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3.5 Country paper: Gambia

TROPICAL SECONDARY FOREST MANAGEMENT IN AFRICA:

Reality and perspectives
Gambia Country Paper
Written by
Jato S. Sillah
Director of Forestry
Department of Forestry
State Department for Fisheries, Natural Resources and the Environment
5, Maumar Al Ghadaffi Avenue
P. O. Box 504, Banjul
Gambia

FOR THE
FAO/ECLNV/GTZ

WORKSHOP ON TROPICAL SECONDARY FOREST MANAGEMENT IN AFRICA:

Reality and perspectives
In collaboration with ICRAF and CIFOR
Nairobi, Kenya, 9-13 December 2002

SUMMARY

About one hundred years ago most of the Gambian land territory was still covered by dense and almost impenetrable forests. At that time the forests were rich in wildlife, as they constituted the habitat for a variety of large mammals which are nowadays rare (such as hippopotamus, waterbuck, roan, serval, caracal, etc.) or locally extinct (such as buffalo, giraffe, elephant, lion, etc.).

With increasing population, the equilibrium between human and nature became disturbed and a vicious cycle of forest destruction was initiated. The main causes of this cycle are rampant fires which systematically burn most of the vegetation cover in combination with other human activities such as over-exploitation of wood for fuel, fencing and construction purposes, indiscriminate felling of trees for farming and over-grazing of forest resources.

Forest degradation processes are ongoing. They steadily reduce the biological and economic productivity of the Gambian forest ecosystems as well as that of the surrounding croplands and would eventually result in irreversible losses of land productivity if they cannot be stopped and reversed. Likewise, the main cause of wildlife/biodiversity loss is habitat destruction. Poaching/illegal hunting is also a contributing factor.

During the past decades, forest management in the Gambia was characterised by extensive state involvement, which started with the state owned Forest Park concepts in the 1950s. Government ownership of all naturally grown trees became statutory law with the enactment of the forest legislation in 1977 and the Forestry Department (FD) was entrusted with the overall management responsibility. However, the FD was unable to accomplish the task due to the tense relationship with the population and also because of lack of human and material resources. In the late 1980s when more knowledge and experience were gained in natural forest management, it became clear that the government would never be in the position to protect and manage the country's forest resources without the assistance and support of forest adjacent communities. This was the time when a community forestry pilot scheme was launched.

Based on the experience gained in the testing of state and community forest management models, the Gambian Forest Management Concept (GFMC) was developed, a national forestry action plan was elaborated, forest policy and legislation were reviewed, and the organisational set-up of the FD was restructured.

Government budgetary allocations are insufficient to effectively and properly manage the forests and protected areas and thus to stop and eventually reverse forest degradation and habitat destruction. While most of the political and legislative framework conditions and implementation strategies are in place, funds are particularly needed to strengthen the capacity of the department and for initial development investments such as survey and demarcation of community forests and protected areas, establishment of necessary physical infrastructures, and sensitising and strengthening the capacity of local communities.

1. INTRODUCTION

Gambia is a sub-tropical country in West Africa with a total land area of approximately 10 689 km2, a population of about 1.280 million people and a population growth rate of 4.2 per cent per annum. It is a small country and surrounded by Senegal on all sides except on the west where it borders the Atlantic Ocean.

The climate of the Gambia is a Sudano-Sahelian type characterised by a short rainy season (June to October) and a long dry season (November to May). The average annual rainfall is about 900 mm. Although there are indications of a reversal of the trend, there has been an average reduction of 27 per cent in the annual average rainfall since 1951. The mean temperature is 25oC.

About a century ago most of the Gambian land territory was covered by dense and almost impenetrable forest. At that time the forests were likewise rich in wildlife as they constituted the habitat for a variety of large mammals which are nowadays rare (such as hippopotamus, waterbuck, roan, serval, caracal, etc) or locally extinct (such as buffalo, giraffe, elephant, lion, etc.).

With the increasing population, the equilibrium between human and nature became disturbed and a vicious cycle of forest destruction was initiated. The main causes of this cycle are rampant fires, which systematically burn most of the vegetation cover and other human activities, in particular the practice of shifting cultivation and commercial fuelwood exploitation.

The process of forest deterioration was probably accelerated by the decline of the mean annual rainfall since early 70s. In the Gambia, like all other countries in sub-Saharan Africa, rainfall is the second most important factor apart from human influence determining the chance of successful forest management. In years with exceptionally low rainfall, as was the case in 1990/91 and before that in 1982/83, an increased dying of both indigenous and introduced tree species of various ages occurred.

Secondary savanna in general is characterised by a reduced diversity and a dominance of mainly fire-adapted vegetation. Their increase is a direct result of frequent fires that do not allow the restoration of the former vegetation cover. Other effects and impacts of forest degradation include:

2. SOCIO-ECONOMIC, FORESTRY AND LAND USE

With a Gross National Product of about US$37.5 million, the Gambia ranks among the least developed countries. The economy is characterised by its small size, relatively narrow economic base, and low level of literacy and overall skills. Re-distributive trade, agriculture and tourism build the main sectors of the economy. Other areas of the Gambian economy that have been expanding rapidly over the past years are the construction and telecommunication sectors. Trade and re-export are strongly influenced by Trans-boundary interactions with Senegal and other sub-regional trade relations.

Agriculture and livestock production accounts for around 30 per cent of GDP and employ around 70 per cent of the labour force. Horticultural production has steadily increased during recent years and already contributes to GDP at the same rate as the livestock sector (about 5 per cent).

Tourism is an important industry in the Gambia. Between 1965 and 1998 the number of tourists visiting The Gambia has increased from 27,000 to 96,000 but declined recently and is now on the increase again, since the introduction of roots coming (What kind of festival is this?) festival and the augmentation of Eco-tourism.

Attempts to improve the rather marginalized fisheries and forestry sectors round up the current situation. The contribution of forestry to the GDP was estimated at about 0.8 per cent. This figure in reality ignores the sector's contribution to the socio-economic and cultural values, and the environmental and biological benefits.

The Gambian socio-demographic dynamics combine one of the highest fertility and population growth rates (4.2 per cent annual growth) in the region with a moderate acceptance for modern contraception. The 1998 projected population estimate, given the current growth rate, is 1,280,737 persons. This number is to double within 13 years leading to a projected total population number of 2,561,474 by 2015. With a population density of 108 persons per km2, Gambia ranks among the four most densely populated countries in Africa - clearly one of the most severe factors causing land degradation.

The country is divided into four main agro-ecological zones. The sudano-sahelian zone, with its characteristic savanna woodlands, covers 8,035.31 kmē, or about 75 per cent of the total land area. Thus its geopolitical location in the largely semi-arid Sahel may afford some strategic advantage but poses a serious agricultural, food and environmental fragility that makes the country highly vulnerable to land and forest degradation. The Sudanian transitional woodlands cover 2,070.37 km2, the Guinean woodlands covers 506.92 km2, and the sahelian open savanna covers 70.4 km2.

Gradually, the major forested areas have undergone changes, more often to secondary succession. Land use changes during the past two decades were monitored by Teusan (1999). In agreement with his findings the major shifts in land use in The Gambia can be summarised as:

3. SECONDARY FORESTS IN THE GAMBIA

About a century ago most of Gambia's forest cover was categorised as closed dense forest of the Guinea-savanna and Sudan-savanna types. However, with the increasing human population since the early 1950s, the equilibrium that existed started declining at a steadily faster rate as a result of the unsustainable utilisation of the forests, such as the extraction of wood and non-wood products, expansion of agricultural activities and frequent incidences of fire. The total forest cover (including mangrove forests) is estimated at approximately 505 300 ha or about 43 per cent of the total land area of the country. Gradually, most areas of these forests have undergone changes, resulting in less dense forests, poor regeneration potential, lower growth, undesirable grass cover and lower plant species diversity.

The present natural vegetation of the Gambia is characterised by a secondary woodland with more tree and shrub savanna. This report considers the definition of secondary forests as ".. forests regenerating largely through natural processes after significant human and/or natural disturbance of the original forest vegetation at a single point in time or over an extended period, and displaying a major difference in forest structure and/or canopy species composition with respect to nearby primary forests on similar sites". According to this definition, four types of secondary forests occur in the Gambia:

However, a distinct classification of secondary forest is not done in the Gambia. Due to the level of degradation of the forests, they are generally considered as secondary forests (Kasper, 1993; Sillah, 2002). This report will use the classification adopted in the country.

The process of forest destruction from woodlands to the present stage of more secondary forests (mainly secondary savanna), is illustrated based on the results of land use studies carried out with the use of 1947 and 1993 data in relation to the population density (Table 1).

Table 1: Development of forest cover from 1946 to 2015

Forest categories

1946

1968

1980

1993

1998

Est. 2005

Proj. 2015

Closed woodland (%)

60.1

8.0

1.3

1.1

0.7

1.5

2.8

Open woodland (%)

13.3

17.6

10.7

7.8

6.2

12.0

12.2

Savannah (%)

7.8

31.7

24.8

31.8

34.6

31.5

25.0

Total forest cover (%)

81.2

57.3

36.8

40.7

41.5

45.0

40.0

Population density (person per km2)

25.0

35.0

57.0

91.0

108.0

132.0

225.0

Sources: NAD-Gambia: Action Plan on Forest and Wildlife Management (1999), FAO-Gambia: Forest Resources and Plantations (1999).

The table indicates that deforestation began after 1946, but there was a peak of deforestation in the mid-nineties. The standing volume in open woodland was reduced and the closed woodland began to disappear. Less dramatic changes took place in the tree and shrub savanna where the forest cover of 1998 is almost similar to the one of 1993 and is even expected to increase as from the year 2000. But the species composition has already been further narrowed. However, with all the doubt in data accuracy, the table manifest a process of continued forest degradation that started in the early 50s when the population counted only 280,000 persons. At present, the Gambia's population can be estimated to be about 1,400,000 (based on Munderlain's, 1999 estimate of 1,280,700).

Teusan (1999) monitored the land use changes during the past two decades. Total forest area began to increase by 1998, confirming the information in Table 1. This increase can be explained by a drop in groundnut production areas resulting in less forests being cleared for extensive cash crop production. Portions of former agricultural lands were even allowed to regenerate to secondary tree and shrub savanna. This positive trend of area increase from the agricultural production sector is still undermined as the forest cover undergoes severe degradation processes by frequent bush fires and uncontrolled exploitation.

The downward changes in the forest cover to more secondary savanna also manifest changes in the tree composition. The changes indicate the continuous invasion and domination of more fire and drought resistant tree species. Tables 3 and 4 below illustrate the change of tree species composition in open woodlands and tree and shrub savanna based on the results of the national forest inventories carried out in 1982 and 1997. In these tables the species are listed according to their frequency based on the basal area per hectare.

The major shifts in land use in the Gambia are summarised in Table 2.

Table 2: Land use change in the Gambia (1980-1993)

Land use category

1980

1993

Change

(ha)

(%)

(ha)

(%)

(ha)

(%)

Woodland

14,400

1.3

12,000

1.1

-2,400

-0.2

Savanna woodland

121,600

10.7

88,800

7.8

-32,800

-2.9

Tree and shrub savanna

280,400

24.8

360,800

31.9

80,400

7.1

Agriculture with trees

84,000

7.4

85,200

7.5

1,200

0.1

Agriculture no trees

226,400

20.0

241,200

21.3

14,800

1.3

Fallow area

138,800

12.3

89,200

7.9

-49,600

-4.4

Mangroves

68,000

6.0

59,600

5.3

-8,400

-0.7

Others

198,800

17.6

195,600

17.3

-3,200

-0.3

Total

1,132,400

100.0

1,132,400

100.0

0

0.0

Source: Teusan (1999).

In both forest types three major trends are prominent:

Table 3: Change of condition of open woodlands from 1982 to 1997

Tree species

Number per ha

Volume (m3)/ha

Regeneration/ha

 

1982

1997

+/%

1982

1997

+/%

1982

1997

+/%

Pterocarpus erinaceus

25

9.7

-61

11.4

4.9

-57

23.0

70

204

Terminalia macroptera

22

11.1

-50

6.7

2.3

-66

11.4

179

52

Elaeis guinness

8

3.1

-61

-

-

0

14

1

-93

Cordyla africana

13

7.4

-43

3.7

3.2

-14

1

12

1100

Combretum glutinosum

32

29.0

-9

2.9

3.5

21

138

335

143

Combretum nigrans

23

12.8

-44

2.7

1.3

-52

252

652

159

Daniella oliveri

4

4.7

18

3.6

1.6

-56

3

6

100

Khaya senegalensis

1

0.3

-70

5.4

3.4

-37

2

3

50

Parkia biglobosa

9

0.8

-91

3.0

3.1

3

8

2

-75

Other species

51

42.1

-17

16.9

9.1

-46

303

1112

267

Total Open woodland

188

121

-36

56.3

32.4

-42

862

2372

175

Source: Thoma and Sillah 1999.

During the period the numbers and stocking volume in open woodland has reduced by 36 per cent and 42 per cent. High valued species like Elaeis, Pterocarpus, etc. and some other important components of the woodland population such as Khaya, Borassus, Parinari, Mitragyna, Detarium, Ceiba, and Albizia have reduced to the lowest. They could be soon marginalised, should the trend of forest degradation continue.

Less dramatic changes took place in the tree and shrub savanna. Species distribution of 1997 looks very similar to that of 1982, but the species composition is further narrowed. This is probably due to the effect of regular fires and fuel wood exploitation, resulting in the considerable increase of more fire resistant species at the cost of the major firewood and timber species. Nonetheless, a 27 per cent increase in stocking volume in 1997 compared to 1982 can be noticed. The increase can be explained by the continuous expansion of tree and shrub savanna land use type since 1968.

Table 4: Change of condition of tree and shrub savanna from 1982 to 1997

Tree species

Number per ha

Volume (m3) per ha

Regeneration/ha

 

1982

1997

+/%

1982

1997

+/%

1982

1997

+/%

Combretum glutinosum

42

32.9

-22

3.2

3.8

19

587

458

-22

Pterocarpus erinaceus

8

5.0

-38

2

2

0

18

31

72

Terminal macroptera

10

5.1

-49

1.7

0.8

-53

85

147

73

Cordyla africana

3

5.7

90

1.3

2.7

108

2

11

450

Bombax bounopozense

1

4.2

320

0.4

2.1

425

3

19

355

Combretum nigrans

9

7.6

-16

0.6

0.6

0

164

602

267

Prosopis africana

2

1.1

-45

0.5

0.7

40

4

1

-75

Other species

32

31.0

-3

5.7

6.9

21

212

1138

437

Total Tree/Shrub Savanna

107

92.6

-13

15.4

19.6

27

1075

2407

124

Sources: Thoma and Sillah 1999.

Regeneration in the savanna forest clearly shows a substantial increase. In particular pioneer species, including some important firewood species, have multiplied their regeneration from 1982 to 1997. This development is probably due to the decline in agricultural activities, leaving formerly open lands to grow back to savanna vegetation. Also the promotion of community forestry and related extension work has certainly contributed to reducing fire in recent years leaving more regeneration to survive. However, the regeneration of some high valued species such as Elaeis, Parkia, and Prosopis has seriously decreased in both woodland and savanna. The changes in tree species composition of woodlands and savannas indicate a clear trend towards more and more uniform forest consisting of only a few species.

Based on the findings the following conclusions can be drawn:

Valuable species like Pterocarpus, Borassus and Parkia were more exposed to utilisation for timber and firewood. Some minor, but still important components of the woodland population, like Khaya, Borassus and Mitragyna, are now reduced to low frequency species and are probably soon marginalized, as can already be observed in the savanna population. Formerly less frequent species are now reduced to a marginal existence and their extinction from the savanna population has to be feared.

The main observations from the last forest inventory are:

The contrast of the two inventories shows up the following key differences:

The overall average annual volume increment of 0,6 m3/ha/year for timber and fire wood species indicates that for the time being the amount of sustainably harvestable timber is small.

The changes in the species composition of woodlands and savannas may lead to more uniform stands of only few species, which will not provide the great variation of wood and non-wood products as the local population is used to harvest. The diameter distributions show that the population of some species lack certain age/diameter classes and need a phase of regeneration and rebuilding. The regeneration has increased substantially compared to 1982, and not only for pioneer species on fallow lands, but for many species throughout all different woodland types. The protection measures and extension services undertaken by the Department of Forestry appear to be effective. The comparison between 1982 and 1997 inventory suggests that future activities in forestry should deal mainly with continuation of forest protection, reduction of timber harvesting as well as silvicultural enrichment measures with high-value species like Khaya, Parkia and Pterocarpus.

4. SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ECOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF THE SECONDARY FORESTS

The forests of the country provide in the needs of the local population for forest products, in particular fuel wood, construction poles and timber, fence posts, roofing material, herbs, roots and barks for medical uses, and services like grazing, honey production and tourism. Considering the major use of these resources as pastureland, source of additional income through commercial forest products exploitation, and land reserves for agricultural extension, such open access resources are prone to a rapid process of degradation.

The rapid growing population has led to an increased demand for forest products in particular fuel wood, construction poles and timber, and fence posts. A fuel wood survey carried out by NARI in 1999 reveals that 97.8 per cent of all households surveyed, both rural and urban, use wood as primary source of fuel particularly for cooking. Firewood and other products collected and used for home consumption are traditionally regarded by rural households as `free commodities'. They do not have a price per-se, rather the market value can only be determined by the work and cost involved for collection, processing and transportation.

Closed and open woodlands, sometimes also called `virgin' lands, are still being converted into agricultural lands at an estimated rate of about 1.3 per cent. The on-going conversion of woodlands into agricultural lands is mainly due to a shortage of arable land caused by applying inappropriate (traditional) farming practices, poverty and population growth. Another contributing factor is the fact that founder families own most of the agricultural lands based on the traditional land tenure system. Prevailing interest conflict between agricultural and forest production call for socially acceptable land use regulations and land use planning at local level.

Woodland and savanna resources account for approximately two thirds of livestock feed supplies in the country. As a result of frequent fires and selective grazing by livestock, the herb and grass layer has changed from previously dominant perennials to annuals, and the frequency of unpalatable dicotyledon species has increased. A dire shortage of suitable pastures usually occurs from February to June when much of the dry materials is being destroyed by fire, termites and trampling. This is the time when shrubs and tree regeneration is intensively browsed. Unfortunately, no information and data could be obtained which would enable quantifying the damage to trees caused by forest grazing.

Through the introduction of community forestry in 1991, the participating communities have started realising physical income directly from their forest. The products from these forests include wood products, fruits, grasses, sand and services like beekeeping and ecotourism. A conflicting situation with grazing in community forests is emerging in some areas. As the forests are protected the canopy begins to close, allowing less palatable grass growth, and therefore unfavourable for animal grazing. The forestry department is now advising communities with such a forest stand to start selective thinning, by removing the old trees. This has an advantage for grazing and also helps the growth of the lower canopy and small seedlings.

The non-quantified and mostly ignored environmental functions of the secondary forests, such as the biological diversity and the wildlife habitat, are contributing a great share to the livelihood of the population. The sustainable management and utilisation of the secondary forests is therefore a good tool to combat poverty in the country.

5. KNOWLEDGE AND EXPERIENCE IN SECONDARY FOREST MANAGEMENT

A colonial forestry service for The Gambia was set-up in 1950 and at the same time the forestry adviser under the protectorate was appointed to deal with forestry and forestry related matters. The main management function the protectorate pursued was only protection and production, mainly in the 66 forest parks demarcated and gazetted in 1952. At the same time, the Provinces Lands Act provided for the exclusive access and user rights to the colonial government in the forest parks.

The plantation establishment began at independence in 1965 in few of the parks and no other management activity in the others. The Provinces Lands Regulation of 1966 accorded all forest parks a special protection and as well made the local authorities responsible of their protection. The local authorities (chiefs) were only interested in the collection of forest revenues for the area councils. The money collected was used for development programmes outside forestry activities.

In respect to the above, forest management in The Gambia was characterized by extensive state involvement which started with the state owned forest park concept in the 1950s. Government ownership of all naturally grown trees became statutory law with the enactment of the forest legislation in 1977 and the forestry department was entrusted with the overall management responsibility. Prior to the designation of the Department of Forestry in 1976, the then post independence forestry unit under the Department of Agriculture also concentrated only on the protection of the natural forest and the establishment of plantations.

With the creation of the Department, and the subsequent enactment of the subsector's first policy and legislation in 1976 and 1978 respectively, the young forestry service focus its attention on (GoTG, 1976; GoTG, 1978):

In respect to the predictions and calls after the Sahelien drought, the efforts in plantation and woodlot development to supply wood products and to improve the status quo of the natural resources could not be successfully achieved as desired. This was due to the lack of full involvement of the population, high demand on forest resources, the frequency of uncontrolled bush fires and the high cost of plantation development. Furthermore, the predicted rate of forest destruction at that time (about 5-6 per cent annually) has been faster than both the establishment rate of plantations and the development of a more efficient forestry extension service for the effective and sustainable management of forest resources. With the increase of professional foresters, the management trend began to re-orient the focus by the eighties.

Even though there was no formal policy review at the time, all attempts were made to shift and concentrate the administration's attention and efforts on managing the natural forests while plantation operations continued to be limited to the management of existing ones. Therefore, seven of the 66 gazetted forest parks were successfully managed through trials mainly focusing on the protection against the annual bush fires and enrichment planting. In addition, trials in dead wood utilisation, grazing, beekeeping, species site trials and planting of cuttings from indigenous species, among others, were carried-out. The experiences gained in the management of natural forests since early 1980, were used to develop a natural forest management model called "The Gambian Forest Management Concept (GFMC)" (Thoma, 1989; Schindele and Bojang, 1995; GoTG, 2001).

6. SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

Although the forestry department was entrusted with the mandate of forest protection, it was unable to accomplish the task due to the tense relationship with the population and also because of lack of human and material resources. As a result of government interference in the traditional tenure systems, the local population that claimed traditional ownership of the forests on customary village lands developed a feeling of alienation and of being policed which finally resulted in their unwillingness to protect and manage what used to be `their forests'. The forest destructive behaviour was further enhanced by the restrictive Forest Regulations of 1978, lack of public concern and illegal forest operations such as misuse of exploitation licenses and permits and the killing of trees.

In the late 1980s when more knowledge and experience were made in natural forest management, it became clear that the government would never be in the position to protect and manage the country's forest resources without the assistance and support of adjacent to the forest. Included in the GFMC is the community participation in forest management and therefore the community forest management concept was developed and finally introduced in 1991.

The slow rate of forest degradation is achieved through the extension efforts of the forestry service and the rapid expansion of the community involvement in forest management. Presently, forest degradation in The Gambia in general is almost at a halt and even on a decline. The FRA 2001 has even indicated an increase in forest cover of the Gambia by 1 per cent. In the next 10 years it is projected to decline slightly and then to be static. This is due to the expansion of the community participation. The community involvement is even indicating to favour the woodland forest types.

As most of the forest reserves are located on customary village lands, the government has no other option but to fully support the participation of local communities and the private sector in the management of the country's forest resources. This is expressed by passing a new forest policy and legislation in 1995 and 1998, respectively.

Table 5: Forests under controlled management (Updated 2002)

Div.

Forested land 1)

(ha)

Controlled management (ha)

No management/ protection (ha)

Forest parks

CCSF12

and

Co-Ma

Commun-ity forests

Private forests

Total

Forest parks

Forest reserves

Total

Ha

%

Ha

%

West

73,300

3,355

506

6,983

100

10,944

15

512

62,350

62,356

85

Lower River

66,500

1,758

448

4,567

0

6,773

10

4,431

55,744

59,727

90

Central River

154,600

7,233

6,546

9,153

0

30,130

19

10,412

120,499

124,479

81

Upper River

113,200

858

873

2,685

0

4,431

4

2,178

107,464

108,769

96

North Bank

41,200

0

0

230

0

230

1

3,290

37,680

40,970

99

Gambia

448,800

13,204

0

17,387

100

52,449

12

12,564

383,737

396,301

88

1) Without forested national parks/ reserves and without mangrove forests

Source: FD statistics; Schindele and Bojang (1995); Teusan (1999); Sillah (2002)

Forest reserves and forest parks not yet under controlled management by either adjacent communities or the FD (still some 88 per cent of the countries forest cover) undergo severe deterioration. Forest reserves are forested areas that shall be either handed over to local communities (community forests), jointly managed with local communities (co-management), or converted into another land use. A concept for the co-management of forest reserves by the FD and local communities was recently developed. The concept focuses on communities that have already established their community forest. The total land area under proper management as to June 2002 per administrative area and the Gambia is shown in Table 5.

It has been found that the opportunity of gaining forest ownership is an incentive strong enough to motivate local communities in forest protection and controlled management even in the absence of immediate direct benefits. Contrary to what is often believed, communities do not see forests primarily as source of income. Rather resource access and use without interference from outsiders is their first motivation because they have realized the importance of preserving the forest in order to meet their own needs and to secure their future.

The GFMC and its forest park management strategies were developed and tested in the Western part of the country where climatic conditions and livestock production systems are more favourable towards forest protection and development compared to other parts of the country. First experience in developing forest parks according to the GFMC up-country indicates that, in particular on poor sites with low forest production, the recurrent cost of physical forest protection infrastructure measures can probably not be met by the Forestry Department.

Therefore, there is a need to develop low cost forest park management strategies with the involvement of forest adjacent communities. Considering aspects of long-term sustainability, this approach seems to be more feasible rather than the single management of the forestry department. The first pilot co-management (joint management) was initiated in 1997 in Jeloki Forest Park in Upper River Division and now expanding in all the divisions.

The management systems applied in The Gambia based on the recommendations of the GFMC are:

7. INSTITUTIONAL AND POLITICAL ISSUES GOVERNING SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT

In order to establish sound frame conditions for the country-wide implementation of the GFMC and the sector development strategies as identified during the process of the National Forestry Action Plan (NFAP) (GoTG, 2001) establishment, the forestry department realised the need to revise its policy and legislation. Due to the limitations of the first policy objectives and the 1978 forest legislation for the realisation of the GFMC which aims at the sustainable and cost effective management of the natural forest resources, a policy and legislation review were undertaken in 1995 and 1998 respectively.

The Gambia's new Forest Policy of 1995 (1995 - 2005) has been designed to contribute to the environmental and socio-economic policy objective for sustainable development, and poverty alleviation of the government as formulated in the vision 2020, by calling for the involvement of the local communities and the private sector in the management and development of forest, contrary to that of 1977. This new policy aims at maintaining at least 30 per cent of the total land area under forest cover and to manage at least 75 per cent of this area. Within the 75 per cent of the 30 per cent, the policy targets an area of 200,000 ha of state forestland to be under community forest management by the year 2005.

Unlike the previous policy, the new forest policy takes into consideration the nature of the problems related to the sector as well as the role that forestry has to play in national economic development. It identifies the policy goals, orientations and requirements not only to effectively manage the resources but to equally build the capacities of all stakeholders involved. The policy foresees the management of the forests through:

Forest policy realisation required a supporting legislation which the old forest laws could not provide. Therefore, this also needed to be revised. The new legislation encompasses numerous new elements pertaining to tree and forest tenure, management and utilization procedures and requirements. It was specially tailored to regulate processes of involving local communities in forest management by passing over forest ownership rights or by granting them forest utilization privileges. It also outlines the obligations of the government and those of other forest managers and management partners, and it includes provisions for conflict resolution and tax incentives. The new legislation was enacted by parliament on August 8, 1998.

The present forestry policy succeeded also in creating a National Forestry Fund (NFF), effective since 1996, which mandates the Forestry Department to retain 50 per cent of all revenues generated in any fiscal year for the financing of forest management operations in addition to government budgetary allocations. However, the availability of such additional funds, could only improve the recurrent cost situation as the current level of revenue off-take could not meet the need for staff training and development investment. The department has since beginning of the eighties been supported to implement its programmes; to render adequate extension and forest management support services to the various focus groups, for research; and to realise the GFMC.

Thus, the government fully supports the involvement of local communities and the private sector in the management of the country's forest resources which is expressed by passing a new forest policy and legislation in 1996 and 1998, respectively.

The revenues from community forests are kept with the communities mainly through their local level structures, like the Village Savings and Credit Association (VISACA's), committee cashiers. The Forest Bill 1998 foresees the creation of Local Forest Funds. The fund is to be administered by the village. Revenues accruing from the forest are distributed as follows:

For the case of co-management in forest parks, it is still at an early stage to make any prescriptions.

In order to cope with the integrated forest management approach of the GFMC and to decentralize forest administration from the national to the divisional and further down to the local level, the organizational set-up of the FD was restructured at the beginning of 1995. At the same time forestry administrative guidelines, including a planning, monitoring and evaluation system, were introduced. The new organizational structure has established clear lines of command and responsibilities from the Forestry Department headquarters down to the field operation level. It entrusted the divisional forest officers with comprehensive management responsibilities within a division including staff posting and operation planing.

8. MAIN LESSONS AND CONCLUSIONS

Gambian forests are unevenly distributed throughout the country. They fulfil different ecological functions, e.g. wildlife habitats, biodiversity, soil protection, water retention, etc. as well as socio-economic functions, cattle grazing, tourism, etc. Forests grow in different sites and terrain. They vary in their conditions, e.g. dense forests, open woodlands, tree and shrub savanna, etc. They are used by different people, such as villagers, firewood producers, and the FD. Some of them are close to villages while others are located in remote and less accessible areas.

The Government of the Gambia has expressed its commitment to the preservation of its flora and fauna on numerous occasions and has demonstrated this commitment through the formulation of a new and adapted forest policy and development strategies. The new policy recognises and contributes to the poverty alleviation effort of the government by calling for the involvement of the private sector and local communities in the management and development of a productive forestry sector.

Forestry activities in The Gambia are interrelated with farming activities including livestock husbandry and cannot be viewed in isolation. Furthermore, forestry planning and development has been seen in the context of the population growth and increasing needs. Equally important is the educational level of the population in order to recognise and understand those linkages, and to undertake necessary actions aimed at restoring the balance.

Besides resource constraints, the escalating population increase and the rate of forest degradation does not leave enough time to build up a capable and sufficiently extensive forestry service, able to assist communities in taking over the responsibility of managing Gambian forests. Therefore, the FD has decided to develop a simplified approach dealing with community participation in order to cover a larger area with a limited staff. NGOs and other agencies are already involved in order to supplement the effort done by the FD.

Likewise, the GFMC makes the rural dwellers the main actors with respect to managing the Gambian natural resources. Participatory approaches are required in order to involve local communities in planning, decision-making, organization and administrative processes. The introduction of GFMC initiates socio-cultural, economic, and ecological transformation processes that do not perform linearly. Therefore, intervention planning and implementation must be flexible, iterative, and process-oriented. Long-term sustainability of the GFMC calls for minimal investments and adoption of appropriate low-cost technologies and techniques for both the forest protection and development.

The continuing and rapid forest devastation process cannot be addressed through comprehensive and time-consuming investigations, studies, and planning procedures. Instead, the GFMC needs to be rigorously introduced with the aim of transferring the forest management responsibility to as many communities as possible through preliminary community forest management agreements (PCFMA).

The experience in The Gambia has shown that the utmost objective of sustainable forest management is the prevention of bush or forest fires. Based on evidence given by the management of natural forests, the potential of Gambian forests in terms of wood and non-wood production has proved higher than initially assessed. In addition, the local species are comparatively easy to manage, if protected.

Until the mid-eighties, the general attitude of the local population towards the forests was quite negative. For the production of the main cash crop (ground nuts), peasants depended on the practice of shifting cultivation use fire as a cheap and easy tool for clearing. Due to the fall of the market prices, groundnut production was considerably reduced along with the shifting cultivation practice. Also, for the first time in their lives, the Gambians felt the negative impacts of forest degradation. The supply of rhun splits for house construction dropped almost to nil because of excessive over-exploitation. Firewood had to be produced far inside the country which led to an increase on its market price. People also noticed climatic changes, annual rainfall dropped, droughts became more frequent and severe, and water tables were going down. Meanwhile, people living in the vicinity of GFMC trial areas understood the positive effects of natural forest management. As a result, bushfires and illegal exploitation activities have stopped immediately.

In brief, the sustainable forest management in The Gambia is based on the following considerations:

9. RECOMMENDATIONS

A forest policy with realistic objectives is of paramount importance for an effective development of the forestry sector, which is by nature governed by long-term aims. Long-term objectives call for a sense of continuity as well as for a vision of future expectations and goals to satisfy the demand for better social, economical and environmental conditions.

The National Forestry Action Program developed on the basis of this strategic plan should be regularly, most preferably on yearly basis, evaluated against the objectives set in the policy and any deviation should be explained.

Past failures of most afforestation and forestry projects in the sahelian and sub-sahelian region can be explained by lack of experience, unsuitable framework conditions, ill-designed projects and lack of coordination but most of all by confining the population to a marginal role. Active population participation has now been widely recognised as being essential to any rural development Programmes such as the conservation of natural resources.

Forest management in the Gambia, although advanced compared to some other countries in the region, is still at a preliminary stage and need to be further developed. The most important knowledge gaps should be identified and prioritised in order to set up simple research programmes. Forestry research would be mainly used to improve silvicultural techniques. Then the results of these trials would be used to further refine the forest management principles. In some cases existing principles, especially socio-economic principles which do not differ much from country to country, could be borrowed and adapted if necessary to the Gambian conditions.

To facilitate the application of sound forest management activities and to disseminate the required skills, guidelines should be further developed to include all the necessary technical advice necessary to achieve sustainability of forestry operations under the different local environments or conditions. Special care should be taken to consider the conditions prevailing in forestry management to enhance population participation.

The main agent of forest destruction in The Gambia is fire. During the dry season and on a yearly basis, fires sweep through most of the forestland. The intensity of fires is generally very high due to the large amount of dry biomass accumulated on the ground. Fires are not only systematically destroying tree regeneration, they also kill a significant number of larger trees. Year after year the forest is further depleted and has no chance to regenerate. A vicious circle is then set: the less trees the more grass, the more grass the more intense the fire will be, the more intense the fire will be the more trees will be killed, the less trees.

Human activity is at the origin of bushfires and is very often used intentionally as a tool to clear land for agriculture, for access or for other purposes. Despite the general awareness of the population about the negative effects of bush fires, the short-term benefits obtained by setting fire are still prevailing on the necessity to prevent forest destruction. As a matter of fact, individuals or communities do not own the resources destroyed in this process, therefore the lack of concern.

Whatever measures are taken, in the presence of fire, no forest management is possible. The very utmost condition to the conservation of forest resources is to exclude fire from the forest. This can be achieved firstly by a proper sensitization of the public but more specifically through population participation and secondly by managing the forest in a way to achieve a rapid canopy closure which will inhibit grass growth.

In addition, a nation-wide effort to prevent bushfires can only be achieved if there is a strong commitment from the Government. Fire prevention should not be limited and left to the forestry sector alone. The effects of bushfires are going much beyond forestry aspects.

The generation of benefits, either financial or in the form of raw forest produce, is certainly the best incentive to encourage active forest management. Too often these valuable resources are destroyed by fire and cannot be utilised. The promotion of forest management can therefore be justified and made attractive by using wood and non-wood forest products on a sustainable basis. Furthermore, forest utilisation is an ideal example in educating communities in sustainable management of natural resources.

The forest has been traditionally mined for its wood and timber resources which are still exploited at almost no cost. The forest is perceived as a very low value resource. It has little chance to be considered against other natural resources like agriculture and livestock. To respond to the increasing needs for agriculture, farmlands have been naturally gained on forestland. Nowadays, most forests are localised on marginal sites too poor for agricultural purposes. The size and condition of the forests have reached a critical stage which is endangering the environment. To prevent further erosion of the forest area, it is necessary to increase the economical value of forest. One way of achieving this goal is to promote the multiple-usage of the forest, either in the form of wood or non-wood-products, including the socio-economic and cultural services.

The achievement of the forest policy will also depend on the collaboration with other sectors and the harmonization of their policy objectives. Areas of collaboration should include the promotion of renewable energy sources and energy saving techniques, adequate forest products pricing, the demarcation of permanent forest lands, the promotion of agroforestry techniques and techniques aiming at improved range management, bee-keeping and, finally, technology transfer and income generation.

The most important issues to be considered for proper management and development of secondary forests should include:

1 Reporting on the state and trends of Gambian forests

2 Ensuring a better understanding of the policy

3 Ensuring government commitment in policy implementation

4 Conducting a National Forest Inventory in 2008, including mapping and classifying forest lands

5 Convincing locals, through extension, on the possible environmental degradation in the absence of full commitment of the population

6 Supporting communities to set up the management of their community forests

7 Organising market surveys of forest products periodically to advise communities for the marketing of the products

8 Promoting multiple use of the forests

9 Promoting production of minor forest produce through adapted technology

10 Conducting an extension campaign on bushfire issues

11 Encouraging Government departments and NGOs to be actively involved in prevention and control of bushfires

12 Ensuring that proper forest management principles are in place

13 Developing principles from tested silvicultural models and from other forestry principles

14 Developing forest management guidelines

15 Ensuring that management-planning principles are supported by new forest legislation

10. REFERENCES

1. FAO 2001. Global Forest Resources Assessment, main report. Rome.

2. Forster, H. 1983. Evaluation of the National Forest Inventory of the Gambia, GGFP, Report No. 10.

3. Government of Gambia 1976. The Forest Policy of the Gambia, Banjul.

4. Government of Gambia 1998. The Forest Legislation and Regulations, Banjul.

5. Government of Gambia 1995. The Forest Policy of the Gambia 1995 to 2005, Banjul.

6. Government of Gambia 1995. Forestry Department: Administrative Guidelines, Banjul, Gambia.

7. Government of Gambia 1996. Country Specific Note on 2000 vision for Food Agriculture and the Environment, (IFPRIs 2020 Vision Initiative), Banjul

8. Government of Gambia 1996. The Gambia Forest Management Concept, Banjul

9. Government of Gambia 1998. The Forest Bill of the Gambia - Forest Act and Regulations, Banjul, Gambia.

10. Government of Gambia 2001. The National Forestry Action Plan (2001 - 2010), Banjul

11. Government of Gambia 2001. The 2nd Revised Gambia Forest Management Concept, Banjul

12. KASPER, P. 1993. Some Common Flora of the Gambia Reinbek: Traute Warnke Verlag, 1993. - 3-9801591-3-2,S.289.

13. Ludwig, R. & Bojang, L. 1998. Results and analysis of the National Forest Resource Inventory The Gambia 1997/98, URDFP.

14. Munderlein, J. 1999. NAD Action Plan on Population and Social Dimensions of Desertification, Draft Report, April 1999.

15. NARI 1999. Fuel wood usage in The Gambia, Draft Report.

16. Schindele, W. & Bojang, F. 1995. The Gambia Forest Management Concept, part 1 - The Forestry sector in the Gambia, GGFP, Report No. 29.

17. Sillah, J. 1999. FAO - Forest Resources and Plantations in Gambia.

18. Sillah, J. 2000. FAO - Forest Revenue Systems (Fiscal Studies).

19. Sillah, J. 2002. Forest and Tree Management in West Africa: Evolving Approaches and Future Prospects in Gambia; USAID; Banjul, Gambia.

20. Teusan, S. 1999. Monitoring of Land use Change in the Gambia between 1980 and 1993, URDFP.

21. Thoma, W. Possibilities of Introducing Community Forestry in The Gambia Part 1, GGFP Report No. 21

22. Thoma, W. & Sillah, J. 1999. NAD Forest and Wildlife Management


12 Community Controlled State Forests

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