Appendix – Review of country reports⁴⁹

Cambodia

National Consultant: Sok Bung Heng

Department of Energy, Phnom Penh

The report contains data of overall energy consumption and the share of woodfuels in this (Table A.1.1). The report also contains more detailed data on annual energy consumption, by types of fuel and by types of end-using sector: households, industries and services. No specific end-uses are given and the consultant apparently assumed that all woodfuels were used for process heating in the industrial sector and for cooking in the household and service sectors only. The data are give for the years 1994, 2000, 2005 and 2010. The unit used is the energy unit terajoule. (See Table A.1.2 and the first column of Table A.1.3.)

The data for 1994 were obtained from a survey of selected provinces conducted that year by the Ministry of Industry, Mines and Energy. The survey methodology used is not discussed in the report. The data for the other years were apparently extrapolated from the 1994 data, but the technique used is not discussed in the report.

Table A.1. 1. Share of woodfuels in national energy mix – 2000

Source: Energy Department, Ministry of Industry, Mines and Energy.

Note: - Fuelwood value represents primary energy value

- Charcoal value represents secondary energy value

Table A.1. 2. Historical trend and projection of woodfuels consumption

Source: Ministry of Industry, Mines and Energy.

When the present author reviewed the country report, inconsistencies in the data were corrected and the original tables were reconstructed to make them easier to understand. Wood energy data values were also provided in both volume (cubic metres) and mass (metric tons) units, using the assumed conversion values adopted by this regional study. Wood energy values were expressed in volume, mass and energy units simultaneously, using assumed conversion factors, for all country reports to allow comparison and aggregation of data. (Table A.1.3) The values for the data contained in this country report are consistently higher than those found in WEIS-ASIA, which are aggregate national values only.

Table A.1. 3. Woodfuels consumption by types of users, uses and woodfuels – 2000

Source: Ministry of Industry, Mines and Energy.

Only indicative data on wood energy production and supply are provided, as presented below (including the sources used by the author):

1. Land use pattern by area (in hectares) – from the 1997 Mekong River Commission, GTZ/Forest Management Office Survey; the country report does not contain any details of techniques or methods used in the survey.

2. Forests and non-forest areas by province – given by size of area (hectares) and percent of total land area for 1996/1997; from records of the Department of Forests, and probably based on the above-mentioned survey.

3. Firewood coupe by province – given by area, and volume and number of trees from 1994 to 1997; from records of the Department of Forests (see Table A.1.4.)

4. Estimates of woodfuels to Phnom Penh City in 1998 – in volume (cubic metres) of fuelwood and mass (metric tons) of charcoal; based on the 1998 Woodfuels flow study of Phnom Penh, Cambodia (see FAO, 1998); no details of survey methods used is provided.

Table A.1. 4. Woodfuels production from forests fuelwood coupes

Source: Department of Forests.

The report contains discussions on the socio-economic impacts of woodfuels use, and on their potential environmental benefits if sustainable production can be guaranteed, but there are no data to support the discussions.

The patterns of consumption of woodfuels identified are what one would expect for a developing country like Cambodia. Woodfuels dominate energy consumption and the major use is in the household sector (see Table A.1.3). However, data to support these observations are very limited. This is understandable, as most records of past governments have been destroyed as a result of political upheavals in the country. As such, the only approach left, given limited government infrastructure and resources, is to extrapolate data from limited local surveys and conduct cross-country data review and assessment. This is what apparently has been done in Cambodia and was used as the basis for generating the data for the country study.

India

National Consultant: Pradeep Khanna,

Chief Conservator

Forest Development and Management of Gujarat State

The report has one of the most complete presentations of wood energy consumption data. In addition, the author of the report conducted a separate analysis of wood energy consumption. The types of secondary data on wood energy consumption contained in the country study are presented below (including the references used by the author):

1. Annual per capita primary energy consumption for household use – by types of fuel (1997); average for the whole country; no specific energy end use given and estimates based on several secondary sources; no details given on estimation techniques used (Table A.2.1)

Table A.2. 1. Share of woodfuels in the national energy mix – 1997

Note: in computing the annual per capita consumption, the higher estimates given in the study were used.

Source cited by the author: Saxena. 1997.

2. Monthly per capita energy consumption for household use – by types of fuel, by rural and urban areas (1987, 1993); no specific energy end use given; estimates by TERI apparently based on NCAER surveys done in the same years.

3. Annual energy consumption for heating in rural households – by types of fuel (1978, 1992; types of application not provided; assumed mostly used for cooking; based on the 1978-79 National rural/urban household energy survey and the 1992-93 national rural household energy survey conducted by NCAER; no details of survey method used

4. Pattern of energy consumption for household cooking – by types of fuel (1993, 1999); by number of households, by states, and by urban/ rural areas, but actual amount of energy consumption not provided; based on NSSO 1993-1994 and 1999-2000 Income and Expenditure Survey.

5. Pattern of energy consumption for cooking – by types of fuel (1999); by number of households, by urban/rural areas, by income levels, and by source of income, but actual amount of energy consumption not provided; based on NSSO 1999-2000 Income and Expenditure Survey

6. Patterns of energy consumption – by urban households for heating by types of fuel (1981, 1994); by percentage of households, but actual amount of energy consumption not provided; based on several localized fuelwood surveys conducted by FSI between 1974 and 1993 in forested district areas; no details on methods used.

7. Biomass-fueled power system installations (2002) – number of installations and total power capacity (MW); mostly using agricultural wastes; based on government reports by MNES.

8. Charcoal consumption and production (various years) – based on government records of Forest Department and traders’ interviews (in Gujarat and Tamil Nadu).

9. Charcoal consumption – by households (for specialized cooking and ironing) and other sectors (various years), e.g. calcium carbide production, calcium carbonate processing, lead extraction, agarbatti making, manganese processing, carbon disulphide manufacture, deodorization, dying and processing of fabrics; anecdotal information only.

The author conducted an independent energy demand analysis by sector and generated yearly data, from 1978 to 2000, for the end-using sectors shown below.

1. Annual fuelwood consumption by rural households for heating – author estimates was based on the NCAER 1978-79 (rural and urban) household energy survey and 1992-93 rural household energy survey and 1993 and 1999 NSSO Income and Expenditure Surveys.

2. Annual fuelwood consumption by urban households for heating – author estimates based on NCAER 1978-79 (rural and urban) household energy survey, 1996 FSI survey, and the 1993 and 1999 NSSO Income and Expenditure Surveys.

3. Annual fuelwood consumption by cottage industries (included brick making, tobacco drying, seri-culture, pottery, bakeries – estimated for 1990, but assumed constant till 2000; estimates based on 1996 FSI estimates and a 1984 local survey in Gujarat State.

4. Annual fuelwood consumption by service sector (included hotels, restaurants, sweetmeat shops, other eating-places) – based on 1991 FSI estimates and 1991 NSSO census.

5. Annual fuelwood consumption by institutions (included cremation only) – estimates based on 1997 NSSO census.

6. Annual energy consumption produced from black liquor – estimates based on pulp and paper production statistics.

The techniques used for each analysis are discussed in the country report.

The data for the annual total woodfuels consumption from 1990 to 2000 generated from these analyses is given in Table A.2.2, whereas data for woodfuels consumption by sector for the year 2000 is given in Table A.2.3.

Table A.2. 2. Historical woodfuels consumption trends (1990-2000)

Source: Country report estimates.

The values of the country report data are lower than the values of the WEIS data. The author’s explanation is that WEIS data is higher as it may not have accounted for fuel shifting, i.e. fuelwood to LPG. An analysis of the data collected and generated for the country study showed other factors that could lead to either over or underestimation of woodfuels consumption. This should lead to caution when using both the country data and WEIS data.

The estimates of consumption of the informal sector in this report remained constant throughout the period of analysis. Several types of users are not included as no data about them exist. This of course underestimates consumption. For example, the use of woodfuels by medium to large-scale industries for process heating and steam generation is not included.

The impacts of poverty levels and rural-urban migration are not accounted for and these could be significant for a country like India that has a population of almost 2 billion people.

The impact of programmes for the dissemination of efficient stoves and other improved wood energy devices was not considered in the analyses.

Table A.2. 3. Woodfuels consumption by types of users, uses and woodfuels – 2000

Source: Country report estimates.

The country report contains the types of data and information presented below.

1. Annual fuelwood production for rural households (1978-79) – by percent share of households disaggregated into logs and twigs; estimated by equating to consumption data.

2. Supply sources of fuelwood by type of land use and tree management system/practices (1991) – by mass (tons) units (Table A.2.4); obtained from estimates by Ravindranath and Hall ⁵⁰.

3. Supply sources of fuelwood by type of land and acquisition (i.e. collected or purchased) (1978-79) – by mass (tons) units (Table A.2.5); based on the NCAER 1978-79 Household Energy Consumption Survey⁵¹

4. Types of land by land use and tenure – area (hectares) units; obtained from estimates conducted by Saxena in 1997⁵².

5. Annual consumption and recorded production of fuelwood from forests – 1953 to 1976 (selected years), by volume (cu m) units, obtained from FSI estimates; no details on methods provided.

6. Annual availability of fuelwood from forests by state (1996) – by volume (cu m) units, obtained from FSI estimates.

7. Fuelwood production and supply potential from non-forest areas – includes farmlands (i.e. farm forestry, traditional agroforestry and trees on bunds, tree lines on farms), community lands and wastelands (i.e. village common lands, road sides, tank foreshores and other open access lands); anecdotal information only.

Table A.2. 4. Fuelwood production by source – 1991

Source: Rabindranath and Hall.1995.

Table A.2. 5. Sources of firewood supply in million tons per year – 1978-79

Source: Saxena.1997.

The two most recent tables (Table A.2.4 in 1978-79 and Table A.2.5 in 1991) showing the various sources of fuelwood produced in the country, indicate the dominance of non-forest lands as a source of fuelwood. The report also contains data showing FSI estimates of consumption and production (presumably based on government records) of woodfuels from 1935 to 1976 that showed consumption over and above available production from forests. The author thus suggests that a large amount of unrecorded removals from forests augmented the recorded production of fuelwood to satisfy the estimated consumption. It may be difficult to reconcile the figures from the three tables, as not only the years they were obtained were different, but also most probably the techniques and methodologies used for collecting and analysing the results were different. The report contains no information on these aspects.

Note also that the data in the two tables suggest that even if woodfuels are sourced from forests, this should not always result in the felling of trees and in unsustainable harvesting. The author acknowledges the harvesting of shrubs and bushes, rather than trees for fuel use. And even when woodfuels came from trees, the practice of lopping off of twigs and branches from them rather than felling the trees seemed to be the widespread practice, as the major users of woodfuels are still the self-gatherers. Unrecorded removals could be significant, but supply from non-forest areas could be more significant as the two tables apparently indicate.

The report refers to the accomplishments in expanding tree and forest coverage in both forests and non-forest areas in the country, that resulted in an increased supply potential of wood not only for fuel but also for other purposes. It notes farm forestry as a strategy for social forestry, which has incidentally led to a glut of trees for use as poles. The report also refers to the “natural spread” of “non-commercial” trees and other woody biomass in degraded lands and other open lands, and points out that these woody biomass resources now present opportunities to rural dwellers to harvest woodfuels from them and market them in urban areas.

It now appears that overall, or on a macro-level, India has sufficient woodfuels to satisfy its requirements. However, there will be large variations of situations that will include extremes of woodfuels-deficit areas to surplus areas. Both these aspects have to be recognized. They point to the need for locally based studies that are systematically identified within a macro-level framework defined for a national wood energy study.

The country report contains many other relevant data and information as described below.

1. Woodfuels trading – the study suggests that marketed woodfuels are not very significant, compared to the total consumption. However, woodfuels trading is significant if assessed at local levels, because its impact on the local economy (e.g. the generation of income and employment) is more pronounced. Imports or exports occur if the trading and marketing areas are located near porous borders and urban areas ands/or commercial users are present on both sides of the borders. They involved mostly short distances and traditional means of transportation (although the trading of charcoal can go as far as 100 kilometres in distances as shown by some local studies). As such, local studies can best capture this information. The report rightly suggested the need to conduct several local studies within a national framework to study woodfuels trading and marketing, including its production and utilization. A national framework may define the various local wood energy situations found in the country and selected local studies representing the various situations can be conducted.

2. Charcoal systems – The use of charcoal, as household fuel, appears to be declining, as past surveys seem to indicate. However, they were not conclusive as no detailed data about charcoal were collected from the household surveys. On the other hand, the report points out the growing use of charcoal in many non-households applications. However, no detailed consumption information exists, as non-household applications were apparently not systematically surveyed before.

3. Black Liquor – The report mentions that black liquor is used for producing both process heat and electricity.

Only one comprehensive nationwide survey on woodfuels use has been carried out in India since 1978. That survey was limited to the household sector. A subsequent survey was limited as it focused only on rural households. All other subsequent surveys were limited by geography and/or the type of data collected (e.g. no actual measurements of energy consumption were made). As for other sectors, studies were even more limited. Recent consumption studies are based on extrapolations of the results of the 1978 survey and the subsequent less comprehensive surveys. Not surprisingly, woodfuels supply studies have not been undertaken at all, except as part of forest resource assessment studies that account mostly for commercial tree species, leaving out other woody biomass resources available in forests and in non-forest areas that are currently and potentially large sources of woodfuels supply.

Lao PDR

National Consultant: Oukham Phiathep

Department of Planning, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Vientiane

The report presented a limited volume of secondary data on woodfuels consumption and on the basis of these data, conducted an analysis of wood energy demand by sector. The following are the types of secondary data contained in the report are shown below.

1. Households energy consumption patterns for cooking by types of fuel, provinces and rural/urban areas (1995) – by number of households, but actual amount of energy consumption not provided; based on the 1995 Lao PDR Population Census (which was not a census, but a stratified survey); apparently this is the basis for Table A.3.1 and indicates that the table provides data on energy consumption by the household sector only

Table A.3. 1. Percentage share of woodfuels in the national energy mix – 1995

Source: National Statistic Centre (NSC). 1995.

2. Annual household fuelwood consumption by main ethnic groups – Lowland, Midland and Upland Lao (1988); by volume per household per year; based on surveys conducted by the UNDP/FAO Luang Prabang Watershed Management Project (82-006).

3. Per capita consumption estimates – based on data from STENO (1997) as follows:

• Fuelwood = 1 cu m per person per annum

• Charcoal = 31.9 kg per person per annum – urban areas

• Charcoal = 1.1 kg per person per annum – rural areas

• Sawdust = 19.6 kg per person per annum – urban areas

• Sawdust = 0.44 kg per person per annum – rural areas

STENO also provided data on fuelwood consumption for specific industries, that is, fuelwood consumption per unit of product produced.

On the basis of secondary data on population distribution, population growth rate and other socio-economic data and information, together with the data from STENO (see above), the author presented projections of annual woodfuels consumption. The following types of wood energy consumption data were generated, yearly from 1995 to 2000; the details of estimation methods used are discussed in the report.

1. Annual consumption of fuelwood by households by urban/rural areas - estimates based on the 1997 STENO study, the 1995 Census, the 25 Years Agricultural Statistics Report.

2. Annual charcoal consumption by households for cooking by provinces by rural/urban areas –based on the 1997 STENO study, the 1995 Census, and the 25 Years Agricultural Statistics Report.

3. Annual sawdust consumption for cooking by provinces and by rural/urban areas –based on the 1997 STENO study, the 1995 Census, and the 25 Years Agricultural Statistics Report.

4. Annual fuelwood consumption by industries (brick making, tobacco drying, sugar making, salt production, lime burning, alcohol 90 percent production, alcohol production, noodle production, bread making); based on projections of industrial production by Ministry of Industry and Handicraft, and specific fuelwood consumption data obtained from local studies.

Table A.3.2 presents the results of the aggregate estimates for years 1995 to 2000. Table A.3.3 presents the results of a sectoral energy consumption analysis for the year 2000.

Table A.3. 2. Historical woodfuels consumption trends – 1995–2000

Note: Charcoal was converted to equivalent fuelwood volume

Source: Country report estimates

Table A.3. 3. Woodfuels consumption by users, uses, and types of woodfuels – 2000

No supply data are contained in the report. However, data on land use and vegetation cover for years 1982, 1989 and 2000 are present.

Malaysia

National Consultant: Koh Mok Poh

Forest Research Institute of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur

There is only limited wood energy data and information contained in the country report. The author recognizes that woodfuels are still used in the country, but as not as significantly as in the past. Woodfuels are considered an inconvenient traditional fuel, and most households have shifted to LPG or electricity, which are readily accessible and affordable to the well-off section of the population. The use of woodfuels is limited to small-scale industries, particularly in the primary processing of raw materials such as bricks and rubber.

The author discussed charcoal production from mangroves, which is still recognized as a legitimate forest production activity. As such, government records are available, and the report contains the information shown in Table A.4.1.

Table A.4. 1. Charcoal coupe

The report contains data using an adapted WEIS database format, as shown in the following tables.

Table A.4. 2. Woodfuel commodities

References cited by the author: 1. Malaysian External Trade Statistics: Imports 1992-1995, Department of Statistics Malaysia.

2. Malaysian External Trade Statistics: Exports 1992-1995, Department of Statistics Malaysia.

Table A.4. 3. Woodfuels supply sources

Note: 18.2 percent of industrial roundwood consists of residues that can be dedicated for energy.

References cited by the authors:

1. Anonymous. 2001. Statistics on Commodities 2000, Ministry of Primary Industries, Malaysia.

2. Breag, G. R W., K Hoi, M. P Koh and E. Puad. 1998. Preliminary Survey to Establish Scope for Application of Different Biomass

Energy Systems along with Potential Users and Definition of Technoeconomic Parameters. Section 2.

3. Gan Boon Keong. 1995. A Working Plan for Matang Forest Reserve. Forest Department, Peninsular Malaysia.

Nepal

National Consultants: S.M. Amatya, D.L. Shrestha, D.K. Kharal and R.P. Ghimire

Water and Energy Commission Secretariat, Kathmandu

The Nepal report provided the most comprehensive coverage of wood energy consumption data. Historical data were presented by sectors and were further disaggregated by rural and urban areas, agro-ecological regions, and by administrative subdivisions. Data were further disaggregated by types of energy end-uses. The types of wood energy consumption data (all of which were obtained from WECS studies) presented by the report are shown below.

1. Annual national energy consumption (2000-2001) – by sector and by type of source.

2. Annual fuelwood consumption by households, by areas (yearly from 1990 to 2001) – by administrative regions, physiographic regions, urban/rural areas, and by types of end uses, i.e. cooking, space heating, water boiling, agro-processing, animal feed preparation.

3. Annual fuelwood consumption by commercial sector (yearly from 1990 to 2001) – by administrative regions, by physiographic regions, and by urban/rural areas, and by types of end use (cooking, heating, water boiling);

4. Annual fuelwood consumption by industrial sector (yearly from 1990 to 2001) – by administrative regions, by physiographic regions, by urban/rural areas, and by types of industry and end use (modern process heating, traditional process heating).

5. Charcoal consumption by types of industries (2000–2001), i.e. grain milling, sugar refinery, soaps and chemicals, structural clay products, iron and steel basic industries, jewellery and related industries, other traditional industries); by development region, estimated by WECS on the basis of the 1998 Industry Energy Survey.

6. Charcoal consumption by types of commercial/institutional establishments (2000–2001), i.e. military barracks, schools, health establishments, government offices, hotels, restaurants; by development and physiographic regions; estimates by WECS based on the 1999 Detailed Energy Survey of Commercial Sector.

The historical data were apparently generated by modelling studies, however, there are no discussions on the techniques used in generating these historical data. It would have interesting to see the raw data used as bases for the analysis and modelling studies. It would also have been interesting to obtain information on the techniques, methods and assumptions (including conversion factors) used in generating the trends. Furthermore, since the bases of the analysis came from the references cited, many of which appeared to be surveys, a discussion of the surveys methodologies used by those studies would have helped the reader understand the bases and justifications for the analysis.

Key data on wood energy consumption contained in the report that demonstrate the comprehensive nature of coverage and the details of disaggregation are presented in the tables below.

Table A.5. 1. Percentage share of woodfuels in the national energy mix – 2000

Source: Water and Energy Commission Secretariat.

Table A.5. 2. Historical woodfuels consumption trends (1990–2001)

Source: Water and Energy Commission Secretariat.

Table A.5. 3. Woodfuels consumption by administrative region – 2001

Table A.5. 4. Woodfuels consumption by ecological region – 2001

Table A.5. 5 Woodfuels consumption by users and uses – 2001

Source: Water and Energy Commission Secretariat.

As can be seen, the data presentation is comprehensive. The accompanying discussions in the report are also comprehensive. Historical energy consumption was analysed in terms of sectors, areas and end uses. The results of all historical fuelwood consumption analyses were smooth linear curves, further indicating that they were the results of modelling studies.

The resulting fuelwood consumption trends and patterns are what one would expect from a developing country like Nepal. The data reveals the following: an increasing trend of fuelwood consumption, fuelwood is the major fuel used in rural areas and is still significantly used in urban areas; and fuelwood is the dominant fuel in the residential sector, but is also consumed by industries and enterprises. The consumption analysis of the different types of end uses shows, as expected, that cooking remains the largest fuelwood application. Other end uses identified include space heating and the preparation of animal feed. The consumption analysis done in this report is very informative as it provides data on the patterns of fuelwood consumption.

The report also provides a comprehensive set of data for analysing wood energy supply from both forests and non-forests, and for accounting for some of the factors that affect woodfuels production. The set of data presented in this report provides an initial framework for developing a wood energy supply database. The types of data presented in the report are shown below.

1. Land-use type (1978/79, 1994/95, 2000/01) – by area (in hectares); based on the 1978-79 Land Resource Mapping and 1994/95 Forest Resource Inventory, 1994/95 and 2000/2001 values are estimates.

2. Accessible/reachable areas for fuelwood harvesting by land use types (1978/79, 1994/95. 2000/01) – by percent of total area (Table A.5.6); based on the 1978-79 Land Resource Mapping and 1994/95 Forest Resource Inventory.

Table A.5. 6. Land use type (in ‘000 hectares)

Sources cited by the authors:

¹ LRMP report based.

² National Forest Inventory, 1994.

³ Estimated by country report author.

3. Sustainable yield of fuelwood by land use types (1998) – by mass unit per area (mt/hectare); based on the Study District, Regional and National Forest Cover Classes Summary of the Area, Fuelwood Yield and Wood Volume for the Kingdom of Nepal, 1988 (Table A.5.7).

Table A.5. 7. Sustainable yield of fuelwood by land use types

Source: District, Regional and National Forest Cover Classes Summary of the Area, Fuelwood Yield and
Wood Volume for the Kingdom of Nepal, 1988.

4. Sustainable fuelwood supply from accessible/reachable areas by types of land use (1978/79, 1994/95, 2000/01) – data for forests, shrub lands, grasslands, NCI lands, and cultivated lands are provided in mass units (mt) per year; based on the 1978-79 Land Resource Mapping and 1994/95 Forest Resource Inventory; data for other years are estimates.

5. Sources of fuelwood by land type, by physiographic region, and by development region (2000/01) – by percent share of total land areas; estimated on the basis of the three surveys previously mentioned;

6. Sustainable production of fuelwood from on-farm areas by development and physiographic regions (2000/01) – by percent share of total land areas in development regions and mass units (mt) in physiographic region.

The data and information from item number 1 to item number 5 above were the key data inputs for generating the data for item number 6. The data for item number 6 are given in Table A.5. 6. Unfortunately, the methods and assumptions used in the analysis and estimates are not discussed in the country report.

Table A.5. 8. Sustainable Fuelwood Production (‘000 tons)

NCI = non-cultivated inclusions.

Sources:

1. Fuelwood production data for the year 1978/79 have been derived from the WECS study " District, Regional and National Forest Cover Class Summaries of the Area, Fuelwood Yield and Wood Volume for the Kingdom of Nepal, 1988.

2. Data for the year 1994/95 have been derived from the report "Forest Resources of Nepal, 1999, Department of Forest Research and Survey, Nepal.”

3. Data for the year 2000/01 are estimates.

Nepal’s report provides a good starting framework for developing a wood energy information system as it covered almost all elements of a comprehensive wood energy database. It provides not only sectoral wood energy consumption data by rural and urban areas, by ecological situation and by administrative regions, but also by types of end-uses. It presents an analysis of wood energy supply that covers many important factors that have not been recognized in similar exercises done by other countries. Historical data are presented that, apparently, resulted from modelling studies. It would have been interesting if the country report had also identified the methods and assumptions used in such modelling studies.

Pakistan

National Consultant: Muhammad Iqbal Sial

Pakistan Forestry Institute, Peshawar

The types of wood energy consumption data contained in thecountry study are shown below.

1. Total energy consumption by source (1980-81, 1994-95), in energy units (toe), and by percent share of total energy (see Table A.6.1); based on a 1996 study; the report did not present the methods used in the analysis.

Table A.6. 1. Share of woodfuels in the national energy mix – 1994-95⁵³.

Source	(Thousand toe)	Percent of total
Commercial	20 355	63.2
- Oil	9 667	30.0
- Gas	6 082	18.1
- Coal	1 562	4.8
- Electricity	3 044	9.5
Non-commercial	11 840	36.8
- Fuelwood	6 506	20.2
- Agriculture residues	5 334	16.6
Total	32 195	100.0

2. Historical woodfuels consumption trends (1980-81 to 1994-95) – see Table A.6.2 below; based on constant “specific woodfuels consumption” of 0.208 m³/year; no explanation of how this value was obtained and if the value took account of woodfuels consumption by different types of applications (e.g. cooking, space heating, water heating) by different end using sectors (i.e. households, industries and enterprises).

Table A.6. 2. Historical woodfuels consumption trends

Source cited by the author: see footnote no. 53 below.

3. Annual national fuelwood consumption (yearly from 1990 to 2002) – estimated on the basis of 1981 & 1998 population censuses, 1998 to 2001 Economic Survey, and 1992 Forestry Master Plan; no details of estimation technique used, but it apparently followed linear projection of consumption based on population growth rate.

4. Consumption data from the WB-ESMAP Household Energy Strategy Study – many of the data submitted in the study report came from this study, which was conducted in 1992; the study is considered one of the most comprehensive energy surveys undertaken, however the country report did not include a discussion of the survey methods and other data collection techniques used in the study; the survey focused only on the household sector and though it captured significant information on fuelwood consumption in the country, it was only limited to use in households; the following data and information from the study were submitted in the report:

a. energy consumption by households by types of fuel – data by percent share of total energy consumption

b. patterns of energy consumption by households by types of fuel – data by percent share of total energy consumption

c. annual charcoal consumption by households for cooking

d. annual fuelwood consumption by households (1991) - by urban/rural areas, by end use, by manner of acquisition

e. values of consumption of other fuels used in households for cooking and other heating applications (1995 to 2000) – specific values and total national values for kerosene, LPG, natural gas, and other biofuels such as dung and crop wastes.

5. Specific and total annual biofuels consumption by village industries and village enterprises (1989) – values are given by mass units (mt) of fuelwood per unit production of the industry or enterprises; this include users of other types of biofuels such crop wastes.

Table A.6. 3. Estimated biofuels use by rural industries and village applications⁵⁴

Rural industry/Village application	Specific energy consumption (kg/unit product)	Amount of wood or equivalent (‘000 tons)
Brick making	0.5 kg/brick	6 170
Lime manufacturing	2.3 kg/kg lime	125
Pottery making	--	20
Khoya55 production	10 kg/kg khoya	1 750
Tobaco curing	8 kg/kg dry tobacco	770
Turmeric curing	0.87 kg/kg dry turmeric	20
Groundnut curing	0.25 kg/kg cured groundnut	14
Black smithy	--	240
Gold smithy	--	4
Dyeing and washing	--	12
Silk cocoon processing	15 kg/kg dry cocoon	4
Local medicine making	--	2
Rural bakeries and ovens	0.29 kg/kg chhohara	76
Food vending and restaurants	--	100
Animal fat processing	--	3
Chhohara56 making	--	6
Pop corn and gram roasting	--	60
Road tarring	--	8
Treatment of fishing nets and boats	--	3
Hammams (steam baths)	--	1
Water heating in mosques	--	60
Social ceremonies/occasions	--	1 000
Gur making	2 kg/ 1kg gur	3 400
Total for all activities		12 848

Source: “FAO. 1989. Wood based energy system in rural industries and village applications – Pakistan. RWEDP Field Document No. 13, Bangkok”.

The country report contains limited data and information pertaining to wood energy supply, including the data presented below.

1. Annual production of fuelwood from state forests (1988 to 1998) – in volume units (cu m); data source of the author are based on official estimates by Pakistan Forest Institute as provided in the 1996 Forestry Statistics of Pakistan (Table A.6.4).

2. Production of fuelwood from forests and non-forest lands (1991) – by volume (cu m) and mass (mt) units; estimates from the 1991-92 Forestry Sector Master Plan; and the 1991-92 WB-ESMAP Household Energy Strategy Study.

3. Unrecorded removals from forests (1989) – by volume (cu m) units; based on the study Wood based energy system in rural industries and village applications – Pakistan. FAO-RWEDP Field Document No. 13; methods and assumptions used not discussed in the country report.

4. Types of forests – productive and protected forests (1991) – by area (hectares) and percent of total forest areas; no source specifically mentioned in the country report, most probably the 1991-92 Forestry Sector Master Plan.

5. Types of forests (i.e. coniferous, scrubs, irrigated forests plantation, riverine forests, mangrove forests)(1991) – anecdotal information format, but data on area (hectares) and percent of total forest areas provided; data source not mentioned in the country report, most probably the 1991-92 Forestry Sector Master Plan.

6. Wood balance in NWFP (North West Frontier Province) (1995) – data from the Provincial Forest Resource Inventory; no details on survey methods used.

7. Woodfuels supply from non-forest areas (i.e. farmlands, wastelands)(1991) – by area (hectares); data from the 1991-92 WB-ESMAP Household Energy Strategy Study.

8. Tree production from agricultural lands (1991) – data on planting patterns, percent of agricultural lands planted to trees, harvesting patterns; data from the 1991-92 WB–ESMAP Household Energy Strategy Study.

9. Wood production potential from agricultural lands (1991) – data on mass units (mt) per hectare per year; data from the 1991-92 WB–ESMAP Household Energy Strategy Study.

Table A.6. 4: Production of firewood from state forests (‘000m³)⁵⁷

Year	Production	Year	Production
1978-79	294	1988-89	301
1978-80	204	1989-90	188
1980-81	230	1990-91	158
1981-82	251	1991-92	173
1982-83	249	1992-93	140
1983-84	291	1993-94	120
1984-85	198	1994-95	116
1985-86	202	1995-96	111
1986-87	185	1996-97	146
1987-88	164	1997-98	132

The data and information presented in this report were obtained from various studies or surveys, as in most of the other country reports. Units of measurement were different. The dates the data were collected also varied. Most of the information provided, particularly supply-related information, consists of “one-time data”. The country report did not attempt to aggregate and summarise the data and information collected to arrive at national data summaries, nor did it attempt to make historical projections of aggregate consumption and supply. Unfortunately, the report also did not provide the methods and assumptions used in generating the data and information contained in this report, making it further difficult to make a definite analysis of the country’s wood energy situation.

Philippines

National Consultants: Elizabeth Remedio and Terrence Bensel

University of San Carlos, Cebu City

The Philippine national consultant generated wood energy consumption estimates by analysing two national household energy consumption surveys (1989 and 1992), a nationwide survey of industries and commercial establishments (1990), and several energy studies. The consultant estimated a range of values for the consumption of woodfuels and other biofuels (i.e. agricultural residues and crop processing wastes), but refrained from generating historical data. The types of wood energy consumption data and information presented by the report are identified below.

1. Total and sectoral wood energy consumption – data were presented for various years between the period 1980 to 2000; data were obtained from various studies, conducted at different times, using different methodologies.

2. Per capita wood energy consumption for cooking in households by area – data were presented for various years between the period 1980 to 2000; data were obtained from various studies, including some local studies, conducted at different times, using different methodologies.

3. Household energy consumption by types of energy source (1989, 1995) – includes all types of household energy uses and data were given in energy units; data are from the 1989 DOE-NSO/WB-ESMAP Survey and the 1995 DOE-NSO Survey; there is a discussion of survey methods used in the two surveys.

4. Household energy consumption for cooking by types of fuel (1989, 1995) – data are from the two surveys mentioned previously.

5. Pattern of household energy consumption for cooking by types of fuel by rural/urban areas– by percent share of total households (1989, 1995); data were from the two surveys mentioned previously.

6. Woodfuels consumption in the industrial & commercial sector – this include listed enterprises only; data are from the 1990 FMB-NSO Survey of Industries; there is a discussion of survey method used.

Based on the above data, the consultant estimated values of wood energy consumption in the country. No historical estimates were generated; but there are values for lower, higher and “best” estimates as shown in Table A.7.1.

Table A.7. 1. Woodfuels consumption trends

Source: Country Report Estimates.

Wood energy consumption values by sector and by end uses were also estimated as shown in Table A.7.2.

Table A.7. 2. Woodfuels consumption by areas, users, uses and types of woodfuels

Based on Country Report Estimates.

The report, however, does not contain data showing woodfuels’ contribution to the country’s energy supply mix. This data is from DOE and is presented here to indicate that wood energy is integrated in national energy statistics, and to show the significant contribution of wood energy.

Table A.7. 3. Share of woodfuels in the national energy mix

Source: Department of Energy.

The authors explain that the two nationwide household energy consumption surveys conducted six years apart (1989 and 1995) could have underestimated woodfuels consumption in the country. The analyses indicates that the two surveys not only showed a decrease in fuelwood consumption for cooking in households, but also a significant decrease in overall energy consumption for cooking in households. The authors then assess the impacts of factors driving energy consumption, such as population growth, economic growth, urbanization and the expanding supply of petroleum fuels.

The results of the analyses raise some questions. How could total energy consumption for cooking in households have decreased significantly when population has increased substantially between the period of the two surveys? Were more people eating outside and/or buying their meals rather than cooking them? Was there a massive shift to more efficient cooking devices?

The authors compare the results of the surveys with previous studies and surveys conducted in the country. The comparison shows that the estimations of overall energy consumption for cooking in households by the two surveys might indeed be lower than the estimates of the other studies.

The authors do not explain why such underestimation could have occurred. However, the results show that integrating woodfuels consumption surveys with more comprehensive energy consumption surveys allows a complete energy end use analysis regardless of what fuel is used and this permits data validation. Integrating woodfuels surveys in overall energy consumption surveys is one strategy for standardizing woodfuels survey methodologies that also allow data validation.

The study also contains wood energy supply data from various studies, an analysis of these data, and the authors’ own estimates of wood supply. The data collected and presented in the report is shown below.

1. Woodfuels supply/ production from forests and non-forest lands – data in mass (mt) and volume units; estimates include supplies of other biofuels for various years between the period of 1992 and 2002; based on different national and local studies; the country report discussed the methods & assumptions used in making estimates.

2. Land use classification (1998 & 1990) – data provided by area (hectares) and percent of total land area; estimates based on the 1998 World Bank – Swedish Space Corporation Spot Satellite Imagery Study, and the 1990 Master Plan for Forest Development by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources.

3. Woodfuels supply by land use (1989/90) – data in mass (mt) units; estimates based on the 1989 World Bank–ESMAP Household Energy Strategy Study and the 1990 Master Plan for Forest Development by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources.

Based on these data, the study provided revised estimates of woodfuels supply potential as given in the table below:

Table A.7. 4. Revised woodfuels potential estimates

¹Woody biomass from inter-cropped trees and shrubs.

The report from Philippines provides an example of a thorough wood supply potential study. The authors compare two nationwide studies conducted in the country (1989 WB-ESMAP Household Energy Strategy Study and the 1990 Master Plan for Forest Development Study). Then, they come up with their own estimates of potential supply for the country.on the basis of data from several other local studies and additional information from the international literature.

Sri Lanka

National Consultants: Upali Daranagama and A. Abeywardena

Resource Management Associates (Pvt) Ltd., Colombo

The Sri Lanka report contains discussions not found in the other reports, such as:

§ patterns of distribution of types of cooking devices used in the household sector (with values of end use efficiencies), as determined by the location of households and income level;

§ an analysis of fuelwood prices and their impact on fuel substitution (this includes a comparative analysis of the energy price for cooking in households for different fuels);

§ patterns of fuel substitution for cooking in the household sector showing changes in consumption for all types of cooking fuels used (in most other reports, only changes in woodfuels use are presented).

There is also a comprehensive discussion of biomass energy consumption in different industries, including the heating process involved and the type of end use devices used.

The report contains the energy consumption data shown below (including the source data).

1. Gross energy consumption by type of energy source (yearly data 1990-2001) – based on estimates by ECF; no details of methods used provided in the country report;

2. Final energy consumption by type of energy source (yearly data 1990-2001) – same data source as above.

3. Biomass energy consumption by sector (yearly data 1990-2001) - no disaggregation by types of biofuels, same as data source as above.

4. Specific biomass energy consumption by households for cooking (1983) – no disaggregation by types of biofuels; data from a national survey involving physical measurement of fuel consumption; no further details given in the country report.

5. Annual total biomass energy consumption (1985, 1994) – no disaggregation by types of biofuels; based on a survey involving interviews conducted by Forestry Department; no further details given in the country report.

6. Biomass energy consumption in the household sector by provinces (1999) – no disaggregation by types of biofuels; based on an ITDG survey involving physical measurements conducted in four provinces; no further details given in the report.

7. Patterns of energy consumption by households by area by types of fuel (1986/87 and 1996/97) – data by percent share of total households; based on “finance and socio-economic surveys” by the country’s Central Bank.

Table A.8.1 shows the relevant energy consumption data presented in the report:

Table A.8. 1. Share of woodfuels in the national energy mix – 2000

Source: Energy Conservation Fund.

Table A.8. 2. Historical biofuels consumption trends

Source: Energy Conservation Fund.

Table A.8. 3. Woodfuels consumption by users

Note: Collection of data on industrial consumption involved more detailed techniques, including field measurements.

The report contains the type of wood energy supply-related data shown below.

1. Methods of procurement/ acquisition of biomass fuels by households (1983/1999) – data provided by area and by agro-ecological zone; given percent share of total households; based on the 1983 survey conducted by Natural Resources, Energy and Science Authority and the 1999 ITDG Survey.

2. Biomass energy supply by source (1995) – given in percent values; estimates based on the 1995 Forestry Sector Master Plan report.

3. Supply of biomass fuels by types of resources (1999) – given in percent share values, mass units, volume units, types of biomass include fuelwood from rubber wood, tea plants and other woody biomass, coconut, paddy husk, rice straw and other crop wastes; data also on the sources (i.e. home gardens, crop lands, coconut plantations, rubber plantations, forest plantations, crop processing residues); based on the 1999 report Availability of Fuelwood and Other Agricultural Residues as a Source of Energy in the Industrial Sector of Sri Lanka prepared by the Sri Lanka Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Capacity Building Project –UNDP/GEF; brief discussions of methods and assumptions used are provided in the country report.

4. Biomass energy demand-supply balance (1995) – data by types of fuel by agro-ecological zone; data is given in mass units (mt); based on the FSMP report.

5. Annual charcoal and bagasse production (1995 to 2000) – given in mass units (mt); no reference provided.

6. Biomass energy supply (1990) – data given by types of resource, by agro-ecological zone, by administrative areas; data provided in mass units (mt); no detailed information given on source of data.

Table A.8. 4. Woodfuels consumption by areas

Note: Data are for total biomass energy consumption that includes fuelwood, charcoal, sawdust, wood wastes and crop wastes. No disaggregation given, except for the table for industries. The authors state that the list is limited only to woodfuels-using industries. Note, however, that in many places rice parboiling usually uses rice hull that is much more accessible.

Table A.8. 5. Estimated supply of biomass by source

Source: FSMP (1995).

Note that in several tables presented above, the term used is biofuels, which is a collective term for woodfuels, crop residues, animal dung and other fuels derived from biomass matters. The study did not make this distinction. This is important as this study is focusing on woodfuels. The data should have been disaggregated.

There were other wood energy-related data and information, which were collected and presented only by the Sri Lanka country report, as mentioned earlier (see Table A.8.6).

Table A.8. 6. Overview of tabulated data collected in the country report

Thailand

National Consultant: Sriluck Tatayanon

Royal Forest Department, Bangkok

Although it was not mentioned in the report, Thailand conducts regular energy surveys to monitor the consumption of various fuels, including wood and other biofuels. These surveys mostly collect data by interviews. Standards have been developed and are used during the interviews in measuring fuel consumption, making data collection easier and faster. Thus the country report was able to provide the following set of wood energy consumption data, which are official estimates from DEDP for the year 1990 to 2000:

§ energy consumption by sector by types of energy source;

§ annual woodfuels consumption for all sectors, all end uses;

§ annual energy consumption by source for all sectors, all end uses;

§ annual biomass energy consumption by sector (household, industry), all end uses;

§ annual energy consumption by area (administrative regions) for all sectors, all end uses; and

§ biomass energy consumption by area, end use, and types of fuels (1996 only).

Tables A.9.1 to A.9.4 provide a summary of the most relevant wood energy consumption data presented in the report:

Table A.9. 1: Share of woodfuels in the national energy mix – 2000

Source: Department of Energy Development and Promotion.

Table A.9. 2. Historical household woodfuels consumption trends

Source: Department of Energy Development and Promotion.

Table A.9. 3. Household sector consumption by region and types of energy use

Table A.9. 4. Woodfuels consumption by sector – 1996

The Thailand country report is one of the few reports that provides data on woodfuels supply from forests and non-forest areas, but like the others, it does not provide information on the methods used to generate those data. The following were the wood energy supply related data presented in the report.

1. Forest areas by region (1998) – data given by type of forests by area (sq km); based on the 2000 Forestry Statistics published by RFD; no details provided.

2. Change in forest areas (1998 to 1998) – data by region by area (sq km); same reference as above.

3. Woodfuels supply (1991 to 2002) – by type of land use (natural forests, harvested plantations, industrial residues, rangeland/ shrublands, agricultural lands); given in volume unit (cu m); based on estimates provided for by Thailand Forest Sector Master Plan; no details provided (Table A.9.5).

The report also presents the results of a local study on woodfuels flow for the city of Khon Kaen and presented the following data generated from it:

§ woodfuels production areas by types of tree management practices;

§ charcoal production & price data;

§ charcoal technical production data;

§ charcoal marketing & distribution data; and

§ annual woodfuels consumption by sector.

The reports mentions only two major sectors as users of woodfuels: households and industries. However, the woodfuels flow study in Khon Kaen province indicates significant fuelwood consumption by commercial and service establishments such as restaurants, sidewalk eateries and ambulant food vendors. Fuelwood is also used for cremations. This seems to be repeated in other provinces of the country, but data do not appear at the national level.

Although data on the productivity of wood from various land types are provided, it is not clear if it includes both commercial and non-commercial tree species, as most forestry statistics monitor only the former. It is not clear also whether the data includes more than the bole volume of the trees (such as the tree crowns) and the other woody biomass (shrubs and bushes) found on these lands.

Table A.9. 5. Estimated fuelwood production

Source: Forestry Sector Master Plan.

Viet Nam

National Consultant: Nguyen Chi Trung

Forest Science Institute of Viet Nam, Hanoi

In spite of data limitations, the report is comprehensive. The author discusses all aspects of wood energy systems and begins with a presentation of the general country situation that includes colourful maps. The maps provide relevant background information that helps the reader to understand the country’s wood energy situation. The discussion on the patterns of energy consumption in the household sector, addresses the impacts of physical locations, agro-ecological conditions, socio-economic situations, and policies/programmes on the types of fuels used in households, and on fuel substitution. The discussion incorporates inputs from a 1992 national household energy survey. Unfortunately, no such surveys are available for the agriculture, industry and commercial/service sectors.

The report contains data on wood energy consumption as shown below (including the referencesused by the author).

1. Annual woodfuels consumption (selected years between 1986 to 1998) – data provided by sector, from various sources; details of survey methods used provided in the report.

2. Share of woodfuels in total energy consumption (1986 to 1998) – data provided by sector in percent of total sectoral energy consumption; from various sources.

3. Household sector energy consumption for cooking (1992) – by types of fuel by region; data from the WB-ESMAP Study.

4. Annual household sector final energy consumption (1995 and 1998) – by rural/urban areas;based on joint estimates by FSIV & IOE for a case study on wood energy planning conducted for RWEDP; no details of method used provided in the report.

5. Annual total woodfuels consumption (1995 and 1998) – by end use (cooking, boiling pig food, heating, others), by rural/urban areas; same reference as above.

6. Total and per capita woodfuels consumption (1995) – by region; same reference as above.

Tables A.10.1 to A.10.4 provide the most relevant wood energy consumption data presented in the report:

Table A.10. 1. Share of woodfuels in the national energy mix – 1999

Source: Institute of Energy.

Table A.10. 2. Historical woodfuels consumption trends

Source: Institute of Energy.

Table A.10. 3. Woodfuels consumption by areas, users & types of woodfuels – 1995

Table A.10. 4. Woodfuels consumption by types of end-uses – 1995

The report contains an interesting discussion on energy consumption in the cooking of pig feed, which accounts for about 10 percent of total wood energy use. In the 1980s, consumption of fuel was considered part of household consumption. But with the liberalization of the Vietnamese economy, pigs were for selling to markets (e.g. urban markets), and not just for domestic consumption. As such, energy consumption for cooking pig feed increased and was put into a separate category under the agricultural sector.

The report contains the wood energy supply-related data shown below; the sources were cited, but the methods used in data collection were not discussed.

1. Population & forest areas by ecological zones (2000) – by number of population, areas (hectare), and maps; based on the Forest Inventory Report.

2. Woodfuels supply by types of forests (2001) – data given by area of forests (hectare), annual productivity (cu m/hectare/year), annual sustainable production (cu m in GBV); joint estimates by FSIV and IOE; based on a case study on wood energy planning conducted for RWEDP.

3. Woodfuels supply from non-forest areas (2001) – data give by mass (mt) and volume (CUM) units, same reference as above.

4. Other woody biomass sources (2001) – data given by mass (mt) and volume (cu m) units; includes residues from rubber and coconut plantations; same reference as above.

5. Other biomass sources (2001) – data given by mass (mt) units and include crop wastes.

Table A.10.5 below gives a summary of the woodfuels supply-related data presented in the report:

Table A.10. 5. Fuelwood source

The discussions on woodfuels supply cover most potential sources of supply wood. Still, there are some potential sources that may have been overlooked such as non-commercial or non-timber tree species in forests, and woody shrubs and bushes that are available in both forests and non-forest areas.

⁴⁹ Notes for tables:
Heating value, weight, and volume conversion factors for fuelwood and charcoal were derived for wood at 20–30 percent moisture content, obtained from “ITTO/UNECE/FAO/EUROSTAT.2002.”
Energy units conversion factors were obtained from “FAO. 1997b”.
Conversion value for estimating amount of fuelwood to produce a unit amount of charcoal obtained from “Leach G & Gowen M. 1987.”
Fuelwood equivalent (FW Eqv) values for charcoal and other fuels refer to the amount of fuelwood needed to produce the same amount of energy.
Discrepancies occur because of rounding off of figures.
⁵⁰ Ravindranath and Hall.1995.
⁵¹ Saxena.1997.
⁵² Ibid.
⁵³ The reference cited by the author is – “Wood Energy in Pakistan” by K. M. Siddique, M. Ayaz and M. Iqbal. Pakistan Forest Institute, Peshawar, 1997.
⁵⁴ Some industries are using woodfuels in combination with other types of biofuels – values given are total FW equivalent.
⁵⁵ A kind of sweet prepared from milk.
⁵⁶ Unripe dates soaked in boiling water and dried.
⁵⁷ Source: “Khan, N and S. Hakim. 1996. Forestry Statistics of Pakistan. Pakistan Forest Institute, Peshawar.”