When logistics and some background information has been collected. The inventory team can proceed with measuring the sub-plots on the sample site.
Conventions on how to measure plots, DBH, crown cover etc.
[Saket]
Almost half of the variables will be collected and described through interviews. There should be at least two persons dedicated to this activity. There are two main groups of people to interview: 1) The external key informants, and 2) the forest users (who are referred to as focus groups and individuals). There will always be some external key informants that can provide data, but it is important to note that when there are no local inhabitants many of the variables from the focus group (forest users) will not be collected. However, it is then possible for external key informant to provide information.This must then be noted on the data field form.
External key informants in the Global Forest Survey, are persons with particular knowledge about the forest, the people and the area. They are themselves not local forest users, but rather local foresters etc.
How to identify external key informants: In the process of planning for the fieldwork, local foresters, representatives from local development organizations and municipalities will have been contacted for logistics and planning. Some of these persons will have very useful background information and can be selected external key informants.
Interviewing external key informants can sometimes take place before going to the sample site itself. Often the key informants are acquainted in the planning process of accessing the area. The external key informants may also inform about existing and available data and literature.
Examples of external key informants: Local forest extension service, forest patrollers, NGO staff, municipality staff, etc.
This study defines focus groups as people that relate and use the forest on a frequent basis. They might live in or close to the site, be forest users or forest owners. Sometimes they might be interviewed in groups (focus groups) and sometimes individually.
How to identify focus groups: When arriving at the site, the main groups of forest users must be identified. This can be done by doing a RRA exercise on identifying key stakeholders (see below), and/or through discussions with the village representative, forest dwellers, and the external key informants.
Representation is complex, and this is important to be aware of when identifying forest users or stakeholders to interview. Many forest users share common characteristics, and for analytical purposes are categorized into a common group. However, wide variations in social and cultural factors (gender, age, wealth, status, religion etc.) often exist and should be taken into account. Therefore it is recommended to perform a stakeholder identification/analysis together with several local participants in order to identify the forest user-groups as well as possible. Many different forest stakeholders might be identified. For the global forest survey, an emphasis will be to interview individuals and groups that use forest products and services.
Examples of categories of focus groups: Women; men; long term residents (for historic changes); youth; forest owners; hunters; mushroom-pickers, people from other regions etc.
Forest stakeholders and users can be identified through informal discussion and interview or also through a visual exercise. Drawing a Venn Diagram is one way to do a stakeholder analysis and identification exercise and is explained below.
This exercise identifies and provides information about the different forest user groups that can be important to schedule and plan interviews with.
A. Gather a group of local people (i.e. those who live close to the site, women, men, maybe some key-informants too), and explain the purpose of the interview.
During this brainstorming session, the group can be encouraged to work with paper flip charts, or similar. List the users or groups of people, institutions who have an interest in the forest.
Ensure that you include external stakeholders (people not physically present, including logging companies, pharmaceutical companies etc.). Can large stakeholder groups be broken down into smaller groups? Are there certain groups with more dependency than others, more frequent users?
B. Ranking the individual groups, organizations and institutions:
Draw the sample site, for example, as a box at the centre of the paper sheet (or flipchart etc). Explain that each stakeholder group should now be drawn on the paper in relation to the forest. Each stakeholder group should be represented as a circle. The size of the circle represents the size of the interest to the forest:
- If they have a big stake- draw a big circle
- If they have a medium stake- draw a medium size circle
- If they have a small stake – draw a small size circle
Arrange the stakeholder circles in or around the sample site to indicate the linkage to the forest sample site. Discuss the rights of the different stakeholders to the forest products and what products and services they are interested in.
Box 2. Example of Venn diagramme
Interviewing is very important for the data collection, and it is not easy. Good interview techniques are achieved through experience, training and by following certain procedures. There is specific advice and tools developed suggesting how to approach people. The following section tries to advice as well as to foresee difficult situations.
• Preparations: Background information through literature review and secondary data increases knowledge of the area and people, and is important for interviewing.
• Plan which variables you need to know from the different key informants and focus groups etc.
• Building Rapport: A good working relationship with the local people is easier to establish when the interviewer is well prepared, shows respect, and also remembers that it is the fieldworkers who are there to learn from the forest users on how they are using and benefiting from their local forest.
• Scheduling interviews: Respect of people’s time can be demonstrated by trying to make appointments with informants and select a time and location where the interview is less likely to be disturbed. It is also important to be aware of when it is correct to an end interview. So called unscheduled interviews are also important. They may take the form as informal dialogue with people that are meet when walking in the forest, buying drinks in the local shop etc.
• Interpreter: Although by far the best is to be able to interview in the original language, there might be occasions where the use of an interpreter is necesarry. If using an interpreter it is important to use simple language, and ensure that there is a good mutual understanding about procedures and what information is needed to be obtained. It must be remember that the role of the interpreter is to interpret, not to interview. Asking the same question in different ways (a form for cross-checking) is a way to check that communication is working. Other hints suggested are: have the translator sit behind you, maintain eye-contact with the respondent, even though you do not understand what exactly is being said. Often mentioned as most important, is to take time. Make sure that you understand what was being said and what this means, and that the interpreter understands what you mean. Interviewing with translators is, of necessity even slower, more difficult and more sensitive process than if in original language.
• There are different opinions on taking notes and filling out field forms or questionnaires in front of the respondents. In semi-structured interviews many argue that one should never pull up an official-looking questionnaire form. And it is often recommended not to take note until rapport has been built (ask permission) as people are often reluctant to talk freely if notes are taken. If you take notes explain clearly for what use they are, and after an interview sum up what you have written. Doing visual exercises, such as RRA2 is a way where the noting or drawing is shared by all. Pre-noting some of the variables and topics to ask about in a small notebook as one gets familiar with the procedure is good practice and recommended.
• Rural women are often busy, and are often shy with strangers, regardless of whether the stranger is a man or a woman. Fieldworkers should be sensitive to the constraints facing women when undertaking interviews. Preferably a woman should interview the women respecting the female space.
• Avoid asking questions that are beyond the knowledge or experience of informants. Avoid giving opinions or using questions that may adversely affect the answers given. To be polite, local people will often agree with the opinions of field workers, even if they do not really agree or know.
• Modifications: Be prepared to modify the question or how you ask for information as new issues emerge and old issues become less critical. Issues should be explored as they arise in the conversation.
• Use open-ended questioning style that seeks explanations and opinions rather that yes-or-no-answers. Ask, for example, “where do you collect fuelwood?” Rather than, “do you cut fuel wood from the government forest?”(IUCN, 1998). To relate it to the sample site, follow up with “Do you also collect in this part of the forest” (pointing on a map at the sample site).
• Probing and the use of non-leading ‘helper questions’: Probing is an art that is learned through careful practise and means delving into a subject. Often topics are not easily comprehended at first; thus several questions around a sub-topic might be useful to ensure understanding (both yours and the participants’). Use such non-leading helper questions as: “Who?” “What?” “Where?” “When?” “Why?” “How?” “How many?” “How often?” And so forth. What are the implications, aims, intent, significance, or explanations of something? Ask yourself frequently – are you on the right track? (Messerschmidt, 1995). But it is also important to bear in mind that we do not need more information than the objectives have set out.
• Site or stand specific: It is important to always be clear about relating the question to the site or the stand. Geographic reference is possible. If people say that they collect fuelwood in the forest, but they are referring to the general forest or another part clearly outside the sample site, a follow up question can be: “Do you then also collect fuelwood in this [specific] area”? And at the same time show the area visually, describe it, etc.
• The persons being interviewed might feel a reason to hide information on some of their usual practices, or at least not talk openly about these issues, especially if he/she perceives the interviewer being a representative of organizations or authorities that are preoccupied with hunting endangered species, entering national parks for foraging fuelwood, etc. It is therefore crucial with an atmosphere of understanding between the interviewer and respondent. However, if they perceive you as already aware of these practices, you will be able to learn more about the extent of these practices than if they perceive you as unaware. One technique is just to assume that the practice exist and directly move to the question of the relative importance for their livelihood: “In the neighbouring village they explained us that they hunt almost every week, how often do you need to go to feed your family?/or how often do you hunt?” This type of question shows that you understand the reality in which they live. Whether you can use such a direct approach depends on the rapport you have established and needs careful consideration of the “mood” of the situation. In other circumstances a much more indirect approach is needed. The subject can be approached from different angles such as, for example, a conversation about foods and hunting practices of children. Often also, you might observe small things made of nwfp's while present in the community that may provide good starting points for a discussion on sensitive issues. Make use of these observations (AIDEnvironment, 1999).
• It is recommended adding a last question to the interview schedule which is, “Are there any questions that you would like to ask us?” This allows the interviewer to get information that might have been missed, puts the respondent(s) more at ease since the interview is not totally one-sided, and also provides a cross-check as to whether the respondent and interviewer understood what each was getting at. If the question is out of the blue, there is a good chance that the respondent did not really understand what the interview was about and the interviewer is unlikely to have elicited an accurate picture of the respondent’s behaviour or attitudes (Molnar, 1989).
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Box 3. Suggested Protocols for Rapid Assessment Interviewing Suggested Protocols for Rapid Assessment Interviewing (be flexible!) PREPARATIONS - Go over the topics and sub-topics and prepare ‘helper questions’ to be explored… - Each team member, who interviews, carries out the interview/visual tool following one’s own line of questioning and reasoning. RAPPORT - Be sensitive to time and place (season, work, activities, and customs)… - When entering a site engaging villagers, team member carefully establish rapport by keeping a low profile, begin with polite introductions, explain purpose of the visit and choice of interviewee… - In discussions, never promise any benefits or assurances - Conclude interviews politely, exit gracefully, and thank the people… INTERVIEWING - If several are interviewing, a facilitator (from the team) controls the interview process (be flexible and sensitive); signal start, fill gaps, know when to stop… - The order of interviewing (who starts, follows, and finishes) is pre-determined; members take notes during each other’s turns…. - Team members do not interrupt discussions or another’s questions… - Hold unanticipated questions that arise out of turn for later… - Intruders (drunks or trouble-makers) are politely diverted by a team member FIELD-BASED ANALYSIS - After each interview, the team should caucus (away from informants) to make fine notes; i.e. note down details easily lost if not recorded immediately, identify missing data (go back to informant), note modifications in style/format, before moving to next interview… - After each day’s sessions, team members debrief as a group, discuss findings, research style, problems, plan next day’s session; thus the initial analyses accomplished in timely fashion, on a regular basis… Source: Adapted from Na-Lampang/Messershchmidt 1995. |
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Below follows a suggested sequence of variables, and suggested ways of phrasing questions when interviewing. There has been an attempt to make the questions simple and clear, so that the respondent can easily understand it. However, it must be stressed that a lot of flexibility is needed and encouraged when addressing questions. Factors that must be taken into account relate to culture, the group and the language that is being used at the time of conducting the interviewing.
The data collection is envisioned to take place in several steps:
A. Firstly, there is data from external key informants that can be collected before going to the field. This is predominantly the tract (sample site) field form.
B. Secondly, the data collection in the field is bulked into three sections: A few variables from sample site (tract) to be explored and cross-checked by the focus groups. And secondly, variables exploring the use of forest products and services (utilities) by stands (land use units). And thirdly, the aspect of forest users (utility-user).
The data collection in the field can start during the introductory meeting with the local inhabitants or at the first meeting with identified focus groups (after stakeholder identification exercise).
In the appendix there has been prepared data field forms corresponding to the data model. Thus there is one field form for the tract, the stand, utilities and users (as well as plots etc.) The variables are explained in more detail with the options and definitions discussed in a separate section in the appendix. The variables are listed in alphabetical order.
The team leader must make sure that sufficient photocopies are done of the field forms. For each product that is identified as being used, several variables will be investigated related to the product. If different forest-user use the forest products and services differently this will also be recorded.
Below follows examples of questions formulated to address the variables. The questions are only suggestions and they are not pre-formatted. This has the advantage that questions can be asked in the order that is the most natural. It also means, that questions should not be repeated. Many of the variables on the tract field form can be explored beforehand and some can be answered by the team themselves after reviewing secondary data (i.e. on ecological zone etc.).
Tract.AdminUnit: Administrative unit
• What is the name of the administrative unit, the district, the municipality and the local name of the area?
Tract.Access: Distance to sample site
• What is the distance of the sample site to a road and other infrastructure?
Tract.TopographyEcol: Topography and ecological zone
• What is the ecological zone and topography?
Tract.Stratum: Type of stratum
• What is the type and size of the stratum used?
Tract.Population
• How many people live inside the sample site?
Tract.PopulationSince
• How long (from what year) have people lived here?
Tract.Livelihood trend
• How would you describe the livelihood source of the majority of the population in the area surrounding the sample site?
Tract. Populationdynamics
• (If there are people living in the surrounding area) - Have most people in the area been living here a long time, or have you seen a lot of changes during the last 10 years of people coming or going? If there has been changes, why?
Tract.PopInfluence: Population influence on the forest
• Would you say there is a change in people’s use and influence of forest resources today compared to 10 years ago, if so, why? (This question must be reassessed at the end of the datacollection)
Tract.LegalOwnership: Legal ownership of forestland
• Who is the legal owner of the land (forest) in the sample area? Is it public, is it private, if private do people have land titles?
Tract.Designation: Legal designation of forests
• What is the legal designation of the forest? Is it state forest, a community [communal] Forest, a village forest, National Park, etc.?
Reminder: The above variables should also be cross-checked by focus groups.
It should be noted that external key informants may also have an opinion on variables asked to the focus groups , such as: Most important forest products and services, - ecological problems, -rights and conflicts. Note the earliar mention that when there are no local population the information from the external key informant will be used more. However, even if focus groups are interviewed, one should cross-check with the external key informants.
Before looking at the specific variables and questions for this group, there will follow general explanations on methods on how to collect forest products and forest user data. The below mentioned exercises and tools will predominantly be used to collect data from the focus groups.
• Participatory analysis of maps or aerial photographs during introductory meeting that should reflect on who uses what, where etc.
• During the stakeholder identification analysis that might include the discussion on the use of forest products and services.
• Forest Products and Services exercise
• Ranking exercise
• A transect walk
During the introductory meeting, or later, with the focus group gathered, the participatory analysis of aerial photographs or topographic maps will be an important initial exercise. It will provide important information on both the variables and also logistics on how the field team can get to the tract themselves. Looking at aerial photos and maps will stimulate discussion with both external key informants and focus groups, as well as acting as a good icebreaker (pocket stereoscopes, magnifiers etc.). Aerial photos are known to be especially useful for recording spatial information (IUCN, 1998). This can include information that is not readily available such as local names and land use.
When looking together at the aerial photos or maps it is natural to start to discuss aspects of access to the sample site, land use of the area of the sample site and the surroundings. If various aerial photos from different times (years, seasons) are available it is possible to explore the changes occurred. It is also a chance to obtain information on landmarks, location and names, administrative boundaries, forest products and in what seasons they are available. If possible try to mark the site on the photo with a transparency overlay. By noting on the photo, or sketching another map on another piece of paper one can record the information that comes out of the group discussion. It is recommended that the sample site is marked on the photo.
Contrary to sketched maps, aerial photographs represent a true image (however interpretation may be biased) of an area at a point in time. When adding local information to this it provides very important data. This information can also be relatively easy to transform to a conventional map or produce a sketch map based on the photo.
Topographic maps are indispensable whether or not aerial photographs are available in order to discuss and relate the sample site to a bigger geographic area. Another exercise that opens for a lot of discussion and analysis is community mapping. In a community mapping exercise, the local people draw their community and surrounding. Often a facilitator might help to start off the work by drawing one reference point, a road, etc. But during the rest of the exercise the people should draw their own map with as little interference as possible. During the drawing exercise, there is a lot of time for discussions on ownership, what is harvested in different parts, etc. A drawback, however, for this study, is that the sample site which is where we are collecting the data from, might not be physically close to the area where people live. In a GFS context it will be important to focus the mapping exercise as much as possible to the sample site (tract) and to the variables related to it. What is possible to do is to locate the sample site on the community map, if this is possible in the scale that is made.
It is also important that the field team is prepared to give good answers to curious questions from people about the aerial photo, changes and discusses potentially environmental predictions etc.
Variables that can be raised during this exercise:
Examples of questions formulated to address the variable.
Tract. LandUseBefore: Land use class 10 years ago
• What was the land use of the land here [illustrate with map/aerial photograph] for ten years ago?
Tract.SettlemenHistory: Settlement history
• What are the main historic events that you remember from this area, such as for example, conflicts, change of land tenure, natural disasters etc.
Tract.EcolProblem: Ecological Problem
• What is the most important [ecological] problem in forest around in the area where you live? How does it affect the land? Have you seen any changes that are affecting your day to day life? Change in yield?
The land use units (stands) must be grouped according to type of forest because ultimately there will be a list of products from each different forest type (part 1). It is important to clarify with the users whether the different forest types means that they collect different products. The steps of the exercise are described below:
Step 1: Identify the products
1. Lists by forest type (if necessary).
“Where we are standing (if in the sample site) – or this area on the aerial photo/map (point) what are the forest products that your family [you/village] extract?”
“What do you use the product for?” “What is the local name”. Note down the use in a column, and if possible try to find out the specie name in the field also.
Example. In F1 (Forest) and F2 (Burned Forest) the following products are collected:
Tract ID |
Tract ID: | |
Stand ID: “F1” |
Stand ID: “F2” | |
Products and Services |
Products and Services | |
01- Timber |
01- Timber | |
02- Fuelwood |
02- Fuelwood | |
03- Food |
03- Food | |
04- Fodder |
04- Fodder | |
05- Medicines |
05- Medicines | |
06- Essential oils |
06- Essential oils |
3. Remember gender issues, and try to organize focus groups by groups of women and men separately. At least when discussing preference and importance.
4. Do not start going automatically down the forest products and services list (as in field data form). Let the focus group brainstorm on the products they extract and note this down on a flipchart or paper. If you feel that some are left out, you might ask some indirect questions, such as:
- “Are there any medicinal healers here? (If yes, does this means that they must be extracting medicinal plants etc.)”
“What do you normally cook with: firewood, electricity or gas?”
5. Discuss one product at a time, with all the different variables linked to the forest. It is recommended to visualize it with on a flipchart that is drawn while discussing (see illustration below). List the products and systematically work through one at a time with the different variables related to the products. You might want to draw the following type of chart:
Example:
Name Product |
Season extraction |
Demand/supply |
End user |
QuantityTrend |
LastExtraction |
Importance |
Mangoes |
May |
Need more for the market |
National market |
More before |
This week |
2 |
Bushmeat |
All year |
Its enough |
Home consumption |
More before |
Last month |
3 |
Fuelwood |
All year |
Need more for household |
Home consumption |
More before |
Today |
1 |
*The above is later decoded to numerical coding according to the options defined in the variables.
Note: If different types of forest have been identified- do different forest products belong to specific forest type?
Variables that can be explored during this exercise:
Examples of questions formulated to address the variable.
Utility.Type product: Type of product used
• What products are harvested from this part of the forest?
[Part of plant/use]
Utility.SeasonExtract: Season of extraction
• Which season and month is the product harvested?
Utility.FrequencyExtract: Harvesting- now and before
• Do you/ your family harvest as much of the product today as you did 10 years ago?
Utility.ReasonChangeExtract: Reason for change in frequency of extraction
• If there has been a change in the amount harvested, why?
Utility.DemandSupply: Demand and supply of product
• Do you need to harvest more of the product or is the quantity you harvest today sufficient for your needs?
Utility.SpecieSubstiut: Existence of specie substitution
• If this product seized to exist would you be able to substitute it with another product? If yes, what product?
Utility.EndUser: Marketing and end-user
• Do you sell this product- if yes, where to?
Utility.Technology: Technology used to extract the product
• How do you extract the product? Do you use any machinery or tools?
Utility.LastExtracted: Time of last exploitation
• When was the last time you extracted this product?
This tool provides an overview of local importance of forest products and services. In many projects this is the base for helping local people set priorities for forest management or other related activities.
The ranking exercise is a natural second step when undertaking interviews and having group discussions about the use of forest products and services. It is best not to include too many variables, as this may add confusion. If there are not so many forest products identified, or there seems to be very clear what people agree upon is most important, local people can be asked informally to rank items during interviews. There are different ways of doing ranking exercises. Pair-wise ranking is often simpler than ranking all items at once as it avoids the confusion that can sometimes arise from having too many items to rank at once (IUCN, 1995).
Ranking can produce inaccurate results if local people are not clear about the criteria and goal of the exercise. A common understanding must be ensured when formulating questions.
When all products have been listed, start a discussion about which product is considered most important. Be aware that the criteria for measurement might differ between groups: Is time important? Economic value? Can it be bought or substituted by another product? If disagreement exists, this should be noted because this is a finding in itself.
The products identified are listed as in the table below. The interviewer then works through each combination of pairs by asking the local person to nominate their preference. Each selection is written down in the space provided until the chart is complete (see completed table below). By adding the number of times each product is mentioned the interviewer can develop an idea of the most preferred species. However, the real value of the pair-wise ranking lies not in the absolute ranking but rather in the opportunity that arises for the field worker to ask questions about why the local person chose one species over another. Attributes of the product can be discussed, maybe a person prefers a species because, for example, it is easy to collect or it feeds the family. Eliciting this sort of information is often more important than the score itself as it provides insight into the nature of local preferences. It also provides a starting point for a matrix ranking exercise as shown below.
Example of pair-wise ranking. Top is blank table; bottom is a completed table.
Mangoes |
||||
Bushmeat |
||||
Fuelwood |
||||
Nuts |
||||
Mangoes |
bushmeat |
Fuelwood |
Nuts |
Mangoes |
||||
Bushmeat |
Mangoes |
|||
Fuelwood |
Fuelwood |
Fuelwood |
||
Nuts |
Mangoes |
Bushmeat |
fuelwood |
|
Mangoes |
Bushmeat |
fuelwood |
Nuts |
Rank: Mangoes: 2; bushmeat: 1; fuelwood: 3.
Using the pair-wise ranking exercise as an example, the field worker can develop a matrix table that lists products against local criteria used by local people to differentiate between species (see example below). Then the fieldworker can encourage people placing a series of marks or objects (for example pebbles). Many marks or pebbles indicate high value, and a lack of marks indicate “low” or “no” value. As the chart is filled in by local people, the fieldworker can promote discussion that elicits on the nature of choices; for example, which criteria are considered important for which species and why (IUCN, 1995).
Example of Matrix ranking.
Mangoes |
Bushmeat |
Fuelwood |
Nuts | |
We are dependent on it for cooking |
xxx |
|||
Provides good food |
xxx |
xx |
x | |
Important for medicine |
xx |
x |
* It is often a good idea to give people the same number of marks or pebbles that they will thoughtfully have to distribute.
Utility.Rank: Importance (preference ranking)
• Of all the products that have been identified, for your household/village/group, what is the most important product that is extracted from this forest?
Other variables related to the forest product and services:
Examples of questions formulated to address the variable.
UtilityUser.Usertype: User type
• Who are the persons that harvest or uses the product?
UtilityUser.Rights: Rights to the product
• Who has the right to harvest/use this product? Can one exclude others from harvesting it? If you can harvest it, are you also the owner? Are the harvesting rights by tradition or are they legal?
UtilityUser.Conflicts: Conflicts related to the product
• Related to the products that we have been discussing do you feel that there exists any disagreements, either locally or with externals, about harvesting or using this product?
This technique is important for interviewing. When doing any study, the researcher must be aware of bias. If a study is biased, it means that the results do not reflect the reality because one situation, or perspective was favoured. A study that fails to include the perspective of women may be gender biased. A study that fails to probe issues deeply may be subject to a bias of “politeness” if people tell only what they think the interviewer wants to hear. Triangulation also known as cross-checking is a way to ensure that the results of a study are as accurate and unbiased as possible.
Date and perceptions, for example may be explored using different methods, each exploration building a more comprehensive understanding of complex local realities. Similarly, by using a single method with several different groups (men, women, children etc.), the different perspectives surrounding a particular issue can be revealed. Trustworthiness of data is strengthened through community verification of the findings (IIED, 1997).
Triangulation means looking at any problem or issue from as many perspectives as possible, but at least three (Freudenberger, 1995).
1. Triangulation of the perspectives on the team by having at least three people with different points of view (women/men, social scientist/technical specialist, insiders/outsiders, youth/elders etc.).
2. Triangulation of the perspectives of informants by ensuring that a wide range of people are interviewed and all information is verified by at least three different sources (women/men, old/young, diverse ethnic groups, etc.).
3. Triangulation of information gathering methods by addressing the same issue using several different tools (historical interviews, spatial maps, seasonal calendars, etc.). Does the direct observation or mapping exercise coincide with what people inform later during the fieldwork?
It is necessary to keep good records on where information came from and whether the interviewer is confident on its accuracy. Cross-checking can be a time-consuming process and requires patience.
Direct observation might seem obvious, but it is nevertheless very important. The field team must be attentive and observe the sample site and surroundings noting the general land-use, facilities such as shops, schools and markets as well as housing and infrastructure. Observing these traits may clarify discrepancies and information gaps that occur during data collection. Additional questions can be asked to address these information gaps. Often misunderstandings and contradicting information can occur if local people have not completely understood what was being asked. This usually happens because the questions were poorly phrased, too complex, or too general from the outset. The understanding of concepts may also be unclear across languages and culture.
Direct observation can increase the accuracy and reliability of information and also reduce the number of questions that need to be asked of local people. For example, there is no need to ask whether people use wood to build houses if all the houses that can be observed are built of wood.
If the conditions and circumstances permit organizing such a walk, this is highly recommendable. A transect walk can be defined as a walk designed to follow a specific route, often along a contour line of different elevations and different ecological zones etc. If a map is a bird’s eye view of an area, a transect cuts across the same territory in order to get an idea of the diverse micro-ecological zones found in the landscape. In the GFS context, it is useful to go to the centre of the sample site (tract), or sometimes better, to a high point in the tract from which there is a good view. It is often possible to see boundary markers, different land use practices etc. Both members of the field-team as well as local forest users participate (and also key-informants if needed). Being able to discuss the forest and the forest products at the sample site with the forest users helps to tie the data-collection to the site.
Examples of directing questions:
- How do local people divide the area in different micro-ecological zones/types of forest etc.
- Are the different land uses in different micro-ecological zones?
- As the different land uses are crossed, questions should be asked to get a sense of what kind of tenure arrangements exist. Is the land owned? Borrowed? Subject of conflict? Is it farmed by women? Men? Outsiders?
- Are the some areas that are more in demand than others? How is this land allocated?
- What is the significance of any fences or boundaries that are observed? Are there more in some areas than another? Why? (Fences are often indicators that there is a competition for land or competing uses such as grazing and cultivation).
- “What was the use of the land here ten years ago?”
- “Where we are standing now, what are the forest products that you/your family extract?”
- “That fruit we see over there- does anyone harvest that? Who? – Do you eat that? Etc”.
- Uses of various trees should be investigated. Who is allowed to use the trees and for what purpose? Are the rules the same for all tree species? Do they vary depending on where the tree is located?
- Is the group passing through any land that is borrowed? If so it is useful to begin to find out about borrowing practices?
- Is the group crossing through any communally owned areas? If so, it is an opportunity to begin to find out how they are managed.
One of the advantages of doing a transect is that often people are more willing to address sensitive issues such as land ownership patterns or conflicts, when they are away from the community. If a question is related to the things being observed, it can seem less intrusive than if the same question is asked in a more formal interview situation (Freudenberger, 1995).
In addition, a transect walk will give the inventory-team a chance to show what they are doing, and also a chance to clarify queries after observations from the field measurements. If it is not possible to carry out transect walk with forest users, using maps and aerial photos are even more important.
2 For this study, the participatory techniques are referred to as Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) as it involves field workers learning from local people according to the field workers’ agenda (IUCN, 1998). RRA uses a variety of tools and techniques to gather information. All its tools are designed to promote the participation of local people in both the collection and the analysis of the information. The tools approach facilitates questioning from different angles. Some are particularly helpful in addressing spatial issues, some gather more temporal information, and others help local people to analyse their situation by ranking issues or problems (Freudenberger, K, 1995).
