarix sp. and A. arabica in an area affected by shifting sand dunes. The most succesful species were P. cineraria and A. arabica.
Prosopis cineraria was also used in establishing windbreaks at Al-Kod area in PDR Yemen with Albizzia lebbek, Azadirachta indica, Conocarpus lancifolius and Parkinsonia aculeata (Costin et al. 1981). After five years of growth, their evaluation showed that P. cineraria, being more palatable, is browsed by animals in the lower part of the crown. This action created gaps through which the wind can blow, inducing soil erosion. They suggested that in order to ensure compactness of the lower part of a P. cineraria windbreak system, this species must be mixed with some shade tolerant unpalatable or very thorny shrubs. Among these, A. mellifera, well known for its agressive thorns and fast growth, might be considered for testing.
2.5. Other uses of Trees and Shrubs
Benefits from fodder trees and shrubs could be more than feed for livestock. Wood for construction of traditional dwellings, local tools, utensils, beds, boats, railway sleepers, etc., is obtained from various species as Acacia, Ziziphus, Prosopis, Quercus and Balanites. Fuelfood is also provided by the above trees and shrubs, as well as by Maerua crassifolia, Capparis decidua, etc. In PDR Yemen wood from Ziziphus jujuba is highly valued because it is resistant to termites, hence has more durability. Acacia arabica wood is used for the production of railway sleepers and boat building in the Sudan.
Leaves and fruits of some species find their use in local medicine for the treatment of certain human or livestock diseases and injuries, e.g. Balanites fruits, Ziziphus and Prosopis leaves; and A. arabica pods. Some species have products of industrial value, as A. senegal (gum arabic) and A. arabica (tannins from pods). Recent investigations indicated the potential use of B. aegyptiaca fruit for medicinal purposes, production of oil and protein from the seed, while the residues could be used as livestock feed (Baumer 1983).
The branches and roots of Salvadora persica are used for brushing teeth. The leaves of Z. jujuba are utilized by ladies in PDR Yemen to wash their hair (local shampoo). Additionally, fodder trees and shrubs have aesethetic value for local communities. Some species hava attractive nice smelling flowers, e.g. A. arabica and A. seyal.
Naturally growing or man-planted woody perennials provide shade and shelter for human beings, livestock and wildlife species. During sand storms animals seek refuge near or under trees and shrubs, which protect them from wind and blowing sand. In some arid areas it is customary to construct a hut, the roofing of which is the canopy of a living A. tortilis tree. Such a dwelling is used for resting during the hot hours of the day. The dome-shaped ecotype of A. tortilis in the interior of the Sultanate of Oman is transformed by local Bedouins into a shaded corral for lambs and kids, to offer them protection from both wind and high temperature that prevail under the harsh desert conditions. The shade of large trees is utilized by rural communities for meetings and as a village market place.
Acacia mellifera is utilized to establish live fences around irrigated farms and gardens in the Sudan. The thick growth and the noxious thorns provide good protection against intrusion. Such live fences could be established in arid and semi-arid regions without irrigation, by making use of soil moisture conservation techniques, with the objective of protecting farming areas and supply forage and fuel. It would be advisable to utilize other species, in addition to A. mellifera, according to environmental conditions and local preference.
In several parts of the region honey collection from wild or domesticated bees is an important rural activity. The honey obtained meets family requirements and any surplus is channeled to local markets. Many fodder trees and shrubs are considered good sources of bee forage. This include Z. leucodermis, Z. jujuba, Maerua crassifolia, A. tortilis. A. mellifera, A. senegal, P. cineraria, and Anogeissus dhofarica. Z. jujuba in PDR Yemen is privately owned and raised along wadi banks, in orchard-like holdings, or grown in sorghum/millet fields along wadi floors and is managed mainly as bee forage. Wadi Hadramout and a few other wadis in the country produce a highly-priced type of honey which finds ready markets in the Gulf States. In the Sultanate of Oman, flowers of P. cineraria are considered an excellent source of bee forage that yields a good crop of honey (R.M. Lawton pers. comm.). Beekeeping and honey production are reported to have sharply declined in Yemen Arab Republic due to the degradation of natural vegetation (Le Houérou).
Together with the associated vegetation, fodder tree and shrub species are important wildlife habitats, where various kinds of animals obtain their food, shelter, nesting and breeding grounds. However, large scale destruction of these woody perennials by cutting for fuel, clearing land for cultivation or by excessive browsing reduced wildlife habitats. The rapid disappearance of some types of antelopes, birds and carnivores in RNEA attributed to the use of motorized vehicles and the introduction of guns is true; but the destruction of habitats should not be ignored or under-estimated as a factor that has an adverse effect on these wild animals. It is worth mentioning here that Malcolm (1982) pointed out that salt-affected wastelands and overgrazed range country (both of which are common in RNEA) provide a very poor habitat for wildlife in terms of food cover and breeding ground. Townsend (974) described the importance of P. farcta for wildlife species in parts of Iraq. Formerly this shrub used to form bushy growth well above two meters in height, where wild pig, cat, hare and black partridge found suitable habitat to live and breed. These thickets have been largely destroyed by fuel gatherers. A similar example can be cited from the Butana region in the Sudan, where A. mellifera forms a good habitat for Guinea fowls. The impenetrable thickets protect the birds, particularly during breeding. Large part of these thickets were destroyed by charcoal makers and by the uncontrolled fires they caused.
The presence of mature trees and shrubs in natural stands have micro-enviromental benefits. Masri's (1983) observations reflected that establishment of shrubs in Jordan may be retarded by the lack of shade and shelter provided by older plants to germinating and young developing seedlings. This establishment is also checked by reduced soil moisture. Removal of vegetation increases erosion and runoff loaded with fine soil particles, that result in sealed clay surfaces due to deposition of sediments. Under such conditions evaporation increases, while percolation is retarded. Soil moisture deficits may act to reduce shrub regeneration through low viability of seed crop per shrub.
3. FODDER TREE AND SHRUB PLANTATIONS IN THE NEAR EAST REGION
The near East Region may have the largest man-made fodder shrub plantations in the World, comprising those in Iran, Jordan, Libya, Morocco, Syria and Tunisia. These plantations consist mainly of exotic Atriplex spp., Opuntia and Australian Acacia. Local species of Atriplex, Salsola and Haloxylon are gradually being introduced in the established plantations. More recently, additional emphasis has been given to potentially suitable indigenous species as Periploca laevigata and Gymnocarpus decander in North Africa; and Prosopis cineraria and Acacia tortilis in the Arabian Peninsula.
3.1. Iran
Fodder shrubs were established on various sites for increasing forage productivity of rangelands and/or for sand dune fixation. Atriplex canescens in Qhom area produced variable growth —from poor to excellent—, probably as a result of variability in soil characteristics and topographical changes (Le Houérou 1975). It is interesting to note that protection of the range in the area planted to Atriplex has resulted in improvement of the vegetation cover dominated by the desirable grass Aristida pulmosa. Le Houérou (1975) estimated the grazing capacity as:
one sheep/2 ha/year when Atriplex was established, and
one sheep/4–5 ha/year in protected area without Atriplex.
He indicated that unimproved areas in the same zone have grazing capacity of 10–20 ha/sheep/6 months. In Garnsar area, both Haloxylon and Atriplex plantations have better growth at low than high soil soil salinity. Atriplex lentiformis established succesfully in Al-Ahwaz area in abandoned cultivation land underlain by saline water. Dry matter yields estimated to average 1.7 ton/ha. Half of this production was wood and the rest was leaves and twigs that could carry one sheep/1.5 ha/year. Le Houérou (1975) indicated that the produced forage has high salt content requiring transportation of fresh water from outside the area for sheep consumption. Interestingly, he pointed out that in Al-Ahwaz Atriplex lentiformis was self seeding, particularly in depressions and along furrows may be a result of better soil moisture availability. This species was also useful for sand fune fixation in Iran.
Le Houérou (1975) cited an example of a succesful mix of Panicum antidotale, and Tamarix stricta trees in an area with sandy soil and an average annual rainfall of 170 mm. The mixture provided a pasture with a forage production of one ton/ha after three years from planting. He brought to attention the necessity of careful determination of the economical use of such an area.
3.2. Jordan
Usefull work in fodder shrubs was conducted in Jordan as part of the activities of Project JOR/79/010. Atriplex nummularia was found to be very poor in self regeneration from mother plants in the field (Masri 1983). It has been found to be affected by a disease that infects the stem near the soil surface. Fully grown plants are especially susceptible to this attack. The nature of this disease, its symptons and causing organism were not described. Good growth was obtained only in wadis where good soil depth and, consequently, more soil moisture storage, occur. The branches of this species grow upright from one main stem, which makes the plant susceptible to damage by wind and overgrazing.
 | A desert range which provides some feed during the winter rainy season to both transhumant and nomadic livestock. (Photo D. Huss.) |
| Production of Atriplex seedlings for transplanting and establishment of shrub plantation. (Photo D. Huss.) |  |
Atriplex halimus has low palatability since it is often seen ungrazed in Jordan, which supports some observations reported by ACSAD. Masri (1983) pointed out that in non-saline soils A. halimus is most palatable to sheep. He suggested that low palatability of A. halimus as compared to A. nummularia helps in deferring grazing of the former from spring time, when ephemerals are present, to autumn, when grazing is limited.
Since most rangelands under rehabilitation in Jordan comprise spring ephemerals and perennial shrubs, Masri (1983) suggested that such sites should be opened for grazing during two periods: spring and autumn. Duration of utilization should depend upon amount and distribution of precipitation, and allowable biomass of ephemerals or shrubs to be removed. For the rest of the period other sources of feed are required, e.g. stubble and straw, grains, hay from forage crops, agricultural by-products, and unimproved grazing.
3.3 Libya
Fodder shrub plantations are distributed in several improved range perimeters. Major species used are Atriplex nummularia, A. halimus and Acacia cyanophylla. The objective of the established plantations is to improve forage availability —particularly during the late summer and autumn period— and to form drought feed reserves in the arid environment, where droughts are common and sharp fluctuations in precipitation cause large variations in forage yield. Different soil moisture conservation techniques were used to enhance establishment and improve growth of the planted shrubs. Acacia cyanophylla was planted in Bil El-Ghanam perimeter with the additional aim of stabilizing sand dune areas. It formed a good mix with the native shrub Retama raetum and the natural vegetation cover, assisting in protection of sandy soil from wind erosion.
The feed value of natural grazing at Wishtata perimeter (average annual rainfall 165 mm) was estimated to vary from 10–180 FU (Feed Units)/ha/year, depending upon site characteristics (Telahigue et al. 1983). This production was raised to 400 FU/ha/year when annual Medigaco truncatula was sown in an area supporting Artemesia herba-alba, Pitutanthos tortuosus and annual grasses. The same workers reported that in another vegetation type, dominated by Artemesia herba-alba and planted to A. nummularia, A. halimus and Acacia cyanophylla estimated, average forage production may be equal to 300 FU/ha, mainly from native vegetation which responded favourably to protection from grazing and soil moisture increase as the result of soil ripping. Application of fertilizer to fodder plantations could also be responsible for improvement of natural vegetation growth.
The improved perimeters are utilized by flocks of sheep, with a small percentage of these flocks made up of goats. In Wishtata perimeter various sources of roughage were utilized in the grazing plan. During the summer flocks depend on medics (alfalfa) stubble as a major source of feed, with additional forage supplied by light utilization of Atriplex. Shrubs are heavily grazed during September, in order to remove rank growth and induce proper regeneration of Atriplex when rainfall commences. This may continue into October, and in that case it will be combined with the feeding on the cut and partially-wilted forage from Acacia cyanophylla plus any available grazing supplied by native range vegetation. The wilted A. cyanophylla forage (wilting improves palatability) is fed to sheep. Goats can directly browse the shrub, as was observed in situ.
In some Atriplex halimus stands rank growth and woody material may hinder accessibility of leaves and tender twigs to sheep. In this case cutting of shrubs is required to remove this overmature material, followed by close browsing, so that animals utilize available forage when it is most nutritious. Atriplex nummularia has to be directly grazed. However, when forage is out of the reach of small ruminants, the shrubs should be topped so that they become within browsing level of small ruminants. Whenever such cutting is practiced, care must be taken to avoid excessive browsing and removal of photosynthetic tissue that could adversely affect growth and persistence of the shrubs. More field investigations are required to arrive at an optimum cutting/browsing management that ensures vigour and longevity of the planted shrubs, without reducing their role in supplementing livestock feed in those environments. These investigations may clear doubts concerning regeneration of A. nummularia after cutting. It may be appropiate to state preliminary field observations recorded during a brief demonstration of a disc cutter on Atriplex in Gharina perimeter. Due to the brittle nature of the stems of A. nummularia it may be useful to determine optimum conditions for carrying such an operation, i.e.
It was observed that many stems were shattered and not cleanly cut. While this may be due to the speed of travel, it can also be intensified by low stem moisture content, particularly in a poor rainy season as was occurring during the winter of 1984. Shattering of stems and branches may have adverse effects on the whole plant.
The proposed grazing plan for Wadi Sasu perimeter recommended that shrubs should be browsed to 50% of the cover (Bennet 1983). It was indicated that in conducting such a plan, there may be a major problem with A. cyanophylla, as it is more palatable than Atriplex, especially to goats. Bennet (1983) reported that some Acacia shrubs are quickly stripped while Atriplex is hardly touched. Considering the low share of goats at the state-owned flocks in the various perimeters, the real threat is from goats that come with intruding privately-owned flocks.
Dumancic (1983) argued that there is very limited data, based on research work, on utilization and management of fodder shrubs for livestock feed. He conducted a series of trials in Bir El-Ghanan perimeter, from which he concluded that fodder shrubs as A. halimus, A. nummularia and Acacia cyanophylla have favourable effects on sheep when given as supplementation to grazing. He pointed out that such a management practice could be applied for a long period without negative effects on animal performance. These trials also revealed that plants of poor feeding value, as Acacia ligulata, are hardly consumed when there is sufficient feed from native range vegetation. Animals fed A.ligulata maintained their liveweight only when fresh cut Opuntia ficus-indica was simultaneously fed. This work also showed that a mixed stand of fodder shrubs could be consumed by livestock as the sole diet for a period of 1 to 3 months without any ill-effects. Atriplex halimus and A. nummularia fed to non grazing animals gave positive response on liveweight gain, recorded as 35 g and 44 g per animal per day, respectively. Acacia cyanophylla was not fed alone. When fed in combination with Opuntia, it was not able to secure maintenance requirements, and a loss of 18 g per animal per day was recorded. However, when the same combination was given to supplement grazing, the daily liveweight gain amounted to 90.7 g per day per animal. Baumer (1983) mentioned that, in Australia, when A. aneura was used as dry feed for sheep at a rate of 1.4 kg per day, supplements including bone meal (28 g/day), molasses (168 g/day) and some potassium chloride were given.
3.4. Morocco and Tunisia
North African countries commenced activities related to adaptation and establishment of fodder shrubs earlier than most countries in the Region. Le Houérou (1980) pointed out that Atriplex nummularia was introduced in Tunisia from Australia some 80 years ago, as a browse species for arid and semi-arid parts of the country. Since that time, various species have been tried and large areas were planted to adaptable ones to supply feed for small ruminants. A recent report of Project TUN/81/004 outlined some of the results obtained in Central Tunisia. Acacia cyanophylla planted at 1,000 shrubs/ha produced an equivalent of 900 FU/ha year of forage, containing 20 percent crude protein on dry matter basis. In the same area, cactus produced 600–700 FU/ha year three years after planting. These plantations were made to be directly grazed by sheep and goats during the autumn and winter seasons.
In Morocco Atriplex semibaccata gave good results when planted in the semi-arid parts of the country (Maignan 1968). It was beneficial for soil protection and controlling soil erosion. This is similar to what Draz reported about the performance of the same species in the Northern Gezira area of Syria. After planting, an initial rapid and vigorous growth is observed, and it seems that this species survives for three years only (Baumer 1983).
A series of trials conducted in Morocco to investigate the response of Atriplex and Acacia species to NPK and the effects of these nutrients on plant height, plant production and chemical composition of the produced material were described by Maignan (1971). For the same country, Zaki (cited by Heady 1983) indicated that a plan has been developed to replace unpalatable shrubs by sowing and fertilizing Lolium rigidum and establishing Atriplex and Acacia species. Then the area would be used for rotational grazing or for developing a cut and carry system.
3.5. Syria
Fodder shrubs introduction, establishment and utilization in Syria have been facilitated by various internationally-assisted projects, activities of ACSAD and the development of the range cooperative system. Plant introduction trials at Wadi Al-A'zib were undertaken to obtain information on the possibility of establishing desirable vegetation in flood plains as early as 1962 (Van der Veen 1975). Both indigenous and exotic species were included in those trials. Van der Veen (1975) found this practice to be justifiable when it is realized that in the abandoned barley cultivation land of the Syrian steppe successional stages of vegetation are dominated in many instances by unpalatable species.
A World Food Programme-assisted pilot project comprised establishment of nurseries for the production of seedlings for distribution to Bedouins or farmers who are ready to grow, maintain and properly utilize the donated fodder shrubs (Draz 1980). The same author indicated that there were intentions to expand fodder shrub plantations to 100,000 hectares of marginal areas of the steppe, wadi beds and saline soils. When fodder shrubs are planted in the steppe area, a several-fold increase in dry matter production can be obtained as compared to productivity of annuals and native shrubs on the same site. However, some of the native species may be more palatable than Atriplex. This lower palatability of Atriplex shrubs assists them to persist under the prevailing grazing management (A. Mckay pers. comm.). It should be emphasized here that proper management of Atriplex plantations is essential for their optimum production and longevity of the stand. To increase the area under Atriplex in the steppe region, farmers are permitted to cultivate barley only when they agree to plant 10 percent of the area under that crop with shrubs for three consecutive years. Recen activities in fodder shrub plantations emphasize the native shrub Salsola vermiculata and six Atriplex species native of RNEA, and introduced from other areas.
Atriplex nummularia has been the most important shrub planted in the country. Draz (1980) estimated, from an experiment under Hassakeh conditions, that A. nummularia produces about 10 ton/ha of forage (leaves and twigs) and half this amount of firewood in the form of branches every three years. Lately there have been indications that other Atriplex species, e.g. A. halimus, A. canescens, may replace A. nummularia, as the latter requires annual rainfall of about 200 mm, and because its natural regeneration from seed is poor (A. McKay pers. comm.). Such a shift in the use of Atriplex species should be done taking into consideration the need to plant selections of A. halimus of decent palatability, and to overcome the difficulties related to obtaining sufficient seed or vegetatively reproduced seedlings from A. canescens. Draz (1980) mentioned that lack of seeds—both locally-produced or imported— and very low vegetative reproduction abilities have limited the expansion of areas under A. canescens, as compared to A. nummularia.
ACSAD's research programme on Atriplex aims at identifying optimum conditions and solving problems related to establishment, management and proper utilization of these shrubs. Some of the results obtained indicated that when A. halimus was grown under very dry conditions it became less palatable to sheep, but palatability of camels was not greatly affected. A breeding programme was initiated to identify varieties of A. canescens that can suit different purposes, as soil conservation, habitat and breeding ground for wildlife, and forage production. Also efforts are made to select ecotypes with non-winged fruits to facilitate mechanical seeding. ACSAD's research also characterized conditions for the success of A. nummularia in Syria in the following set of environmental parameters: 185 mm average annual rainfall, soil depth of 60 cm or more, E Ce 20 mmhos/cm, partial runoff accumulation, and altitude 900 meters above sea level. When rainfall is between 170 and 185 mm, this species should be planted in a mixture with other Atriplex spp. to get a better grazing stand that can be utilized during different parts of the year. Such a practice may have the additional advantage of securing growth of some components of the mixture if others fail because of low rainfall. Other research to be attempted with this species will emphasize selection of ecotypes resistant to a parasite (Cistanche) and low oxalate content to improve palatability.
The Syrian experience to improve forage quantity and quality by direct seeding of the valuable native shrub Salsola vermiculata in degraded range areas is worth mentioning. When this species was planted in rows, it succeeded to establish without removal of the original vegetation (Van der Veen 1975). This has a great value of minimum disturbance of soil cover during planting. Also broadcasting of S. vermiculata seed without land preparation on a small area of rocky hilltops in a WFP-assisted range improvement area near Esrayan, resulted in the establishment of a large number of plants. Observation in Syria also revealed that S. vermiculata responds favourably to protection from grazing. Using light stocking rate of 9 ha/sheep in unimproved rangeland resulted in the appearance of two desirable species, S. vermiculata and Stipa barbata, in the second and third years (Van der Veen 1975). This may mean that grazing management is critical to the vigour and persistence of palatable indigenous shrubs and grasses, and to their ability to contribute to the produced forage.
3.6. Other Countries
Several other countries in the Near East Region have activities dealing with fodder tree and shrub establishment for forage production, shelterbelts, afforestation and sand dune fixation. Work on the nutritive value and the role of native fodder shrubs in the desert areas of Egypt is conducted by the Desert Institute. In the Sudan Atriplex species have been experimented on by the Agricultural Research Corporation, but no major plantations were established. Introduction of Leucaena to improve feed availability and quality in State Dairy Farms has been undertaken by project PDY/81/014 in PDR Yemen. Leucaena is first cut six months after planting, then at two-month intervals. Cutting is done mechanically at early flowering stage. The produced forage (110–140 ton/ha/year) is fed to dairy cows together with tropical grasses, sorghum and concentrates.
Malcolm (1982) described the establishment of fodder shrubs in saline areas in Iraq and Saudi Arabia. Plantings in Iraq showed that some chenopod shrubs grew, survived and produced volunteer seedlings on arid saline sites. It was indicated that evidence has been obtained of good regrowth after heavy grazing. Observations about acceptability of some of these shrubs to cattle, sheep and gazelles were also recorded.
In Saudi Arabia, several Atriplex species from Argentina, Australia and U.S.A. have succeeded in an area with 100 mm or less average annual rainfall and soils with 1–3 percent gypsum, underlain by saline groundwater. These species have attained at least ten times as much growth as the indigenous A. leucoclada.
In the United Arab Emirates, seedlings of A. cineraria, A. tortilis, A. arabica and A. nummularia were planted in connection with drip irrigation as part of the afforestation and range improvement programme (Huss 1979). Plantation of A. canescens and A. nummularia in association with date palm gardens provide some supplementary forage for Bedouin livestock. In afforestation areas protected from grazing, Huss (1979) noted that range plant cover improves through natural regeneration. In many areas this improvement was more effective for sand stabilization than afforestation.
Native acacias were planted by direct seedling in Somalia. In the same country Leucaena was planted at 10 × 2 meter spacing with the purpose of allowing production of vegetables between the rows.
4. RECOMMENDATIONS
- Management and utilization of fodder trees and shrubs. As will be discussed below, large scale fodder shrub plantations have been established at high monetary costs; thus, their management and use for animal feed and other purposes should be done on a rationally way. It is necessary to consider the inter-relationships between grazing animals and the woody perennials they utilize, in order to develop a grazing system that will compromise between livestock feed requirements and plant needs for growth, vigour and regeneration. Degree and time of browsing should be selected carefully, as defoliation is critical to the productivity and persistence of fodder shrubs. It will be difficult to control defoliation without having control over livestock population utilizing an area. Intruding livestock do not recognize the time sequence of plant growth as related to environmental conditions or management strategy. As a result of overbrowsing of shrubs by intruding animals, leaves and young shoots will be substantially decreased and root growth may be retarded or completely arrested. This is detrimental to shrubs in areas subjected to frequent droughts and poor rainfall seasons.
- Utilization of water conservation techniques. Deficiency of soil moisture is universal to the arid and semi-arid rangelands of the Region, therefore modifications that improve water percolation, reduce runoff and increase soil moisture holding ability, can greatly assist the succesful establishment of fodder trees and shrubs. Contour furrowing, pitting, subsoiling, ponding dykes are applied in some areas with favourable influence in both planted species and native vegetation. The traditional spate irrigation system in PDR Yemen used to water sorghum and millet fields also benefits Ziziphus jujuba, which is growing at the periphery or within those fields. Water spreading could be considered in a similar manner to the use of spate irrigation or for improving forage production. Proper understanding of site characteristics and its suitability for this practice is a prerequisite for its application.
- Local communities education and participation. Planting trees and shrubs in pastoral areas without previous contact with the local people and with no clear benefits for livestock owners will face many difficulties and might have a negative impact on any future plantations. Coupling with contacting local communities there is always a need to found an efficient extension-demonstration service, geared at educating members of these communities to properly utilize available resources and to assist them to rehabilitate degaded areas. This will ensure that plantations and practices applied would be acceptable to the concerned people and are suitable to meet their needs and expectations. Extension service should also demonstrate the usefulness of indigenous species. In PDR Yemen, P. cineraria was not accepted by farmers as a shelterbelt species because it is local. This took place in spite of its excellent growth rate as compared to introduced trees, and irrespective of the high pod yield obtained.
- Fire and prescribed burning. The ecology of fire and burning in relation to woody species regeneration and the desired balance between these species on one hand, and the grass and forb component of the vegetation on the other hand, needs to be studied taking into consideration types of animals using the area, rainfall and soil moisture, erosion hazzard and other uses made of the area. It is true that loss of valuable browse to wildfires is limited in the Region, but nevertheless this may be significant on localized areas. Uncontrolled burning occurs in the rangelands and bush areas of the Sudan, Somalia, Mauritania and, maybe, Oman. In some areas bush enchroachment is a problem. Field (1981) reported that some rangelands in Somalia have a bush population of more than 1,000/ha; in some cases this figure exceeds 6,000 shrubs/ha. Whether prescribed burning or selective wood cutting would improve forage supply from such areas —by allowing growth of more grasses and forbs and through production of young sprouts, which are more palatable and may be of better nutritive value—needs to be considered. Huss has pointed out that manipulations (roller cutting and burning) increased accessibility and improved acceptability of forage in some range areas in Mexico. Total forage production from shrubs, forbs and grasses was increased.
- Direct planting and seeding of fodder trees and shrubs. Cost of fodder shrub plantation or afforestation programmes varies greatly from one area to another. Generally it is high. Information obtained from three different countries may reflect both variability between areas and some costs involved:
Area 1: planting and installation of drip irrigation by private contractor, at a cost of 10,000 US$/ha;
Area 2: planting by cooperative members and utilizing WFP rations at a cost of 150 US$/ha;
Area 3: planting and watering for one to three years by private contractor at a cost of 3,000 to 10,000 US$/ha, depending upon planting density.
Direct seeding of tree and shrub species should be encouraged to reduce the high cost of establishment. In few localities direct seeding was attempted, e.g. Jordan, Libya and Iran. Early results showed that some species may be suitable for such practices, for instance, Atriplex leucoclada, A. halimus, Salsola vermiculata and Halxyion sp. When such a practice is applied, appropiate planting date and utilization of soil moisture conservation techniques can greatly assist succesful establishment of the seeded species.
- Avoiding damage to young shrubs. Trampling and browsing of young shrubs and seedlings would reduce their lifespan. Generally, stands of Atriplex two years of age or older will withstand controlled grazing, but seedlings planted to fill in gaps left by others that failed to establish will be too young to tolerate use by animals. An important management aspect is to ensure successful establishment of planted seedlings to end up with as uniform a stand as possible.
- Regional Network of fodder trees and shrubs. Considering the large areas being planted or intended to be put under fodder trees and shrubs in the region, and realizing the need to develop this resource to supply various products and uses, founding such a Network becomes obvious. This Regional Network should be visualized as an integral part of, and as a support to activities and programmes of, the national institutions and regional organizations; hence, it should be operated in close collaboration with them. It is proposed to consist of a Lead Centre and participating research stations or institutes. As there are many deficiencies in our knowledge regarding fodder trees and shrubs, the Network should look into:
Through the Lead Centre, this Network can facilitate axchange of material, experience and information between member countries.
- Animal mix to utilize fodder shrub plantations. Man-made plantations or mixed natural stands that comprise fodder trees and shrubs; forbs and grasses can provide forage suitable for different types of livestock and wild animals. These animals may utilize different plants or parts thereof without appreciable competition if stocking rate is appropriate. Animal mix may mean better utilization of the available forage and perhaps maintenance of a good balance between the various plant species in the area, hence assisting in long-term stability of the vegetation cover. Raising mixed livestock is common to many traditional grazing areas of the Region. However, market trends and demands; and consumer preferences, have caused more attention to be given to sheep in some countries. Also in some areas the value of camels for transport has phased out. It is known that camels keep shrubs within the reach of small ruminants. As they can adapt quickly to available forage, they consume plant species and plant parts unpalatable to other kinds of livestock. Camels utilize shrubs with high salt content which are of low palatability to sheep. Leicht (1940) mentioned that salt-bush grazing is important to the health of camels, and that camel herders migrate with their animals to grazing areas where such species grow.
Goats are important browsers and could form with camels and sheep a useful mix to utilize fodder shrub plantations. Goat meat is not preferred by consumers in some countries, particularly of mature animals. However, in others, as in the Gulf States, goat meat is favoured and local goats fetch very high prices as compared to sheep. Enhancing inter-regional trade in goats and camels or their meat needs to be considered in order to encourage mixed-animal species utilization of fodder plantations.
- Native fodder trees and shrubs. Whenever conditions allow, research and demonstration of the usefulness of indigenous species should be conducted concurrently with exotic trees and shrubs. Species that need immediate attention are many, distributed in the different zones of the Near East Region. The following species and their corresponding ecotypes may find use on regional or sub-regional basis:
Anogeissus bentii (PDR Yemen)
Prosopis cineraria* (Oman, UAE, PDR Yemen)
Gymnocarpus decander (Libya)
Acacia tortilis* (Oman, UAE, Sudan, Mauritania, PDR Yemen)
A. tortilis sub-species raddiana* (Sudan, PDR Yemen, Libya)
Maerua crassifolia (Sudan, Oman, Mauritania, PDR Yemen)
Balanites aegyptiaca (Sudan, PDR Yemen)
Periploca laevigata (Libya)
Zaziphus jujuba (PDR Yemen)
Colutea aleppica* (Jordan, Syria)
Indigofera oblongifolia* (Sudan, Yemen Arab Republic)
Omnavirous dhofarica* (Oman)
Besides utilization of such species in plantations, they could be used to fill gaps in natural stands affected by uncontrolled cutting, fire, or death due to other factors. This will protect the soil and enhance the ability of naturally growing stands to provide forage needed mostly during the dry season.
- Utilization of Prosopis and Acacia pods for preparation of complete livestock rations. Native species, such as P. cineraria, A. tortilis and A. tortilis sub-species raddiana, and exotic Prosopis species could be utilized for such purposes. P. cineraria and P. tamarugo are salt tolerant and may lend themselves to regional demonstration trials to utilize brackish water, sewage effluents and saline land for the production of forage and fuel, e.g. in the Gulf States, Iraq, Sudan, North Africa, etc.
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