Poverty and environmental degradation are two related concerns affecting the lives of the poor people in Bangladesh both in urban and rural areas. And the Bangladeshi economy being primarily agriculture, most of the rural poor eke out their meager incomes and livelihoods from agricultural activities such as farming, fishing, gathering wood and other forest products.
Over the last two decades, the government has been consistently following only one major thrust: Increased food production towards self-sufficiency. As one NGO leader observes, "All the Five Plans drawn up since 1973 have one major theme: Increase in food production, thereby achieving self-sufficiency in food - an obvious concern of an over populated and food deficit country - by adopting the modern technology of agriculture. However, not until recently, have environmental concern associated with the use of modern technology in agriculture received any serious considerations."
"Analysis of the agricultural policies reflected in the plan indicates that they were formulated from the viewpoint of aggregate production. In reality, however, the utility of any agricultural policy aimed at sustainable agricultural development must be judged not only by its aggregate production efforts, but also by the impact it has on the different rural socio-economic classes, especially the vast majority of small farmers and agricultural labourers struggling at the edge of subsistence. Numerous micro studies have found with a reasonable degree that a large farmers have appropriated a much larger share of all the ingredients of modern technology -- fertilizers, irrigation and most of all, credit".
Bangladesh, as one of the poorest countries in the world, is heavily dependent on grants and aidreceived from foreign bilateral and multilateral donors. Donors' interests vary from privatization of input delivery system, crop diversification, agricultural pricing policy and its distributive implications, agrarian reform and others. Also, it is from commodity aid that most of the agricultural inputs are imported.
Today, there are two agricultural methods or practices in Bangladesh. The first is widely called Chemical Agriculture promoting high yielding variety (HYV) with the use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides and other agricultural inputs while the second, is still under the experimental stage but slowly gaining wide acceptance called Sustainable Agriculture, combining modern science with the indigenous knowledge of the people through organic agriculture and adopting an integrated farming system for pest control that is pro-people and environment-friendly.
The former method otherwise known as the "Green Revolution Strategy" came into Bangladesh as a package deal consisting of high yielding seeds, chemical fertilizers, different types of pesticides, mechanized plow and irrigation. And because the term "HYV" spells a "miracle" boom of production, the government conducted a massive campaign promoting the HYV technology among the farmers, believing that this could be the cure that would address food insufficiency in Bangladesh.
As a consequence, the farmers of Bangladesh have been using fertilizers extensively. Comparing figures from the Statistical Pocket Book of Bangladesh 1981 and the Statistical Yearbook of 1990, the agriculture crop area in the country (1972-73) 29,039,000 acres has grown into 34,883,000 acres in 1986-87 - a 20% increase in crop area over a period of 15 years. Yet, during the same period also, the use of fertilizers had dramatically increased by 334%.
Furthermore, these statistics matched with the experiences shared by the farmers themselves during the actual interview on the farmers using chemical fertilizers.
Mr. Kashem of Manikgonj district shared his experience that "For the first two years, the chemical fertilizer increased their production. But then, it stabilized and now started to fall. Yet, peasants are applying more and more fertilizers in the hope of rising production."
According to Mr. Sattan, another peasant from Comilla, the intensive use of fertilizers did not substantially raise their rice production but rather, made their soil hard and less capable to hold water. So what they did in their locality was to use manure along with chemical fertilizers. They tried to mix cow dung and rotten hyacinths which, based on their own observations, improved the quality of their soil.
Another 72 year-old peasant, Mr. Rahim, narrated that the use of HYV's have made them victims of a vicious cycle of fertilizers because in order to maintain production level, they applied more fertilizers which made their plants greener and softer, and thereby prone to attract more insects than the non- chemical fertilizers. Hence, he concluded that, the farmers became more and more dependent on using different types of fertilizers to combat harmful insects.
Consequently, these farmers' experiences have taught two important things, to wit: (1) the use of chemical fertilizer is not sustainable because it has negative effects on the people and environment; and (2) the traditional indigenous knowledge of the farmers enable them to adopt alternative ways of agricultural farming to solve their problems encountered in using chemical fertilizers. And in the process, they have slowly learned to combine modern technology and their traditional knowledge to make their land productive. Thus, these farmers' experiences became the basis for the birth of the new concept of agricultural development called Sustainable Agriculture.
Sustainable agriculture is defined as "an economically agricultural system whereby community people optimize the use of resources using traditional and modern science for their own food security and enhance quality of life for present and future generations."
To date, one of the NGOs promoting sustainable agriculture supporting the farmers' efforts to increase their agricultural productivity with minimal use of fertilizers, is the Proshika Manabik Unayan Kendra (PMUK), founded in 1976, which has started building a demonstration plot at its center in Koitta and similar experimental plots in Bogra, Manikgonj, Kishoregonj, Joydevpur, Madavipur including Tangail district.
The comparative experiments of Proshika have been shown that organic farming can increase land production capacity similar to, if not more than, use of modern agricultural inputs and chemicals Based on this comparative study, Proshika is now promoting ecological agriculture and organic farming among farmers and advocating the promotion of sustainable agriculture policies to the government of Bangladesh. They are also introducing the multi-cropping pattern of mulberry trees, potatoes, vegetables and spices in rural areas (Proshika: 1990:16)
* This case study was taken from "Sowing the Seeds for Our Future: Report of the Second Asian Development Forum. "Sustainable Agriculture Towards Food Security and Enhanced Quality of Life." Published by ANGOC. - Manila, Phils.
Proshika Manobik Unnayam Kendra (Proshika) is a non-government organization (NGO) in Bangladesh. Since 1976, it has been organizing the rural poor through education and training and by providing various other support services such as credit extension. In 1989 a similar process was initiated by Proshika in the urban areas.
Proshika's work priorities are grouped into themes which reflect a number of rural and urban development concerns. These are:
1) organization of the rural poor
2) development and education
3) employment and income generating activities
4) rural health infrastructure
5) social forestry
6) ecological agriculture
7) urban poor development and,
8) disaster management.
The Ecological Agriculture Programme was started in a modest way in 1978 concentrating on vegetable growing. From 1990-91, experiments on rice production were conducted.
Using organic fertilizers and a natural control mechanism, Proshika's experiments in "ecological agriculture" were designed to show that "organic" farming is capable of producing rice yields comparable with those chemical farming, prevents disease and pest infestation and enhances the soil's natural productivity.
Field experiments were conducted in selected "irrigation command areas" covering the different regions in the country. These were Brahmanbaria, Kalkini, Bhairab, Kuliarchar, Dhamrai, Doulatpur, Ghior, Gabtoli, Shibganj and Nagorpur. In each of these areas, demonstration plots for ecological agriculture and conventional, chemical agriculture were set side by side. In all, there were 92 demonstration plots for ecological agriculture. Selected rice varieties - many of which were of the high yielding type - were planted in the demonstration plots. The chemical agriculture was tended in a conventional way, that is, with the use of chemical inputs. On the "ecological agriculture" plots, meanwhile, experimental land preparations and agronomic techniques were utilized, and therein lay the difference.
Although the experimental procedure of planting rice somewhat varied from area to area, the following are the steps undertaken for the ecological agriculture plots:
1. In most cases, the plots had been left fallow prior to the experiment.
2. The plots were plowed from four to six times - in what is called "optimum plowing - before irrigating them.
3. A "basal dosage" composed variously of decomposed potato leaves and water hyacinth, cow dung, oil cake and poultry droppings were mixed thoroughly with the soil during plowing
4. The plots were irrigated. They were then plowed a second time to make the soil muddy (a desired quality) and to mix the compost thoroughly with the soil.
5. Irrigation water in the plots was kept at a certain depth (usually 1") while the seedlings were transplanted. They were then maintained at depths which rang between 11/2" to 21/2 at the vegetative to the "milky" stage of the crops growth. This technique is called "optimum irrigation".
6. A "top dressing" made up of cow dung (in dustform), oil cake and poultry droppings was applied on the plots.
7. No "quick" composting nor green manuring was done. At times, however, azola was used to improve the soil's nitrogen regeneration capacity.
8. Disease and pest infestation were hardly recorded in the plots. However, a number of techniques to control the pests were used when necessary:
simultaneous drying and "moisturing plots
application of a mixture of ash and neem powder
Use of light traps
Proshika's Ecological Agriculture Programme revealed that the "ecological agriculture" plots required a significantly lower investment per acre while producing yields comparable to those of "chemical agriculture" plots.
Learnings and Insights
1. The government's agricultural policy promoting the use of chemical agriculture and HYV technology to address the country's food insufficiency has been proven to be ineffective by the NGOs and RPOs based on their comparative research and actual field experiments. Also, it is a well established fact that chemical-based agriculture has negative effects on the people's health and their environment.
2. An alternative way of doing agricultural development combining modern technology and the indigenous knowledge and practices of the people has been found to be very effective in increasing farmers' productivity. This has been called Sustainable Agriculture which utilizes organic farming and integrated pest management systems.
3. Consequently, the government must review its present agricultural policies based on these research findings. These experiments and other similar NGO/RPO field experiences could form one concrete basis and topic for building GO-NGO/RPO dialogue and collaboration.
4. The government must closely collaborate with NGOs like Proshika and other NGOs which have direct knowledge on organic farming and other forms of sustainable agriculture (e.g. regenerative agriculture, etc.). The government must recognize the indigenous knowledge of the people and therefore, consult them in programs and projects related to the promotion of sustainable agriculture and rural development.
Historically, Bangladesh has been acclaimed as the "Land of Gold" due to its affluence and the richness of its land. Its natural resources are managed by the local communities themselves through their local representatives from all classes, called "panchayats", the local village council composed of 50-100 elders. During that time, the people directly exercised control over production and resources, and played vital roles in running the economy that was primarily agriculture in nature. The village people did not own the land they tilled nor exercised the right to transfer or sell the lands on will, due to their strong religious belief that their lands and other resources solely belonged to God. So much so that, everyone had enjoyed the right to the fruits of their labors. Under this traditional communal system, life was abundant and food was sufficient.
But this traditional village underwent significant changes during the Muslim Rule and British Colonialization, resulting in the creation of new landlords - the "zamindars" by virtue of the proclamation of the Permanent Act of 1793 by the British Government. This had far reaching implications because the peasants who had traditionally enjoyed their hereditary rights over land and resources suddenly became landless and servants under the control of the new ruling class. Many of the peasants changed their traditional trades and took on different professions thus, resulting in the total disintegration of a once united communal village committee which lost its legitimate and hereditary rights to control and manage community-based natural resources.
As a consequence, landownership patterns became the new basis for determining social status, power and prestige in Bangladesh. With the control and management of these community- based natural resources on the hands of a few, the vast majority became landless and powerless.
The colonial rule of Bangladesh may be over, but the hierarchical agrarian relations based on ownership and capital remains. The skewed landownership patterns are evident from the 1984-85 Agriculture Census Report - 70% of rural household own only 20% of land while 30% of the population own 71% of the land.
Today, rural Bangladesh that was once fabled as the "Land of Gold" has been, ironically, turned into a land of misery with a clear picture of abject poverty: people dying of cold and hunger in the midst of agony and despair; unemployed and landless, yet, managing to survive at the barest minimum levels of subsistence.
It is in this context that the NGOs/RPOs took the initiative to assist government organizations in the implementation of agrarian reform in Bangladesh. In 1987, a Coordination Council for Land Reform was formally set-up under the Land Ministry Department. The government agreed to include an NGO representative, nominated by the NGO Coordination Council located both at the district and upazilla levels.
The NGOs made significant contributions in the areas of organizing the landless farmers, and of providing education and training to increase farmers' knowledge and skills to enable farmers to actively participate in the programs of the government. NGOs also provided some technical skills to increase the farmers' productivity. But more specifically, the areas where the NGOs contributed greatly to the government's land reform program were as follows:
identifying government land
identifying landless farmer beneficiaries
preparing basic policy documents
publicity campaigns
holding divisional and regional conferences with NGO fieldworkers, landless group leaders and the government officials
training of the landless men and women who received government land.
The NGOs and RPOs strongly believed that through the implementation of agrarian reform program, they would be able to ameliorate the hardships of the people. According to the government, a total of 16,843 acres of land have been distribute to benefit some 167,867 landless which include the landless organized by the NGOs.
Unfortunately, the agrarian reform program gradually lost its momentum due to the lack of political will and the wavering commitment of the decision-makers of the government
** This case study was excerpt from the works of Dr. Khaja Shamsul Huda entitled: Community-Based Natural Resource Management dated June 1992. As his reference, the author referred to the works of Lanin Azad and G.SA.M. Shamsuzzoha entitled: Uprising of the Poor in Sathia, Pabna: Samata, 1991.
Samata Samaj Samity emerged as a local NGO of local youths and social workers. The work of Samata started in Sathia upazilla in Pabha district, located about 100 kms away from the capital city of Dhaka. Samata directed its activities to the organization of the landless poor, building social consciousness through a continuous process of education, and the promotion of social actions directed toward internal resource mobilization and income generation. Samata has organized about 300 male and 200 female groups with a total membership of 20,000 landless men and women.
The organized groups of the landless, with the active support and cooperation from Samata, took lease of 221 acres of land from the government located in the Ghugudahaw beel. But they faced stiff resistance in gaining actual control of the land from the powerful landed elites who were illegally occupying the land for a long time. The organizations of the landless then began to organize protest rallies against the illegal occupation by the elites and sought government support to oust them from the land. However, they received little support from the government for these local elites had the patronage of the ruling party and hence, the administration was reluctant to take any action against them. Finally, the landless decided to take possession of the land by force through organized actions. The actions led to a bloody conflict but the landless eventually won and took possession of their land. Women's groups also participated in the fight.
The groups held possession of the land for two years while intermittently fighting with the elites. Later, the groups were forced to give up a significant proportion of the land after the elites succeeded in having 400 of Samata workers and landless group leaders arrested. The police arrested both the landless families and their supporters. Thus, they were all forced to leave their villages.
Out of the fifty-six (56) cases filed, fifty-five (55) were proven to be false. In one case due to the direct influence of the then Minister Mr. Manjoor Qader, four staff members of Samata, including the Director and two landless group leaders, were sentenced to imprisonment. Samata lost its leadership and thus, lost its strength. Today, its leaders are still in jail but the organizations of the landless are struggling desperately to survive and to keep Samata afloat.
Learnings and Insights
1. Because land itself is a major basis for determining social status, power and prestige in Bangladesh, control of and access to land and natural resources will always likely be confrontational between the landless farmers and the local elites and the government.
2. NGOs/RPOs see their roles not just as providers or implementors of the programs, but as countervailing civil society institutions for basic structural change. Thus, while equity-related issues such as land reform may be a sensitive topic, it must form part of GO-NGO/RPO dialogue and collaboration
3. Unless the government exercises its strong political will to implement genuine agrarian reform and equity-directed rural development programs, poverty and social injustice will continue prevail in the rural areas.
