Protected areas

Area Name	Subclass	Type of area	IUCN Cat.	Total Area	Reference
1. Wiawi (Lasenwei)	NATIONAL	Protected area	VI	1 411	Luca Tacconi (1997)
2. Erromango	NATIONAL	Reserve	VI	3 205	Luca Tacconi (1997), Land Lease Act Cap 163
3. Vatthe	NATIONAL	National Park	VI	3 144
4. Loru	NATIONAL	Protected Area	VI	306

Policy and legislation

The post-independence Constitution devotes a chapter to land issues and provides the basis upon which all legislation and policy concerning land tenure in Vanuatu rests. The salient points are that all land in the Republic belongs to the indigenous custom owners and their descendants, the rules of custom form the basis of ownership and use of land, only indigenous citizens who have acquired land in accordance with a recognised system of land tenure may have perpetual land ownership and government may own land in the public interest (Nalo et al. 1987). Most land is thus in customary ownership and there is little likelihood of Government acquiring land for protected areas. Such areas would have to be leased or managed jointly by the government and custom owners (M.R. Chambers, pers. comm., 1989). Declaration of a site as public land could well meet with opposition from custom owners, and could involve expensive compensation (Nalo et al. 1987).

The issue of land tenure must be seen in the light of customary practice, or strong traditions concerning land. Although there are certain nationwide principles, such as the important distinction between use rights and ownership rights, the system is highly fragmented and different practices may apply amongst the over a hundred languages in the country. Land tenure, customary tenure, protected areas and conservation are discussed further by Nalo et al. (1987) and with particular reference to the establishment of Erromango Kauri Reserve (Barrance 1989).

The current approach being taken in Vanuatu is the development of Protected Areas under the IUCN category VI. Even though a National Parks Act was gazetted in 1998, it has been found that effective approach for conserving biodiversity has simply been for custom owners to declare an area as protected. Along with this declaration a collaborative agreement is made with government on the rules or form of management to be carried out by the owners. This has been done to varying degrees for four forested PA areas (listed above), though more work is required in the development of management for biodiversity and cultural values. Further work is also required to review whether any legislation is required that will assist in maintaining these values (Department of Forests 2000)

Legislation for the establishment of national parks and reserves and the protection of land and water is generally lacking (Nalo et al. 1987). Laws on Vanuatu that were enacted prior to independence were made by the Resident Commissioners under the provisions of the Anglo-French Protocol of 1914. Some of these are still in force and several include conservation measures. The Forestry Joint Regulation (No. 30 of 1964) provides for the establishment of forest areas, forest lands, and forest reserves (although none have been established), and is incidentally also used for the protection of wrecks. The intention of this legislation is to ensure that forest resources are protected and developed in accordance with good forestry principles.

Under Forestry Act No. 14 (1982), the Director of Forests is authorised to enter into forest plantation agreements with owners to assist reafforestation or to protect threatened forests. Such areas are subject to state control, and clearance without a permit is prohibited. Agreements may be formulated in order to prevent soil erosion, preserve the ecology of an area, conserve land of particular scenic, cultural, historic or national interest, or for recreational use by the public (Sloth 1988).

Other environmental legislation includes the Fisheries Act No. 37 (1982) which provides for the declaration of marine reserves (Section 20) within which no living organism, sand, coral or part of a wreck may be taken or removed.

Improved legislation for national parks and reserves was under consideration in 1989 (Leaver and Spriggs 1989) and a number of potential protected areas have been identified. The National Conservation Strategy prospectus (IUCN 1988) states that a project to review the legislation concerning conservation and environment has been implemented, with the object of making recommendations for modifications or additions to existing laws. One major piece of legislation needed is a heritage conservation act that would provide for both cultural and natural conservation. The Act should provide mechanisms whereby custom leaders and landowners could have sites and objects of special importance registered for protection under the act. Ownership and management would rest with the custom owners, but with the additional support of the law for their protection and specified penalties for the violation of that protection.

The contribution made by traditional custom and practice towards protected areas and resource conservation is significant. For example, seasonal custom taboos are applied in certain coastal waters for the conservation of dugong, fish and turtle (SPREP 1989). During colonial times land in Vanuatu was registered under freehold titles and were mainly held by non-indigenous interests. Land held by the French, British and Condominium governments prior to independence was vested in the Vanuatu government for the benefit of the Republic, under Land Reform Regulation No. 31 of 1980. A significant number of these land parcels comprised long distances of coastal land about 100m wide. Much of this land has been returned to customary owners, but some has been retained for the establishment of protected areas. The Land Reform Regulation also empowers the Minister responsible for lands to declare any land to be public. This is only done on the advice of the Council of Ministers and after consultation with customary owners. Following requests by the Local Government Council, proposals to declare parts of Espiritu Santo as public land for recreational purposes have been made.

International activities

Vanuatu is party to the International Convention on Biodiversity as well as Convention of International Threatened and Endangered Species and the Vanuatu government is working to address these commitments (Department of Forestry 2000).

The Convention on the Conservation of Nature in the South Pacific (1976) has been neither signed nor ratified. Known as the Apia Convention, it entered into force during 1990. The Convention is coordinated by the South Pacific Commission and represents the first attempt within the region to cooperate on environmental matters. Among other measures, it encourages the creation of protected areas to preserve indigenous flora and fauna.

Although Vanuatu is party to the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP), the 1986 Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Region (SPREP Convention) has not yet been signed or ratified. The Convention entered into force during August 1990. Article 14 calls upon the parties to take all appropriate measures to protect rare or fragile ecosystems and threatened or endangered flora and fauna through the establishment of protected areas and the regulation of activities likely to have an adverse effect on the species, ecosystems and biological processes being protected. However, as this provision only applies to the Convention area, which by definition is open ocean, it is most likely to assist with the establishment of marine reserves and the conservation of marine species.

Other international and regional conventions concerning environmental protection to which Vanuatu is party are reviewed by Venkatesh et al. (1983).

Administration and management

The Department of Forestry of the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries is responsible for the implementation of the Forestry Act No. 14 of 1982. The Department of Fisheries of the same Ministry is responsible for the Fisheries Act No. 37 of 1982, and is consequently responsible for marine reserves, whilst the Ministry is charged with generally overseeing issues concerned with environment and conservation. The administrative status of currently gazetted recreational reserves rests with a local government council, although the legal basis for this is not clear.

In September 1986 an Environment Unit was established in the Ministry of Lands, Geology and Rural Water Supply, with responsibility for coordinating environmental and conservation issues. The Environment Unit essentially has a single objective: to develop policies and programmes such that natural resources are managed so that they are not severely degraded by development activities. Major projects include preparation of a national conservation strategy and comprehensive environmental legislation; resource surveys of fringing reefs, freshwaters, Espiritu Santo Island and biological, geological, scenic and cultural heritage sites; dugong surveys; and surveys of estuarine crocodiles of Vanua Lava (Chambers and Bani 1987, 1989). The Environment Unit will also be made responsible for the management of any parks and reserves gazetted in the future (SPREP 1989). The Environment Unit is severely challenged in fulfilling its duties as it only has three permanent full time staff, all of which are based in Port Vila. Even the Department of Forests is understaffed with 38 staff spread throughout 4 of the 5 Provinces.

Systems review

In general, Vanuatu’s environment is relatively undisturbed (Chambers and Bani 1987), due to low population densities (about 10 per sq. km in rural areas), and the limited degree of development (M.R. Chambers, pers. comm., 1989). Nevertheless, this could change due to the high rate of human population increase and the high proportion (85%) of the population engaged in slash-and-burn agriculture and subsistence reef fishing. A broad-ranging discussion of environment, resources and development is given by Baines (1981), covering topics such as tenure, population, administration, financial costs and aspects of natural resources including forests, mangroves, reefs, minerals, wildlife etc. Large-scale agricultural developments are leading to environmental problems, principally accelerated by forest clearance and soil erosion through poor pasture management (IUCN 1988).

An Action Strategy for Protected Areas in the South Pacific Region (SPREP 1985) has been prepared. The principal goals of the strategy cover conservation education, conservation policy development, establishment of protected areas, effective protected area management and regional and international cooperation. Priority recommendations for Vanuatu are as follows: develop a national conservation strategy; establish a kauri reserve on Erromango Island; establish recreational reserves on Espiritu Santo.

The development of a national conservation strategy was delayed by a lack of funds, but has since been financed with funds from Australia, channelled through SPREP. SPREP has funded an inter-departmental team to carry out a survey of three potential protected areas on Ambrym, Efate and Malakula and it is hoped that these, along with the proposed site on Erromango, will form the nucleus of a protected areas system (Anon. 1989). Protected Areas either exist or are proposed for these islands (refer to map Vanuatu Protected Areas) (Department of Forestry 2000).

Dahl (1980) has recommended that the protected areas network be consolidated through the establishment of reserves to protect examples of major forest types, grasslands, swamps, lakes and marine habitats; forest reserves on each of the main islands for vegetation and birds, such as 2 000 ha of forest in southern Erromango and 2 000-3 000 ha in central Efate; a cloud forest reserve on Espiritu Santo, which would be of value for the conservation of Santo mountain starling (Hay 1986); and reserves along the north-west coast of Malekula or Santo, where reefs were elevated over 6 m in 1965. Less specific recommendations are made by Dahl (1986) and include establishing a major protected area on Espiritu Santo, smaller reserves at least on Tanna, Aneityum and Erromango, a recreation and tourism reserve on Efate, and protection of saltwater crocodiles on Vanua Lava (Dahl 1986).

From recent surveys carried out by Department of Forestry it is thought higher levels of plant biodiversity are found in mountainous area and yet generally threat to these areas are relatively low. Though it is the lowland forests that are clearly under threat from various kinds of industrial land use. There is still poor understanding of the different vegetation types/alliances found in these higher risk areas and survey work is planned to assist government on where it should concentrate its efforts. This includes awareness programs and development of management plans where landowner commitment for maintaining biodiversity and cultural values is strong. This strategy may be effective in the long term particularly with on going government support (Department of Forestry 2000). However where commitment is not strong by custom owners maintenance of Protected Area and its values in the long term may not be certain. The Erromango Kauri Reserve is an example of this, both leasing the protected area and development of ecotourism are being trialled as solutions to this problem. (Tacconi, 1997)

References

Anon. 1989. Progress with the action strategy for protected areas in the South Pacific. Information Paper 3. Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature Conservation and Protected Areas. Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 19 pp.

Baines, G.B.K. 1981. Environmental resources and development in Vanuatu. Report to the Government of Vanuatu with support of UNDAT (United Nations Development Advisory Team for the Pacific). Unpublished. 26 pp.

Barrance, A.J. 1989. Erromango kauri reserve - a case study in environmental protection on customary land. Case Study No. 7. Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 6 pp.

Beveridge, A.E. 1975. Kauri forests in the New Hebrides. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 272:369-383.

Chambers, M.R. and Bani, E. 1987. Wildlife and Resources development and environment. heritage conservation in Vanuatu. ESCAP, Port Vila, Vanuatu. Pp. 124-133.

Chambers, M.R. and Bani, E. 1989. Vanuatu - safe haven for the dugong. The Pilot. September. Pp. 13-14.

Dahl, A.L. 1980. Regional ecosystem survey of the South Pacific Area. SPC/IUCN Technical Paper 179. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 99 pp.

Dahl, A.L. 1986. Review of the protected areas system in Oceania. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 328 pp.

David, G. 1985. Les mangroves de Vanuatu: 2ème partie, présentation générale. Naika 19:13-16.

Davis, S.D., Droop, S.J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., Leon, C.J., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J., Synge, H. and Zantovska, J. 1986. Plants in danger: what do we know? IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 488 pp.

Hay, R. 1986. Bird conservation in the Pacific. ICBP Study Report No. 7. International Council for Bird Preservation, Cambridge, UK. 102 pp.

IUCN 1988. National Conservation Strategy: Vanuatu. Phase I: Prospectus. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 39 pp.

Johnson, M.S. 1971. New Hebrides Condominium, Erromango forest inventory. Land Resources Study No. 10. Overseas Development Administration, Land Resources Division, Surbiton, UK. 91 pp.

Leaver, B. and Spriggs, M. Erromango kauri reserve. Working Paper No. 1.TCP/VAN/6755. FAO, Rome. 28 pp.

Nalo, C., Hunt, L. and Boote, D. 1977. Land tenure in Vanuatu today. In: Chambers, M.R. and Bani, E., Resources development and environment., ESCAP, Port Vila, Vanuatu. Pp. 78-92.

Neill, P. 1987. Forestry resources and policies in Vanuatu. In: Chambers, M.R. and Bani, E., Resources development and environment. ESCAP, Port Vila, Vanuatu. Pp. 59-62.

Quantin, P. 1976. Archipel des Nouvelles Hébrides: sols et quelques données du milieu naturel, Santo. Office de la Recherche Scientifique et Technique de Outre-Mer, Paris. 37 pp.

Schmid, M. 1978. The Melanesian forest ecosystem (New Caledonia, New Hebrides, Fiji Islands and Solomon Islands). In: UNESCO/UNEP/FAO, Tropical forest ecosystems. UNESCO, Paris. Pp. 654-683.

Sloth, B. 1988. Nature legislation and nature conservation as part of tourism development in the island Pacific. Pacific Regional Tourism Development Programme. Tourism Council of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji. 82 pp.

SPREP 1985. Action strategy for protected areas in the South Pacific Region. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 24 pp.

SPREP 1989. Vanuatu. Paper presented at the Fourth South Pacific Conference on Nature Conservation and Protected Areas, Port Vila, Vanuatu, 4-12 September. 6 pp.

Venkatesh, S, Va’ai, S. and Pulea, M. 1983. An overview of environmental protection legislation in the South Pacific countries. SPREP Topic Review No. 13. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 63 pp.

World Bank 1990. World Tables. 1989-90 Edition. The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore. 646 pp.

Forest products production, trade and consumption

Contribution of the forestry sector to the country’s economy

The main benefits of the commercial forestry operations in Vanuatu are spread between the landowners, the people who work for the timber companies, the timber companies and the government. In1999, the landowners were paid about Vt 36 million (US$275 000) in royalties for 40 000 m³ of logs, the forestry workers were paid an estimated Vt 120 million in wages and the government collected about Vt 27 million in fees and taxes.

The 1999 Vanuatu National Census presents employment information that provides some facts on forestry employment (Government of Vanuatu 2000). The breakdown by industry reports 263 people being formally employed in forestry and logging. A further 131 were employed in wood or wood processing. This is considered to be an underestimate of the total as it does not include additional employees in government (e.g. 38 DoF staff), or part-time workers in forestry operations in the field. The unofficial estimate by the Department of Forests is that over 500 people were employed in 1999 in forest operations and fixed sawmills and wood processing industries. Several hundred more are estimated to be involved on full or part-time basis with mobile sawmills and turnover of village workers in larger logging operations.

The wood processing industry on Vanuatu is not well developed. The sawmilling industry comprises three significant fixed site mills and several smaller mills plus around 80 portable sawmills that operate sporadically and produce relatively low quality timber. The fixed-site mills generally have some form of pressure treatment facilities. There is one plant producing low-grade veneer and a small furniture manufacturing industry producing for the domestic market. The Government of Vanuatu has intermittently operated a log export ban to assist in developing a domestic processing industry. A notable Vanuatuan forestry export is sandalwood. This has been Vanuatu's most famous forestry export for upwards of a century. Tonga and New Caledonia also have sandalwood although Tonga's is virtually non-existent.

References:

Brown, C. 1997. Regional study – the South Pacific. Asia-pacific Forestry Sector Outlook Study, Working Paper No. APFSOS/WP/01. FAO, Rome.

Vanuatu Department of Forests 2001. 2000 Annual report. Port Vila, VDoF: 23pp.

Products

The sawnwood (NC) figures added from 1991 to 1999 are considered reasonably accurate. Figures concerning other wood products from 1992 to 1998 are thought to be unreliable or the information is not available to be proofed.

1998 Trade Figures from FAO

		Import		Export		Production	Consumption
	Units	Quantity	$US (x1000)	Quantity	$US (x1000)	Quantity	Quantity
Sawnwood	Cum kg?	722	141	6317	3647	7000	1405
Sawnwood (C)	Cum	721	140	47	12	0	674
Sawnwood (NC)	Cum	1	1	6270	3635	7000	731
Wood-Based Panels	Cum	428	182	131	62	0	297
Veneer Sheets	Cum	3	1	131	62	0	-128
Plywood	Cum	322	143	0	0	0	322
Particle Board	Cum	42	13	0	0	0	42
Fibreboard	Cum	61	25	0	0	0	61
Paper+Paperboard	Mt	213	245	0	0	0	213
Newsprint	Mt	25	16	0	0	0	25
Printing+Writing Paper	Mt	72	97	0	0	0	72
Other Paper+Paperboard	Mt	116	132	0	0	0	116
Roundwood	Cum	23	2	349	58	63200	62874
Industrial Roundwood	Cum	23	2	349	58	39200	38874
Sawlogs+Veneer Logs	Cum	0	0	0	0	39200	39200
Wood Fuel	Cum	0	0	0	0	24000	24000
Recovered Paper	Mt	3	0	0	0	0	3

1999 Trade figures from Vanuatu Departments of Statistics and Forests

		Import		Export		Production	Consumption
	Units	Quantity	$US (x1000)	Quantity	$US (x1000)	Quantity	Quantity
Sawnwood	kg	159534	316	1079519 (12,219 m³)	271	13702m3	1663
Sawnwood (C)	Cum
Sawnwood (NC)	Cum
Wood-Based Panels	Cum	2100369	501	0	0		2100369
Veneer Sheets	Cum	12116	14	0	0	0	12116
Plywood	Cum	2006685	261	0	0	0	2006685
Particle Board	Cum	51631	63	0	0	0	51631
Fibreboard	Cum	29937	98	0	0	0	29937
Paper+Paperboard	Mt	485917	505	0	0	0	485917
Newsprint	Mt	16000	9	0	0	0	16000
Printing+Writing Paper	Mt	82535	426	0	0	0	82535
Other Paper+Paperboard	Mt	76351	697	0	0	0	76351
Roundwood	Cum	311000	82	243510	108	0	67490
Industrial Roundwood	Cum	0	0	0	0	0	0
Sawlogs+Veneer Logs	Cum	0	0	0	0	0	0
Wood Fuel	Cum	31	.053	0	0	0	31
Recovered Paper	Mt	0	0	0	0	0	0

Notes: Import and export figures have come from the Department of statistics and are base on customs records. These do not match with the production records that come from department of forest from sawmiller’s returns. Some figures are in cubic meters some in kilograms some round log some sawn timber. We have presented the Import Export in kg as this is how they are reported by Statistics Dept. Production figures held by DoF are in m³ round log but these have been converted to sawn timber by assuming a recovery rate of 30%.

Domestic consumption figures are not known and have been estimated by calculating from the remaining figures (Consumption = (production - export) + import.

Any advice and guidelines from FAO would be appreciated to help resolve these difficulties. E.g. comparison with export records from the country importing to Vanuatu (e.g. Fiji pine), or some standard estimates for timber consumption (e.g. 0.05 m³ per person (wild guess for example only!) to give a reality check to the numbers before final publication. If we can get some assistance on this from the workshop or through FAO later we can set up better procedures to record the numbers better in the future.

Fuelwood and wood energy

No information is formally recorded on fuelwood production and consumption. Wood is used mainly for cooking as there is little requirement for heating due to the tropical climate. There are few industrial uses for fuelwood although the second largest sawmill, Melcoffee Sawmills, uses sawdust and off-cuts to produce steam to run their kiln driers to reduce high costs of fossil fuels or electricity.

The 1999 Vanuatu National Census collected information on cooking fuel type used by households (Government of Vanuatu 2000). Results from this show that wood or coconut is still the main cooking fuel in 83% of the 36 415 households overall, with gas making up 15% and others the remaining 2%. These proportions have stayed the same since 1989. However it is important to note that the reports state that the percentage of houses in urban areas using wood has risen from 26% in 1989 to 43% in 1999. This is a reflection of the increase in families living in temporary houses (squatter settlements) in urban areas of Port Vila and Luganville. There is no formal charcoal production in Vanuatu and thus no exports. Imports of charcoal (if any) would be insignificantly small.

The South Pacific Regional study done for the FAO Asia-Pacific Forestry Outlook Study (Brown 1997) gives estimates for fuelwood production and consumption for Vanuatu to be between 73 500 and 207 000 tonnes in 1994 (see Table 21). Brown (1997) states: “the Melanesian and Polynesian countries' estimates are derived from the average fuelwood per capita reported for these countries in the FAO 1994 Yearbook (0.49 cubic metres), and also using the maximum per capita consumption (Papua New Guinea; 1.38 cubic metres)”. Data from Brown (1997) on fuelwood is given below for countries including Vanuatu.

Table 21: Scenarios for Fuelwood Removals (Cubic metres) – selected data from Brown (1997)

The figures given by Brown (1997) above are likely to be more realistic than the previous estimate by FAO of only 24 000 m³ for Vanuatu fuelwood consumption. However, as we have no hard information nor expertise in this area, we recommend that FAO consider these above and choose an appropriate amount based on knowledge of fuelwood consumption patterns elsewhere. Note that the population has increased to 186 000 people in 1999 and so Browns figure of 150 000 people needs to be revised and the fuelwood increased accordingly. Population growth rates have increased and fuelwood use is increasing in urban areas, contrary to some expectations. All these factors mean that it is likely that fuelwood will become an increasingly important issue for forests, especially around urban areas.

References:

Brown, C. 1997. Regional study – the South Pacific. Asia-pacific Forestry Sector Outlook Study, Working Paper No. APFSOS/WP/01. FAO, Rome.

Government of Vanuatu 2000. Vanuatu National Population and Housing Census, 1999, Main report. Port Vila, National Statistics Office: 231pp.

Species used for fuelwood

Virtually all Vanuatu tree species can be used for fuelwood (Wheatley 1993). However, some are clearly better than others. Most fuelwood is cut locally by rural people but there are increasing amounts being carted into the two main urban areas of Port Vila and Luganville.

Neil (1987) summarizes information on fuelwood trials in Vanuatu. Growth and survival data at 30-31 months are reported for 5 species (Acacia cincinnata, Albizia falcataria, Casuarina cunninghamiana, 2 provenances of Gmelina arborea and 6 provenances of Leucaena leucocephala) planted on a site at 120 m altitude at Efate, Vanuatu, in 1984. Albizia falcataria grew very much better than the other species tested (although it was considerably damaged by cyclone Uma in 1987), and produced appropriate sized fuelwood for use in a small-scale gasifier at 18 months old. Gmelina arborea performed next best but is considered less suitable as it is not a nitrogen fixer. Leucaena leucocephala performed quite poorly and was attacked by the psyllid Heteropsylla cubana in 1985, which caused severe defoliation and dieback.

Reference:

Neil, P. (1987). Fuelwood trials. Vanuatu Department of Forests: No. 2-87, 8 + iii pp.; 14. Source: CAB Abstracts

Non-wood forest products

Plants and plant products

Food

Wheatley’s (1992) Guide to the common trees of Vanuatu lists their traditional uses and ni-Vanuatu names. This guide contains much new information while also drawing on an earlier work (Gowers, S. Some common trees of the New Hebrides and their vernacular names. New Hebrides; Forest Section, Department of Agriculture, 1976) which it replaces. The guide is in 4 parts: I. Introduction - how to use the guide, and information on the Port Vila Herbarium, the flora of Vanuatu and its forest types; II. The field guide - an explanation of the format and botanical terms used, guide to use of the key, lists of families of trees and shrubs known from Vanuatu, island area codes and languages, a short account of distinctive features by which taxa may be identified, a field key to genera and species and (the main part of the guide) descriptions of families, genera and species; III. The ni-Vanuatu names - spelling, pronunciation, notes on the lists of names given, and lists of ni-Vanuatu names with their scientific equivalents; and IV. The use class and species check lists. Species descriptions give details of common, ni-Vanuatu and scientific names, habit, bark and twig characteristics, wood colour, botanical characteristics of leaves, flowers and fruits (and details of flowering and fruiting periods), dispersal method, habitat and ecology, distribution and uses. The use check lists categorize species by major use, and give codes for minor use/s and brief notes on use. The uses are: edible (any part); edible fruits (planted or wild); edible nuts (planted or wild); edible leaves (planted or wild); edible (other parts); any building construction use; ground posts for building; aerial parts for building; canoes and outriggers; weapons and utensils; rope, twine and cordage; fuelwood (ordinary or hot); live fence posts; ornamental and shade; custom (medicine, poison, carving etc., tamtams, drums, standing figures, flas (decorations), dyes and paints, scents, resins and glues, boundary markers); and commercial timber. Source: CAB abstracts.

Indigenous fruits and nuts

Walter et. al. (1995) present information on the fruit and nut trees of Vanuatu. They note that there are some 40 fruit and nut tree species grown in Vanuatu, a few of which are endemic and the rest of which were introduced by early settlers. Only seven species are traditionally cultivated: breadfruit, Barringtonia spp., Canarium spp., golden apple (Spondias cytherea [S. dulcis]), Polynesian chestnut (Inocarpus fagifer), Pometia pinnata and Syzygium malaccense. Fruit of wild species such as Dracontomelon vitiense and Terminalia catappa are eaten. A programme on the island's fruit and nut trees between April 1991 and December 1994 produced an inventory of the trees and their vernacular names, updated botanical descriptions, analysed fruit composition and conducted a socio-economic survey to identify which fruit could be processed and marketed. CIRAD established agronomic trials on Canarium and Barringtonia spp. in Vanuatu. Source: CAB Abstracts

Walter, Sam, et al. (1996) discuss the indigenous nut trees in Vanuatu with particular reference to their ethnobotany and variability. They note that Vanuatu has one of the largest gene pools of oceanic fruit and nut species: many have been grown and eaten since prehistoric times. Twenty-one nut tree species have been identified in Vanuatu, excluding palm trees, shrubs, lianas and breadfruit (which is used mainly for its pulp and only very occasionally for its nuts in Vanuatu). Many indigenous nut species in Vanuatu have a wide geographical distribution on all oceanic islands from Indo-Malesia towards the Marqueses. Some are known to have been introduced by aborigines into the central Pacific, and others have been distributed by sea currents. Among these widely distributed species are Adenanthera pavonina, Aleurites moluccana, Cordia subcordata, Neisosperma oppositifolia, Inocarpus fagifer [I. fagiferus] and Terminalia catappa. A few edible species, namely Barringtonia, Canarium and Finschia chloroxantha, have a narrower distribution and do not occur east of Vanuatu and Fiji. Only seven species in Vanuatu are commonly cultivated around villages or gardens, or are protected and tended. These are Barringtonia edulis, B. novae-hiberniae, B. procera, Canarium harveyi, C. indicum, Inocarpus fagifer and Terminalia catappa. They all play an important part in the diet and all show wide variability within and between species. This paper focuses on these seven species because they represent potential economic resources for Vanuatu. Besides these species, there are minor nuts that are occasionally eaten, mostly by children or in famine time. They may be tended by local communities for another use, such as cordage, basketry, rattles, house construction or light. This paper briefly reviews these minor species as well. From 1991 to 1994 ORSTOM (the French Institute of Scientific Research for Development in Cooperation) studied indigenous fruit and nuts in Vanuatu for the Vanuatu Department of Agriculture. Information collected will allow future development of the species and the simultaneous conservation of the environment. All the results presented here were collected during a two-year survey of 20 areas in Vanuatu. A list of vernacular names for practically all the kinds (morphotypes) of Barringtonia, Canarium, Inocarpus and Terminalia present in each area was established first with the local community, then trees were found. A total of 346 trees were tagged. The figures given do not represent the real genetic diversity or even the true numbers of botanical varieties. They give the number of morphotypes recognised in a given area by the local people. The names of the morphotypes in each area are either a real local name or a descriptive one (for example, green fruit, small fruit). Names tend to be consistent in an area for the most common morphotypes but not for the rarest ones. Source: CAB Abstracts

Tree nuts are an important land use in Vanuatu, which offer outstanding prospects for expansion. Recent economic analyses have indicated very positive returns from the three main indigenous nuts called nangai (Canarium spp.), navele (Barringtonia spp.) and natapoa (Terminalia catappa) (Anon, 1999). Small but growing commercial quantities of these nuts are now being collected in the outer islands and transported to Vila for sale in shops. There is huge export market potential but this has not been tapped due to small and irregular harvesting despite the substantial existing natural resource.

It is estimated 300,000 ha of forest land contained nangai trees at a density of 1 bearing tree per ha (Anon, 1999). These 300,000 trees were estimated to produce 15,000 tonnes nut in shell (NIS) or 2,250 kernel in testa (KIT) in a year. Commercially available nangai is expected to be considerably less than the estimated total resource.

References:

Anon. 1999. Land Use Profile: Tree nuts. Land Use Planning Project, Department of Lands, Vanuatu.

Walter, A., C. Sam, et al. 1996. Indigenous nut trees in Vanuatu: ethnobotany and variability. South Pacific indigenous nuts. Proceedings of a workshop 31 October-4 November 1994, Le Lagon Resort, Port Vila, Vanuatu.

Walter A, S. C., Mabonlala A. 1995. Fruit and nut trees of Vanuatu, ORSTOM-Actualites: 23-27; 8 pl.; 9 ref.

Wheatley, J. 1992. A guide to the common trees of Vanuatu with lists of their traditional uses & ni-Vanuatu names. Vanuatu Department of Forests.

Medicines

Common trees of Vanuatu (Wheately 1993) has a useful collection of uses of plants for traditional (kastom) uses, although it notes that many medicinal uses are kept secret and therefore not made widely available.

Perfumes & cosmetics

Sandalwood is an important forest product in Vanuatu and is used for many cosmetic and perfumery uses as well as carving. The main sandalwood species in Vanuatu is Santalum austrocaledonicum, which is found on the west coast of Santo and small areas on Malakula and the islands from Efate southwards. It is a parasitic tree and its most common host species appears to be Acacia spirorbis in many areas.

Exact resources are not known but control of exploitation is necessary. Neil (1986) noted that about 55 t of wood are exported annually, although this has varied widely. Natural regeneration is poor, probably mainly because of damage by feral animals. Investigations into artificial regeneration have met with varying degrees of success, and further work on regeneration is recommended.

Sandalwood represents a very important forest industry for Vanuatu, and in 2000 the amount paid to landowners for sandalwood (Vt 31,727,850) was only slightly less than that paid for all the logging royalties (Vt 33,067,593). Sandalwood is particularly important for small farmers in remote areas where little other income earning opportunities exist, such as on Erromango. In 2000 the DoF recorded over 1 000 separate purchase transactions averaging around 70 kg per sale. Some of these people would sell several lots but it indicates the large number of people involved at the grass-roots village level.

A highlight of 2000 was the setting up of the second sandalwood oil distillery in Vila by a new company that aims to increase production during 2000 and beyond. This has the potential to create jobs and to add more value to the product while still in Vanuatu.

Table 22 shows a summary of the 2000 sandalwood harvesting in Vanuatu. Licence fees earned the government Vt 4 million. Production was more than double 1999 with a total production in 2000 of over 73 tonnes.

Table 22: Sandalwood harvesting summary for 2000.

Island	Quantity harvested (Kg)	Royalty to landowners (Vt)	Government Management charge	Total value (Royalty + GoV charges)
Malakula	0	0	0	0
Santo	0	0	0	0
Erromango	57 638	2 540 250	1 729 140	27 269 390
Tanna	15 469	6 187 600	464 070	6 651 670
Grand total	73 107	31 727 850	2 193 210	33 921 060

Note: Figures presented as at 29/3/01 – but not all licensees had presented their returns, so this represents an underestimate of the actual amount harvested.

References:

Applegate G.B., Jiko L.R., Cherrier J.F., Daruhi G., Brennan P., Merlin M., Herisetijono, Suramihardja S., McKinnell F.H., 1993. Sandalwood in the Pacific region: proceedings of a symposium held on 2 June 1991 at the 17th Pacific Science Congress, Honolulu, Hawaii. 1993, 43 pp.; ACIAR Proceedings No. 49; many ref.

Bule, L. and G. Daruhi 1990. Status of Sandalwood resources in Vanuatu. Proceedings of the symposium on sandalwood in the Pacific, April 9-11, 1990; Honolulu, Hawaii. General Technical Report No. PSW-122. Berkeley, CA, USA; USDA Forest Service Pacific Southwest Research Station.

Neil, P. 1986. Sandalwood in Vanuatu. Vanuatu-Forest-Service: 7 pp.; 10 ref.

Tacconi, L. 1994. An economic analysis of sandalwood cultivation and trade in Vanuatu. Paper presented at the CIRAD/FAO Sandalwood Workshop, Noumea, CIRAD.

Tacconi, L. 1995. An economic analysis of sandalwood cultivation and trade in Vanuatu. Sandalwood seed, nursery and plantation technology. Proceedings of a regional workshop for Pacific island countries; August 1-11, 1994; Noumea, New Caledonia, UNDP/FAO South Pacific Forestry Development Programme, Suva, Fiji. RAS/92/361. Field Document No. 8. Pp. 235-257.

Vanuatu Department of Forests 2000. 1999 Annual report. Port Vila, VDoF: 21pp.

Vanuatu Department of Forests 2000. A strategy for conserving, managing and better utilizing the genetic resources of Santalum austrocaledonicum in Vanuatu. Canberra, CSIRO and Department of Forests: 30.

Utensils, handicrafts & construction materials

Wheatley (1993) lists many traditional uses for forest products (see description above).

References

Wheatley, J. 1992. A guide to the common trees of Vanuatu with lists of their traditional uses & ni-Vanuatu names. Sun Productions.

Appendix

Additional references

Government of Vanuatu. 1997. National Forest Policy. Vila, Vanuatu Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries: 42pp.

Incoll, W. D. 1994. Re-assessment of the sustainable yield for the forests of Vanuatu. Canberra, AIDAB.

Longworth, W. M. 1991. Tropical cyclones in Vanuatu: 1847-1991. Vila, Vanuatu Meteorological Service: 24.

Neil, P. E. and A. J. Barrance 1987. Cyclone damage in Vanuatu. Commonwealth Forestry Review 66(3):255-264.

Bellamy, J. A. 1993. Vanuatu Resource Information System (VANRIS) Handbook. Brisbane, CSIRO & Qld. Dept of Primary Industries.

Quantin, P. 1982. Agronomic Potential and Land Use Map. Paris, ORSTOM Editions.

Queensland Department of Primary Industries 1993. Forest resources of Vanuatu. Brisbane, Qld. Dept of Primary Industries.

Wheatley, J. 1992. A Guide to the Common Trees of Vanuatu. Vila, Sun Productions.

Groves, K. and J. Fingleton 1997. The potential for private sector investment in planted forests in Vanuatu. London, Jaako Poyry Consulting (UK) Ltd.: 80pp.

Population and trends

The Vanuatu National Population and Housing Census for 1999 (Government of Vanuatu, 2000) estimates the total population of Vanuatu to be 186 678 people. It is estimated to be growing fast at 2.6% per annum, which gives a doubling time of around 25 years. Almost 80% of the people lived in rural areas although there is an increasing drift to the two main urban areas of Luganville and the capital Port Vila. Urban growth rate was 4.2% but the rural growth rate was considerably lower at 2.2%. The crude birth rate is 33 per 1,000 people, which has declined from 37 in 1989. The 1999 fertility rate was 4.5, which is also down from 5.3 in 1989.

Trends in population growth over time

Year	Vanuatu’s population
1967	77,988
1979	111,251
1989	142,419
1999	186,678

The working age population was 97 642 people. Of these 76 370 (78% were "economically active". Of the economically active, 51 309 were subsistence farmers (i.e. about 66% of economically active people were subsistence farmers). The usually quoted figure is that 80% of ni-Vanuatu are subsistence farmers, which equates to the 80% living in rural areas.

References

Government of Vanuatu 2000. Vanuatu National Population and Housing Census, 1999, Main report. Port Vila, National Statistics Office: 231.

United Nations Development Program 1996. Sustainable development in Vanuatu. Suva, UNDP.

Attachments

1. Map of Vanuatu

2.

Key to VANRIS Resource Mapping Unit (RMU) 1:50,000 maps

3.

Map showing forest > 10m tall from VANRIS for main islands of Vanuatu

4.

VANRIS Vegetation and forest types (Tables from Bellamy, 1993)

Alpha Code	Code	Vegetation Type
Forests
Fme FmeAgCI FmeCI FmeCIAg FmKh Fmm Fmml Fmm2 Fmm3 Fmo Fmol Fmo2 Fmo3 FmoCI Fmoe Fms FmW Fl FlAs FlBa FlCe FICI FIM FIMW FlMx Fld Fle FlKh Flm Flme Flo Flo2 FloAs Fls Flsw	100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400 410 420 430 440 450 460 470	Midheight forest with emergents Midheight forest with Agathis-Calophyllum Midheight forest with Calophyllum Midheight forest with Calophyllum-Agathis Midheight forest with Kleinhovia hospita Midheight forest with small to medium crowns Midheight forest with small to medium crowns; dense remnants Midheight forest with small to medium crowns; medium-dense remnants Midheight forest with small to medium crowns; sparse remnants Midheight forest with an open canopy Midheight forest with an open canopy; dense remnants Midheight forest with an open canopy; medium-dense remnants Midheight forest with an open canopy; sparse remnants Midheight forest, open canopy, with Calophyllum; local Agathis Midheight forest, moderately open canopy, with emergents Midheight forest with small crowns Midheight forest with Metrosideros-Weinmannia Low forest Low forest with Acacia spirorbis Low forest with Barringtonia asiatica Low forest dominated by Casuarina equisetifolia Low forest with Calophyllum neo-ebudicum Low forest with Metrosideros Low forest with Metrosideros-Weinmannia Low forest of mixed species composition Low forest with a high proportion of deciduous trees Low forest with emergents Low forest with Kleinhovia hospita Low forest with medium crowns Low forest with medium crowns and emergents Low forest with an open canopy Low forest with an open canopy; medium dense remnants Low forest, open canopy, dominated by Acacia spirorbis Low forest with small crowns Low forest; swampy
Woodland
Was	500	Woodland dominated by Acacia spirorbis
Thickets
T TAg TAs TAsCe TB TBPI TCe TF TFCe	550 560 570 580 590 600 610 620 630		Thicket of unspecified composition Thicket with Agathis-Calophyllum Thicket dominated by Acacia spirorbis Thicket dominated by Acacia spirorbis and Casuarina equisetifolia Thicket dominated by Hibiscus tiliaceus Thicket containing Hibiscus tiliaceus and palms Thicket dominated by Casuarina equisetifolia Thicket dominated by tree ferns Thicket dominated by tree ferns and Casuarina equisetifolia
TFPI	640		Thicket dominated by tree ferns and palms
TL	650		Thicket dominated by Leucaena
TLAs	660		Thicket dominated by Leucaena and Acacia spirorbis
TLMx	670		Thicket dominated by Leucaena and mixed species
TMW	680		Thicket with Metrosideros-Weinmannia
TMP	690		Thicket with Metrosideros and Pandanus
TMx	700		Thicket of mixed species
TmxPI	710		Thicket of mixed species and palms
TPF	720		Thicket dominated by Pandanus and tree ferns
TP	730		Thicket dominated by Pandanus
TPg	740		Thicket dominated by Psidium guajava
TPICe			Thicket donated by palms and Casuarina equisetifolia
Scrub
S	800		Scrub of unspecified composition
SV	810		Low scrub of Vaccinium-Cyperaceae
Grassland
G	850		Grassland and/or herbaceous communities
Gt	860		Tall grassland
Swamp Communities
Sw	900		Swamp community complex
Swg	910		Herbaceous swamp
Sww	920		Woody swamp
SwMs	930		Sago swamp
Mangrove Communities
M	950		Mangrove communities
Other
N/A	999		Bare ground or man-made (see Land Use)

5. Appendix: Description of forest types from VANRIS Handbook. (Note: only forest types shown – other types excluded)

Code	Name	Description	Occurrence
Fme	Mid height forest emergents (Figs 6.1, 6.2, 6.3)	An even, moderately dense canopy with large-crowned emergent probably banyans (Ficus spp.). The main species recorded for the canopy are Dysoxylum confertiflorum, Myristica fatua, Syzygium sp., Buchanania cf.macrocarpa, Calophyllum neo-ebudicum, Hernandia moerenhoutiana, Elaeocarpus angustiflolius Syzygium nutans, Burckealla obovata Pterocarpus indicus, Terminalia catappa, Endospermum medullosum, Canarium indicum and Ficus spp.	From almost sea level to approximately 1000 m, generally over a wide range of land forms and rock types. On the drier western sides of islands, it is generally confined to the moister areas in the higher part of its range of altitude. It is found in the Banks group, and on Santo and Efate islands.
FmeAgCL	Mid height forest with Agathis-Calophyllum	An even moderately dense canopy with small to medium-crowned emergents – probably Agathis and Calophyllum. Recorded species for canopy include Agathis macrophylla, Calophyllum neo-ebudicum, C inophyllum Hernandia moerenhoutiana, H. peltata, Weinmannia denhamii, spp., Terminalia sepicana, Bischofia javanica, Dysoxylum amooroides, D gaudichaudianum, Burckella obovata, Planchonella linggensis, Dillenia biflora, Mangifera minor, Elattostachys falcata, Serianthes vitiensis, Metrosideros collina, Acacia spirorbis and Ficus spp.	Mainly on volcanic cones, hills and footslopes below 100m. A. Spirorbis is occasionally present on the drier sides of Erromango, Tanna and Aneityum islands.
FmeCI	Mid height forest with Calophyllum	Identical to FmeAgCI except that Agathis is not present.	On Erromango island
FmeCIAg	Mid height forest with Calophyllum-Agathis	Identical to FmeAgCI except that Agathis occurs in scattered stands.	On Erromango island
FmKh	Mid height forest with Kleinhovia hospita	A relatively even canopy without obvious emergents and characterized by a high proportion of Kleinhovia hospita and other semi-deciduous species. Canopy species recorded include a high proportion of Veitchia palms with Kleinhovia hospita, Castanospermum australe, Dracontomelon vitiense, Pterocarpus indicus, Pisonia umbellifera, Antiaris toxicaria, dysozylum amooroides, D.gillespianum, Garuga floribunda, Endospermum medullosum, Terminalia catappa, Dendrocnide latifolia, Inocarpus fagiferus, Adenantherra pavonina, Gyrocarpus americanus, Elattostachys falcata, Sterculia vitiense, Intsia bijuga and Pleiogynium timorense.	The drier western side of Malekula on recent alluvium, calcareous terraces and planteaux, and volcanic mountains and hills at altitudes below 300m.
Fmm	Midheight forest with small to medium-diameter crowns	More or less even closed canopy with occasional banyans emerging from it. Of the canopy trees Antiaris toxicaria and E. medullosum are the most common. Other species include Pisonia umbrellifera, Sterculia vitense, Dendrocnide latifolia, Bishofia javanica, Ficus spp., Terminalia catappa, Evodia bonwickki, H. moerenhoutiana. P. indicus and M. fatua	On a range of landforms and rock types on Efate in areas below 300 m with a wet climate.
Fmm1	Mid-height forest with small to medium-diameter crows; dense remnants	Similar to Fmm except that the canopy is even more open and irregular due to removal of trees for selective logging or clearing for agriculture.	As for Fmm
Fmm2	Mid-height forest with small to medium-diameter crowns; medium-dense remnants	Similar to Fmm1 except that the canopy is even more open and irregular.	As for Fmm
Fmm3	Mid-height forest with small to medium-diameter crowns; sparse remnants.	Similar to Fmm2 except that the canopy is represented by only occasional trees	As for Fmm
Fmo	Mid-height forest with an open canopy (fig.7.2)	The lower tree stratum is visible on the air photographs. Occasional banyans are present. Common canopy species include Antiaris toxicaria E. medullosum, Dendrocnide latifolia, B. obvata, Pometia pinnata, Ficus spp., Terminalia catappa, Evodia bonwickki, H. moerenhoutiana. P. indicus and M. fatua.	On a wide range of landforms and rock types throughout Vanuatu, but largely confined to lower slopes below 300m altitude. Although principally a forest of wet climates, it does occur on dry to intermediate climates, where soil moisture conditions are favourable. In these conditions, the proportion of deciduous and semi-deciduous species is significantly higher.
Fmo1	Mid-height forest with an open canopy; dense remnants (Fig.6.1).	Similar to Fmo but the canopy is more open as a result of selective logging or partial clearing for agriculture.	On Efate and Santo
Fmo2	Mid-height forest with an open canopy; medium-dense remnants	Similar to Fmo1 but it is more disturbed.	On Efate and Santo
Fmo3	Mid-height forest with an open canopy; sparse remnants.	Similar to Fmo1 except that disturbance is so severe that only vestiges of the original forest remain.	On Efate and Santo where logging or grazing operations are present.
FmoCI	Mid-height forest, open canopy, with Calophyllum; local Agathis.	Similar in canopy characteristics and species composition to Fmo forest except that it has a high proportion of Calophyllum neo-ebudicum in the canopy. Veitchia palms are also common.	On mountains and hills of calcareous and pyroclastic parent material on Efate, generally between 300 m and 1000m in altitude in areas with a wet climate.
Fmoe	Mid-height forest, moderately open canopy with emergents Figs 6.1, 7.1)	Similar to Fmo forest except that it has a significant number of emergent banyans. Canopy species recorded include Ficus spp., Dysoxylum amooroides, D. gillespieanus, Bischofia javanica, Elaeocarpus chelonimorphus, Myristica fatua, Pisonia umbellifer, Syzygium nutans, Burckella oborvata, elattostachys falcata, Macaranga dioica, Planchonella linggensis, Alphitonia zizyphodes and Veitchia palms	On Tanna on volcanic plateaux below 300 m in areas with either a wet or dry climate.
Fms	Mid-height forest with small crowns .	Relatively even canopy with occasional large-crowned emergent banyans. Canopy species recorded are D. amooroides, M .fatua, Garcinia vitensis, C. neo-ebudicum, D. latifolia, M. collinia, B. javanica, P .indicus, Ficus spp.	On mountains and hills of calcareous and pyroclastic parent material on Efate, generally between 300 m and 1000 m in altitude in areas with a wet climate.
FmW	Mid-height forest with Metrosideros-Weinmannia		On lower volcanic footslopes from 200 m to 300 m altitude in areas of south-east Tanna with a wet climate.
FI	Low forest	A canopy of small to medium crowned trees with occasional banyan emergents. The most commonly occurring species of the canopy are Kleinhovia hospita and Veitchia palms. Other recorded species include I. bijuga, P. indicus, C. australe, G. floribunda, G. americanus, D. latifolia, A. toxicaria, D. vitense, P. costata, P. pinnata, and A. spirorbis
FIAs	Low forest with Acacia spirorbis (Fig 6.3)	Structure and floristic composition similar to that of the FI forests. However A. spirorbis and Gyrocarpus americanus form a significant part of the canopy with other deciduous and semi-deciduous species.	Confined to dry area below 100m altitude on a wide range of landforms on Santo and Efate islands.
FIBa	Low forest with Barringtonia asiatica	A significant proportion of Barrintonia asiatica and B. edulis amongst the canopy trees. Other recorded species are Macaranga megacarpa, Syzygium nutans, Instia bijuga, Gyrocarpus americanus, Burckella obovata, Casuarina equisetifolia, Garuga floribunda, Diospyros samoensis, Bischofia javanica, Dysoxylum amooroides, Hernandia peltata and Pometia pinnata.	Confined to the coastal plan and low raised coral terraces in the perhumid climates of the Torres Islands.
FICe	Low forest dominated by Casuarina equisetifolia	Pioneer community, which may occur in three different environments in Vanuatu; on coastal plains and recent limestone terraces as a fringe community along the coast; as riverine pioneer (as in Santo); or as a pioneering community on recent volcanic plains. In all cases FlCe begins as a pure colonising stand. Over time, as site conditions change, other species invade the community and its character slowly changes.	On most islands of Vanuatu.
FICI	Low forest with Calophyllum neo-ebudicum	Similar in structure to the FI vegetation type but appears to be very poor in species. Canopy species recorded include Syzygium sp. Calophyllum neo-ebudicum, Antiaris toxicaria, Instia bijuga, Bischofia javanica, Planchonella linggensis, Dysoxylum amoorroides, Pisonia umbellifera and Acacia spirorbis. The paucity of species and the relatively common occurrence of secondary species point to a past history of cultivation.	On calcareous and volcanic planteaux and terraces and hill slopes below 300 m in area of south-east Erromango with an intermediate to wet climate.
FIM	Low forest with Metrosideros.	Similar structure to FI forests and probably a similar floristic composition to FmW forests with Metrosideros and Weinmannia commonly occurring in the canopy.	On Epi and Pentecost islands on calcareous plateaux and volcanic hills or plateaux with wet climates and generally between 300 m and 1000 m.
FIMW	Low forest with Metrosieros-Weinmannia	Similar to FIM forests.	In wet volcanic mountains on Erromango above 300 m.
FIMx	Low forest of mixed species composition	Similar to the FI forests and occasionally has a locally high proportion of secondary garden regrowth species. Canopy species recorded include Pterocarpus indicus, Bischofia javanica, Ficus spp, Elattostachys falcata, Pisonia umbellifera, Pometia pinnata, Artocarpus communis, Dendrocnide latifolia, Syzygium sp., Myristica fatua and Inocarpus fagiferus.	On limestone terraces and plateaux below 300 m in dry climates of both Erromango and Epi islands.
Fld	Low forest with a high proportion of deciduous trees	Very similar to Fl forests except for the presence of semi-deciduous trees in the canopy. The most common species is Kleinhovia hospita and Pterocarpus indicus but includes Veitchia palms on Malakula. Other recorded species include I. bijuga, P. indicus, C. australe, G. floribunda, G. americanus, D. latifolia, A. toxicaria, D. vitense, P. costata, P. pinnata, Macaranga dioica , D. amooroides and A. spirorbis. Associated species include A. spirorbis, Ficus spp., P. umbrellifera, B. javanica, P. pinnata. T. catappa & Syzygium spp.
Fle	Low forest with emergents	The emergents are mainly large crowed banyans. in other respects it is similar to Fl forests but with a higher proportion of deciduous and semi-deciduous species present in intermediate and drier climate zones.	On alluvium, calcareous plateaux & terraces& volcanic hills and mountains generally below 500 m altitude. The forest is found in dry, intermediate and wet climates of Malakula and Ambrym
Fis	Low forest with small crowns	A relatively even canopy with the main species most probably being Metrosideros collina, Weimannia denhamii, Gacinia vitensis, Syzygium spp., Astronidium sp and Lauraceae

6.

Appendix: Common and scientific names of commercial trees in Vanuatu.

Agathis macrophylla	Kauri, (Vanikoro kauri or Kauri pine)	Hernandia moerenhoutinana	Bluewood
Alphitonia zizyphoides	Huremi or waetwud	Instia bijuga	Natora (Kwila, merbau)
Antiaris toxicaria	Milktree or melektri	Myristica fatua & M. fatua var. papuana	Nandai, wild nutmeg
Bischofia javanica	Nakoka or Javanese cedar	Palaquium neo-ebudicum
Burckella obovata	Naduledule	Pometia pinnata	Nandao, (PNG taun)
Calophyllum neo-budicum	Tamanu	Pouteria costata
Castanospermum australe	Bean tree or back bean	Pterocarpus indicus	Bluewater, bluwota, New Guinea rosewood,
Dracontomelon vetiense	Nakatambol	Samanea saman	Raintree
Dysoxylum gaudichaudianum	Stinkwood or stingwood	Santalum austro-caledonicum	Sandalwood, santal
Elaeocarpus floridanus		Serianthes spp	White cedar
Endospermum medullosum	Whitewood (PNG basswood)	Syzygium malaccense	Nakavika
Garuga floribunda	Namalaus	Terminalia catappa	Natapoa, (Indian almond)

⁷ Source FAO Forest Products Yearbook 1993