IN SITU CONSERVATION IN PERU: A CASE STUDY ¹

GENERAL ECOLOGY

Peru extends from the equator to latitude 18° S and from longitude 69° to 81° W. The physiography and climate are dominated by the Andes mountains (up to 6,768 m altitude) and by the cold Pacific Ocean current which flows parallel to the coast from the southern boundary up to latitude 6°S. The total area of Peru is over 128 million ha, making it the third largest country in South America.

The country falls naturally into three major zones, the Coastal, the Montane and the Forest Zone. The Coastal Zone is a long, narrow belt which follows the coastline and forms only 11% of the national area. In the centre and south it is of extreme aridity; in the north the annual rainfall is somewhat higher, commonly 125–250 mm but in places in excess of 1,000 mm.

The Montane Zone forms a broader belt to the east of the Coastal Zone and separating it from the Forest Zone. It accounts for 30% of the national area. It includes the southwestern slopes of the Andes, which are arid at the lower altitudes but receive 250–500 mm rainfall at higher altitudes, and the high plateaux, valleys and peaks of the mountain range where rainfall is 500–1,000 mm and mean annual temperature is commonly between 3° and 12°C.

The Forest Zone is the most extensive, occupying 59% of the national area to the east and northeast of the Montane Zone. It consists of the High Altitude Forest on the eastern slopes and foothills of the Andes between 600 and 3,800 m and the Low Altitude Forest on gentler topography below 600 m. Rainfall is commonly over 2,000 mm and may be as high as 8,000 mm a year. Closed evergreen forest is the normal climax vegetation. Temporary or permanent flooding and extensive areas of alluvial soils occur at the lower elevations.

Figure 1 shows the Biogeographic Provinces of Peru according to the classification of Udvardy (1975). They are based on the three major zones described above, but with a more detailed breakdown into seven Provinces. These are:

1. The Equatorial Dry Forest Province, which corresponds to the northernmost and least dry part of the Coastal Zone.

2. The Pacific Desert Province, which includes the rest of the Coastal Zone.

3. The Southern Andes (more properly southwestern Andes) Province, which includes the the Pacific-facing slopes of the Montane Zone.

4. The Puno Province, made up by the high plateaux, valley and ridges of the Montane Zone.

5. The Yungas Province, which corresponds to the High Altitude Forest Zone.

6. The Amazonia Province, which corresponds to the Low Altitude Forest Zone.

7. The Lake Titicaca Province which is a small and specialized area in the extreme southeast of Peru.

Still more detailed ecological maps of Peru have been prepared based on the Holdridge Life Zone System (Tosi 1960, ONERN 1976). Distribution of forest types in Peru has been mapped by Malleux (1975).

Figure 1. Biogeographic provinces and latitudinal regions (Peru).

The richest forests and largest areas occur in the Amazonia Province. They are typical evergreen tropical rain forests, with many different tree species and with dominants up to 60 m tall and 3 m in diameter. Lianes and epiphytes are common. Cedrela, Swietenia, Chorisia, Virola and Calophyllum are among the most valuable timber genera. Several genera of palms occur. Within the Province the main division is between the Alluvial Forests, on flat land close to rivers and subject to frequent inundations, and the Hill Forests occupying rolling country where individual hills may be up to 80 m high and with slopes up to 50%. The best forests are the Hill Forests on gentle topography; the commonest genera here are Pouteria, Inga, Hevea, Protium and Aniba. The Alluvial Forests have heights of average 35–40 m; Virola, Iryanthera, Escheweilera and Inga are the commonest genera. Extensive areas of almost pure Cecropia occur close to many of the rivers; the species is of potential value for pulp and paper. Mauritia is a genus of palms of great value as a source of fats and oils. It too occurs in nearly pure stands, especially on poorly drained and permanently flooded sites.

The Yungas Province contains a wide variety of evergreen forest types. At the lower altitudes, around 600 m, the Hill Forests are an upward extension of those in the Amazonia Province. Dominants are up to 35–45 m tall and 2 m in diameter. Genera include valuable timber trees such as Cedrela, Swietenia, Cedrelinga and a number with showy flowers e.g. Tabebuia, Erythrina, Jacaranda. Higher up the tree height decreases to 15 m in the “cloud forest” and epiphytes reach their best development; Polylepis, Alnus, Clusia and Weinmannia are common, as well as several genera of tree ferns. Between 2,000 and 3,000 m several species of Podocarpus occur and provide the only source of a valuable indigenous coniferous timber. At the high altitudes steep topography and heavy rainfall cause serious risk of erosion and Malleux (1975) has classed all these forests as strictly Protective Forests.

In the Coastal and Montane Zones the areas of forest are insignificant in comparison with that in the Forest Zone. Types worth mentioning are:

1. Closed dry forest and dry forest/savanna mosaic occupy an area of about half a million ha in the Equatorial Dry Forest Province in the extreme northwest. Typical species are Prosopis juliflora, Capparis spp., Loxopterygium huasango, Ziziphus spp., Bombax spp.

2. The above species may occur also in small patches in moister localities within arid shrubland types (Matorral) on the Pacific-facing slopes of the Andes. Schinus molle, Salix sp. and Calliandra sp. also occur in these conditions.

3. Small relict stands of Polylepis occur in the high Andes, associated with Buddleia and Ribes. Formerly the stands covered a much larger area on the high plateau. There are also some relict stands of Podocarpus in the lower and more sheltered valleys.

4. There is a small area of mangroves on the coast. The dominant species is Rhizophora mangle.

¹ Based on: Contractual work, “Conservación In Situ de Recursos Genéticos Forestales. Estudio de Caso: Perú”, by Centro de Datos para la Conservación de Programas del Inventario Continuo del Patrimonio Natural del Perú, c/o Universidad Nacional Agraria, Lima, Perú.

PROTECTED AREAS

The classification of lands according to their use, and the promulgation of laws delimiting use are relatively recent developments in Peru. The first National Forests were established during the years 1956 and 1957 and the first National Park in 1961.

Three categories of legally constituted forest lands are recognized in Peru. These are National Forests, Forests of Free Accessibility, and Protection Forests. National Forests are operated by the state for the sustained production of goods and services. Forest of Free Accessibility may be utilized by individuals and institutions other than the state. Protection forests are inviolable and have as their objectives soil and water conservation.

In 1984 there were 6 National Forests covering 5,400,102 ha and 39 Forests of Free Accessibility covering 36,690,000 ha. In recent years there has been a tendency to convert National Forests to Forests of Free Accessibility. Under Peruvian law, protected areas are referred to as Units of Conservation. In addition to managed National Forests there are four principal types: National Parks, National Reserves, National Sanctuaries and Historical Sanctuaries. The last are comparable to the Heritage Sites in the classification of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN).

Table 1. Protected areas in Peru

The areas of the various types of Conservation Unit and National Forests are shown in Table 1. The total area of 10.76 million ha amounts to 8.4% of the national territory. Of this 5.40 million ha consists of National Forests in which commercial harvesting may be permitted but which are to be retained permanently as forest. The remaining 5.36 million ha is made up of National Parks and National Sanctuaries, in which protection of all or specified communities and species is the main objective of management; National Reserves, where conservation is combined to some extent with resource utilization; and Historical Sanctuaries, where protection of natural communities is secondary to the protection of sites of historic interest or scenic beauty.

LEGISLATION

As well as legislation to establish the various Units of Conservation, regulations have been introduced over the years to protect certain species in specific areas. These have been effective, but at times unpopular. The Rules on Forest Logging and Conversion (Supreme Decree 161-77-AG) authorize the Ministry of Forest and Wildlife to approve minimum cutting diameters for the felling of forest trees. This has been of particular benefit to forest species in Amazonia Province. Nevertheless there is much progress to be made in ensuring that the regulations are respected.

Current regulations do not permit the collection of seed and other propagating material in National Parks or National Sanctuaries. It has been proposed that the law be changed to allow seed collection in these protected zones for approved conservation programmes.

CASE STUDIES

The 22 species listed below have been selected for case studies in the present FAO/UNEP study. They include species valuable for production of commercial timber, or for their contribution to the rural economy. All are subject to some degree of genetic impoverishment, at least in part of their ranges.

1) Alnus jorullensis H.B.K. (Betulaceae). Aliso, lambran. Synonyms: A. ferruginea, A. acuminata.

General

A medium-sized tree up to 30 m tall and 20–50 cm in diameter. The stem may be single or multi-stemmed from near the base. Five taxonomic varieties are recognized but data on their distribution are insufficient for mapping. Found on moist sites along watercourses on the western slopes and in the valleys of the Andes up to 3,800 m, with 1,500 – 2,000 mm rainfall. As one of the few species reaching tree size in this area, it is widely used for fuelwood, joinery and handicrafts. It is a nitrogen-fixing species.

Conservation status

Considered endangered because of the continual decrease in habitat area. It occurs in three National Parks (Cutervo, Huascarin and Manu) but not in any National Forest.

2) Amburana cearensis (Fr. Allem.) A.C. Smith (Papilionaceae). Ishpingo. Synonyms: A. acreana, Torresea cearensis.

General

Straight tree up to 35 m tall and 40–80 in diameter. The wood is used for joinery and veneer. The tree is also a source of cumarine, an aromatic. It is found mainly in patches of dryer tropical forests in Amazonia Province, on sandy, shallow soils.

Conservation status

It occurs in four National Parks but its principal stands are restricted to the limited area of dryer tropical forest in the San Martin department. Natural regeneration is poor, possibly as a result of the destruction of seed by caterpillars, rodents and birds.

3) Aniba puchuri-minor (Mart.) Mez. (Lauraceae). Moena. Synonyms: A. tessanii, Aydendron amazonica, Aydendron intermedum, Ocotea puchuri-minor.

General

A straight tree, 50 cm in diameter. There are 55 species in this genus, nine of them recorded in Peru. Identification of the species is very difficult. The timber is used for construction, furniture and veneer and the tree also produces aromatic essential oils. It is found scattered in the moist forests of Amazonia, in alluvial forests and on terraces and low hills.

Conservation status

It occurs in two National Parks, Manu and Tingo María.

4) Bertholletia excelsa H.B.K. (Lecythidaceae). Castaña. Synonyms: B. nobilis.

General

A straight tree up to 30 m tall, producing a durable wood, used in general carpentry. Oakum fibre from the bark is used for caulking and in the manufacture of clothes. The husks of the fruit are used as fuel in the production of charcoal and are also made into containers. The nut is eaten raw and used in the manufacture of sweets. It is exported from Peru on a small scale. It is found mainly in the Alluvial Forests in the Department of Madre de Dios.

Conservation status

It is protected only in the Manu National Park, but the importance of the nuts in the local economy in southern Peru should provide an extra safeguard.

5) Buddleia incana R. et P. (Loganiaceae). Quishuar, Ccolle. Synonyms: B. bullata, B. longifolia, B. rugosa.

General

Small tree, 5–7 m tall and 10 cm in diameter. The genus has 19 species recorded in Peru and it is difficult to differentiate between them in the field. It is found in the high Andes and is one of the few woody plants capable of growing above 3,500 m. It is used for furniture and handicrafts. A decoction of the terminal buds is locally used to cure indigestion problems.

Conservation status

It occurs in three National Parks (Huascaran, Manu and Río Asiseo), but comes under pressure because it is one of the few species capable of growing at high altitude. It is important as habitat for certain types of wildlife, particularly birds, and could be used for high altitude reforestation.

6) Calophyllum brasiliense Cambers (Guttiferae). Lagarto caspi. Synonyms: C. chapeusis, C. antillanum.

General

Straight tree, 15–20 m tall and 40–80 cm in diameter. The wood is used for construction, railway ties and parquet. It is found on alluvial soils in the dry and moist tropical forests in the departments of Loreto, Ucayali and Madre de Dios, with rainfall between 1,500 and 3,000 mm.

Conservation status

It is protected in the Manu National Park only.

7) Cecropia peltata L. (Moraceae). Cetico

General

Small to medium-sized tree up to 30 m tall and 60 cm in diameter. There are 80 species in the genus, 30 of them recorded in Peru. The tree provides pulp and fuelwood, as well as edible fruits. The fruits are also eaten by parrots, bats, rodents and fish, which play an important role in dissemination of the seed of this pioneer species. It is found in the periodically flooded forests of the Amazon basin.

Conservation status

It occurs in the Manu and Asiseo National Parks. This species is one of the most abundant and widespread of its genus but is still considered to be threatened in parts of its range.

8) Cedrela odorata L. (Meliaceae). Cedro. Synonyms: C. guianensis, C. mexicana, C. occidentalis

General

A straight tree up to 40 m tall and 1.5 m in diameter, with a cylindrical bole. Nine species of Cedrela occur in Peru, of which C. odorata is the most important, but it is difficult to distinguish between species from vegetative characteristics. A valuable timber species which provides the highest annual volume of sawlogs of any Peruvian species; the wood is used for cabinet-making, furniture, joinery and veneer. Occurs in both the Alluvial and the Hill Forests of the Amazonian Biogeographic Province, in rainfall of 1,500 mm to 3,500 mm with a dry season of up to four months. Common associated genera are Herrania, Brosimum, Terminalia and Ceiba.

Conservation status

Recorded as present in three National Parks (Cutervo, Manu and Tingo Maria) as well as a number of National Forests. Because of the intensity of exploitation, gene resources outside the National Parks must be considered at risk.

9) Cedrelinga catenaeformis (Ducke) Ducke (Mimosaceae). Tornillo. Synonyms: Piptadenia catenaeformis.

General

Straight tree up to 40 m tall and 1.5 m in diameter with generally cylindrical bole. It is an important source of sawlogs, with an average annual production of 104,000 m3. The timber is used in construction, joinery and furniture. It is a very adaptable species, found in moist Alluvial and Hill Forests.

Conservation status

It occurs in three National Parks, Manu, Asiseo and Tingo Maria.

10) Chorisia intergrifolia Ulbr. (Bombacaceae). Lupuna blanca.

General

Large tree to 40 m tall and 2 m in diameter. It is the second most important source of sawlogs in Peru, the timber being used for furniture, plywood and pulp. The fibre surrounding the seed is used as filling for pillows. It is an adaptable species found in the tropical dry and moist forests and in Alluvial and Hill Forests. It does not form pure stands.

Conservation status

It is protected in the Manu and Tingo Maria National Parks.

11) Copaifera officinalis L. (Caesalpinioideae). Copaiba. Synonym: C. reticulata.

General

Straight tree to 25 m tall and 80 cm in diameter. The timber is used in construction and furniture and the tree is a source of medicinal oil. It is a widely distributed and adaptable species, found in the dry and moist forests of the Amazonia Province, in Alluvial Forests and on hill terraces.

Conservation status

It occurs only in the Manu National Park.

12) Hevea brasiliensis Willd (Euphoribiaceae). Jebe, Shiring Synonyms: H. janeirensis, H. sieberi, Siphonia brasiliensis.

General

A straight, medium-sized tree up to 45 m tall and 1 m in diameter. The latex is used for the production of rubber. The wood is used for furniture and boxes and the seeds are eaten locally. It occurs in the Amazonian Province in most forests and on low terraces and hills, with rainfall between 1,500 mm and 2,000 mm.

Conservation status

There has been a growing demand in recent years for the latex of this species because of the limited availability of synthetic substitutes. It occurs in the Manu National Park and in four National Forests.

13) Hura crepitans L. (Euphorbiaceae). Catahua

General

A straight, medium to large tree up to 45 m tall and 2 m in diameter. The timber is used for construction, furniture and plywood and the species also produces latex. It is found in the dry and moist Low Altitude Forests of the Amazonian Province, usually on slopes and terraces that are not subject to flooding.

Conservation status

It is found in the Manu and Tingo Maria National Parks.

14) Juglans neotropical Diels (Juglandaceae). Nogal

General

A straight, medium to large tree, upto 30 m tall and 1.5 m in diameter. The species is typical of the High Altitude Forest, occurring between 600 and 900 m. It is of traditional importance for the forest-dwelling communities. The timber is of excellent quality and is used for carpentry, joinery and veneer. The fruits are edible and the bark, leaves and fruit contain tannin which is used for treating skins. A decoction of the leaves, bark and fruit is used for dyeing clothes, producing a dark brown color.

Conservation status

It occurs in four of the six National Parks but is considered to be particularly at risk elsewhere in its range.

15) Loxopterygium huasango Spruce. (Anacardiaceae). Hualtaco, Huasango.

General

A tree up to 15 m tall and 1.3 in diameter. It occurs only in the closed dry forest and the dry forest/savanna mosaic of northern Peru. It produces very good quality timber, which is used for parquet flooring, and it is also used for fuelwood.

Conservation status

It is found in the Cerros de Amotape National Park. Exploitation of the species has been intense because of the quality of the wood. It has also been used for fuelwood and suffered the consequences of overgrazing. A ban has been introduced on the exploitation of the dry forest of the northeast in response to the threat to this and other species.

16) Podocarpus rospigliosii Pilger (Podocarpaceae). Diablo fuerte.

General

A straight, cylindrical, medium to large tree over 20 m tall and up to 1 m in diameter. The genus comprises 80 species, 7 of which have been reported in Peru. It is found in almost pure stands in the High Altitude Forest Zone at elevations of between 2,000 and 3,000 m. The climate is temperate, with over 2,000 mm rain and high relative humidity. The wood is widely used for decorative veneer, it is also used for parquet, pulp, furniture and construction.

Conservation status

It is protected in the Manu and Asiseo National Parks.

17) Podocarpus utilior Pilger (Podocarpaceae). Ulcumano.

General

A straight, branched tree. The common name Ulcumano creates confusion as it refers to several species of Podocarpus. It is found in the same areas as P. rospigliosii but at lower elevations (100 to 200 m lower). The wood is used in fine carpentry and joinery.

Conservation status

It occurs in the Manu and Asiseo National Parks. The two Podocarpus speceis used to occur in a belt running from the north to the south of Peru, but demand for the fine wood has greatly reduced the distribution and there are plans for further intensive exploitation of the species.

18) Polylepis incana H.B.K. (Rosaceae). Quinaul.

General

Tree with irregular bole, 5–8 m tall and 30cm in diameter. The genus has 15 species, 12 of which have been reported in Peru. The common name refers to any of the 15 species. It occurs in the high Andes, up to 5,000 m in sheltered valleys. As it is one of the few woody plants at these elevations, it is widely used for fuelwood, construction and handicrafts. It is also a source of tanning.

Conservation status

It occurs in the Huascaran, Manu and Asiseo National Parks. There is a danger that the species may disappear in Peru as it is restricted to just one ecological formation and a number of relict populations. It is of particular importance for wildlife and for some species of bird which depend exclusively upon it for their habitat. Furthermore, it is probably the only species that could be used for reforestation at extreme elevations.

19) Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC. (Fabaceae (Leguminosae)). Algarrobo. Synonyms: Neltuma juliflora, P. chilensis, P. glandulosa, P. horrida.

General

A leguminous species up to 20 m height and 30 cm in diameter with an umbrella-shaped crown. It occurs in the Pacific Desert Province at elevations up to 1,600 m. The wood is used for construction and furniture and also produces high quality charcoal. The sap is used in traditional medicine and the trunk exudes an amber coloured gum which is used as a substitute for gum arabic. The species is melliferous and is used in apiculture. Being leguminous it is also a source of nitrogen enrichment for the soil.

Conservation status

It is found in the Carros de Amotape National Park. It is one of the few species capable of growing in desert conditions and is subject to heavy local use. Combined with overgrazing, this has led to a radical contraction of its area of distribution.

20) Swietenia macrophylla C. King (Meliaceae). Caoba. Synonyms: S. bilenensis, S. candollei, S. tessmanii, S. krukovii.

General

A large straight, slightly fluted tree with buttresses up to 7 m high. There are 6 species in the genus, only S. macrophylla occurring in Peru. It is found in Hill Forests with rainfall between 1,500 and 3,500 mm. The wood is used for furniture, fine carpentry, parquet and handicrafts.

Conservation status

It occurs in the Manu and Tingo Maria National Parks.

21) Tabebuia serratifolia (Vahl) Nichol. (Bignoniaceae). Guyacan, Tahuari. Synonyms: Bignonia serratifolia.

General

A medium to large, straight tree, 35 m tall and 60 cm in diameter. There are 150 species in the genus, 4 of which have been reported in Peru. It is widely distributed in Peru, in flood-free primary forests between 100 and 500 m in altitude. The wood is used for construction, posts, railway ties and parquet. The tree is also a source of lapachol and xyloidine.

Conservation status

It occurs in three National Parks, Carros de Amotape, Cutervo and Manu.

22) Virola sebifera Aubl. (Myristicaceae) Cumala blanca. Synonyms: Myristica mocoa, V. mocoa, V. peruviana var. tomentosa.

General

A straight, cylindrical tree, up to 30 m tall and 60 cm in diameter. It is found in the moist Amazonian Forest on well drained soils, at elevations up to 1,200 m. The wood is used for construction, furniture and decorative boards. The tree is also a source of oil for soap.

Conservation status

The species is protected in the Manu, Asiseo and Tingo Maria National Parks.

ASSESSING CONSERVATION STATUS

As already mentioned, Peru has 5.4 million ha of National Forests and 5.36 million ha of Conservation Units. The extent to which this area samples the various biogeographic provinces or forest types can be estimated approximately by comparing maps of each. Figure 2 shows the distribution of Conservation Units (not including National Forests) superimposed on the map of biogeographic provinces. Table 2 presents a summary of the percentage of each biogeographic province which is included in protected areas of one kind or another; in this table, National Forests are included as well as Conservation Units. It can be seen that the Pacific Desert and Southern Andes provinces are poorly protected (1.23 and 0.96% respectively), while protected areas, if National Forests are included, cover over 10% of the Yungas and Amazonia provinces. Similar assessments have been made for the various forest types and life zones of the country.

The protection status of the 22 important species previously described, is summarized in Table 3. It can be seen that every species occurs in at least one unit classified as “strictly protected”. Too little is known of intra-specific variation for an assessment of the adequacy of protection of genetic diversity within species. In the case of a species with a widely dispersed distribution, such as Tabebuia serratifolia (Figure 3), it appears that a number of protected areas would be needed to conserve an adequate sample of genetic variation.

In the absence of adequate information on within-species diversity, it is necessary to base conservation measures on obtaining an adequate representation of Biogeographic Provinces and, if possible, Life Zones, and to assume that these will include a good percentage of the component species and associations. Further refinements should be made through the Programme of Continuous Survey of Natural Diversity, which is the responsibility of the Data Centre for Conservation at La Molina.

This centre was established in 1983 and has computer facilities to carry out its work. The center gathers, codifies, and disseminates data on the conservation status of plants, animals and protected areas in Peru and is a model which could be emulated by other countries and regions.

Figure 2. Biogeographic provinces and Conservation Units (Peru).

NP - National Parks
NR - National Reserves
NS - National Sanctuaries
HS - Historical Sanctuaries

Table 2

RELATIONSHIP OF PROTECTED AREAS TO BIOGEOGRAPHIC PROVINCES

( ) Number of units falling entirely in the Biogeographic Province.
N.P.: National Parks;
N.F.: National Forests;
N.R.: National Reserves;
N.S.: National Sanctuaries;
H.S.: Historical Sanctuaries

Table 3.

NUMBER AND CATEGORY OF PROTECTED AREAS IN WHICH THE SELECTED SPECIES OCCUR

NP - National Parks
NS - National Sanctuaries
NF - National Forests
HS - Historical Sanctuaries

Figure 3. Distribution of Tabebuia serratifolia

POSSIBLE IN SITU CONSERVATION PILOT PROJECT

A single major project involving the work of the Data Centre for Conservation has been identified. In addition to the woody species listed in the case study it is proposed to extend the activities of the Centre to include the following species:

The project could:

1. Assess the extent to which existing protected areas are adequate to conserve the genetic resources of the selected woody species (inter and intra- specific variations

2. Identify the policies and administrative structures required to ensure the conservation and use of the genetic resources of important woody species

3. Identify research and development on the conservation status of woody species of importance.

REFERENCES

Holdridge, L.R. 1978 Ecologia basada en zonas de vida, Edit. IICA, San José, 216 pp.

Malleux, J. 1975 Mapa Forestal del Peru (memoria Explicativa) Imprenta ONERN, Lima, 161 pp.

ONERN 1976 Mapa ecológico de Peru, Guia explicativa, Oficina Nacional de Evaluación de Recursos Naturales, 146 pp.

Tosi, J. 1960 Zonas de vida natural en el Peru. Instituto Interamericano de Ciencias Agricolas (Zona Andina). Lima, 271 pp.

Udvardy, M. 1975 A classification of the biogeographical provinces of the world. IUCN Occasional paper No 18. UICN, Suiza. 48 pp.