Opening and General Introduction
Monitoring Animal Genetic Resources and Criteria for Priority Order of Endangered Breeds
Practical Issues for the Conservation and Improvement of Priority Breeds - Global Reviews of Species
Future Role of Biotechnologies in the Conservation and Improved Use of Animal Genetic Resources
Legal and Regulatory Issues for the Management of Global Animal Genetic Resources and the Application of Relevant Biotechnologies
F. Organizational and Institutional Levels
THE MANAGEMENT OF GLOBAL ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES
H. de Haen1
On behalf of the Director-General and, more specifically the Agriculture Department, I welcome you to the Expert Consultation on the Management of Global Animal Genetic Resources. FAO appreciates the fact that experts from all corners of the world are willing to provide their knowledge to assist it in its task.
The role of livestock production in the achievement of sustainable agriculture is well recognized. The ability of various types of livestock to use roughage, crop residues and various waste feeds and by-products is well known and utilized although not always fully exploited. The ability to survive in and adapt to any array of environments did not always get due consideration either. The contribution to the food diet in terms of milk and meat provides a valuable, albeit in many cases small, addition to protein intake and the animals provide products for use as hides, skins, wool, plus manure either as fertilizer or as fuel and, in some cases, animals provide draught power.
World population continues to grow. While total livestock production has increased, the output per individual livestock unit has not changed significantly. The most pressing need for increased animal efficiency is to feed animals adequately but there is another need which is becoming ever more urgent as the pressure grows for animal production to increase output and that is to ensure that the genetic resource base is maintained.
Increased communication, access and technical options are adding to the pressures to exploit genetic programmes for short term gains. Such pressures, particularly from politicians, are quite understandable and correctly reflect priorities to feed people. While programmes should aim to exploit genetic variability in the optimal manner there is now a much clearer understanding that there should be no loss of genetic resource in achieving gains. For the longer term, it is crucial that such genetic resources as exist should be maintained. Genetic programmes need to be sustainable in their own right. This should be seen not necessarily on a country basis but in the context of the environment in which the animals are required to produce. From the viewpoint of sustainable agriculture, conservation of animal genetic diversity is an important component of the preserving natural resources base.
The traditional twin approaches of improved use versus maintenance of genetic diversity should no longer be seen as a dilemma since the need is for both and both can be achieved. Indeed it is part of FAO's responsibility to ensure that both occur. FAO has been concerned with this aspect of livestock production virtually since its inception. About 50 percent of FAO publications on animal production and health have been concerned with the subject, with one as early as 1948 on “Breeding livestock adapted to unfavourable environments”.
1 Assistant Director-General, Agriculture Department, FAO, Rome 00100, Italy.
FAO has been more active on Animal Genetic Resources since the special FAO/UNEP Technical Consultation in 1980. One of the papers at this present Expert Consultation comprehensively reviews the progress over this period. In recent years, the FAO Committee on Agriculture (COAG) and the FAO Council have regularly considered animal genetic resource matters and have supported the increasing development of a long term programme.
At its meeting in April 1991, the COAG stated in its report to the FAO Council the following endorsement of plans for the preservation and improvement of animal genetic resources.
"The Committee welcomed the increased attention and activities aimed at strengthening national capabilities in developing countries for the conservation and utilization of animal genetic resources. It noted that this went a long way in responding to the Council recommendation that FAO prepare a programme for the sustainable development of animal genetic resources on a global level. The Committee supported the idea and, in particular, the activities proposed to initiate the programme, i.e.:
"The Committee urged care to ensure that in selecting for one trait, other traits of equal or greater value are not lost. The Committee also urged FAO to include camelides - camels and especially alpaca - in the pilot projects for genetic improvement.
“Following the request of the last session of the Council the Committee examined the possibilities for widening the mandate of the Commission of Plant Genetic Resources to become the Commission for Biodiversity in Food and Agriculture. The Committee could not agree to broaden the mandate at this time and consequently, it recommended calling an expert consultation, provided that funds could be located, to assist in making a more informed judgement about the desirability of establishing a separate forum for animal genetic resources. The expert consultation would also assess the proposed programme on animal genetic resources.”
These paragraphs clearly indicate what the Eleventh Session of the Committee on Agriculture (COAG) had in mind when it proposed the Expert Consultation. The objectives are clearly stated and will be the major areas addressed over the next few days. None of the subjects referred to or as elaborated in the agenda of this meeting is new. The outline programme sent to you last year with the initial indication of this meeting is a useful start but it requires full evaluation and assessment. The recommendations of the 1989 FAO expert consultation on animal genetic resources are contained in the report and proceedings (FAO, 1990) of that meeting. They should be considered alongside the elements of the most recent COAG request which are all contained in the agenda of this expert consultation. It is a wide ranging agenda covering detailed consideration of policy issues, the degree of threat, global evaluation of species and the role of the new biotechnologies as well as legal, structural and institutional matters.
It is clear that there is greater awareness that a framework for the management of global animal genetic resources must be established. It is most appropriate that this Expert Consultation is taking place now in the context and timing of the Earth Summit, the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) to be held in Brazil in about eight weeks time.
It is pleasing to note that the Agenda 21 document at the Earth Summit, which concerns ongoing issues for the next century, includes the FAO proposals on animal genetic resources as a specific section. These are naturally based on the FAO outline programme, which you are further to develop here.
Given the world concern for biological diversity and given the fact that there are about 2,500 identified breeds of farm livestock (500 in Europe and 2000 elsewhere), it is important that the new programme is clearly defined and can be applied with urgency. I note from papers you will consider at this Expert Consultation that some 26 percent of identified breeds in developing countries have census figures on populations and 30 percent have production records; clearly there is more work to be done at this level alone.
This Expert Consultation is meeting as there is greater recognition of the need and increased activity to safeguard the global environment and biological diversity. At the same time, the need to feed the world remains and that problem continues to increase; it is a considerable task but certainly is not insurmountable. This Expert Consultation should, by its deliberations and in its final documents, provide clear guidelines for global activities concerned with the improved use and the conservation of animal genetic resources which is an important component of the ongoing task of feeding the world. It is crucial that activities can be tackled with the urgency required. This expert consultation can provide the considerable weight of its expertise in assisting FAO to achieve that goal.
FAO, and in particular colleagues in the Animal Production and Health Division, is grateful for the time and effort which you are prepared to put into animal genetic resources and, in particular, into this meeting in preparation, in debate and in providing documented recommendations. I wish you well in your deliberations and a successful conclusion to your work.
Reference
FAO, 1990. Animal genetic resources: a global programme for sustainable development. Animal Production and Health Paper No.80. Proceedings of an FAO Expert Consultation, Rome, Italy, September 1989.
J. Hodges1
1 Introduction2
The decade of the 1980s has been one of change and progress for animal genetic resources. The growing world population and expectations of higher living standards are increasing the demand for animal products, especially in developing countries. In response livestock producers seek to increase productivity per animal. This usually involves attempts to change the genotype of traditional livestock types either by breed substitution or, more commonly, by crossbreeding. There is a tendency to focus upon fewer breeds and crosses which are more suited to current production systems and market conditions. Consequently many indigenous breeds with unique traits are threatened and may be lost in the absence of special steps to preserve them. In developing countries local animals are often specially adapted to harsh climates, able to use poor quality feed and to resist endemic disease. It would be tragic if they were lost. There is a growing awareness in the world community that an international approach is needed to preserve biological diversity in its many forms including animal genetic resources.
All possible aspects of animal genetic resources and the need for concerted conservation action have been discussed in a variety of fora over the last ten years. These include national and international gatherings of concerned livestock producers, scientists, administrators and international organizations both inter-governmental (IG) and non-governmental (NGO). Among the international agencies, FAO has taken a lead position, associated in some activities with UNEP. Several other inter-governmental organizations and non-governmental organizations such as Unesco, World Conservation Union (IUCN) and the World Resources Institute (WRI) have indicated their interest.
1 Weissenstein 8, A-5730 Mittersill, Austria.
Studies and/or activities have been undertaken by some CGIAR centres, especially ILCA, ILRAD and CATIE. Regional groups have given time to the topic, including ALPA, ARABIC Groups, DAGENE, EAAP, the NORDIC countries, OAU/IBAR, SABRAO and others. National organizations in many developed countries have effective conservation programmes. Well known successful examples are the Rare Breed Survival Trust (RBST) in the UK and the American Minor Breed Conservancy (AMBC) in the USA. In developing countries, budding programmes are found only in the larger states such as Argentina, Brazil, China, and India. Animal genetic resources are currently on the agenda of UNDP and the World Bank and are included in the major theme of biological diversity at the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) Brazil in June 1992. The US National Research Council is currently completing a comprehensive review of animal genetic resources. At the 1993 World Conference on Animal Production to be held in Canada the issue is scheduled as a major topic. A new international NGO, Rare Breeds International (RBI), was created in 1991 with founder membership in 30 countries and is exclusively concerned with these issues. And this list is by no means exhaustive.
Despite this enormous interest and concern, programmes to date have been mainly national with the beginnings only of some regional activities. The activities have been most successful in the developed world, where a variety of private organizations has been established to engage in animal genetic conservation. During the years of central planning in countries of Eastern Europe and the former USSR, some governments started and maintained conservation programmes.
Even though there are successful programmes in the developed world, the main result of the widespread discussion and study to date has not been a world wide programme but rather raised awareness of and expectations for such an initiative. It may be recalled that in 1980, when FAO and UNEP called national governments together for a Technical Consultation (FAO, 1981) on animal genetic resources, the issues were low on the priority list for national and international action were poorly understood and were even regarded as a fringe topic compared with increasing animal output. The decade of stimulus from 1980–89 has been particularly valuable in putting animal genetic resources on the agenda of national governments and also of several influential international organizations. A realistic diagnosis of the present activities leads to the conclusion that there are two outstanding issues which call for urgent action.
The format of this paper is to review the past, assess the present and highlight the issues needing resolution for action. A companion background paper is entitled “Policy Issues and Financial Requirement of the Programmes for the Conservation of Indigenous Livestock Breeds”. This first paper brings into a focussed review, in the next section, the conclusions from the many studies, discussions and reports of the last decade.
2 Need for a global programme for animal genetic resources
2.1 Rationale
Why should efforts be made to conserve threatened breeds? A minority has argued that there is no need to be concerned since market forces will automatically bring about any conservation which is really needed. Others opposed to organized conservation cite costs and the absence of any guaranteed returns as valid reasons to let matters take their own course. On the other hand, there is a substantial majority who feel that the reasons for not instituting programmes are inadequate and also that the loss of unique genetic material from domestic animals is unacceptable. Animal genetic diversity, they point out, is part of the earth's natural heritage and mankind depends upon animals for work, for clothing and for food. A distillation of the reasons to support institutionalized conservation, taken from the wide variety of sources already mentioned, is now given here:
2.1.1 Economic
Livestock are essential elements of the economy at local, national and international levels. These elements include the support of standards of living with livestock products and the contribution of livestock and livestock products to trade and wealth creation. Since genetic variation is the raw material for animal improvement, its conservation provides options for uncertain and unknown future economic needs. Livestock management systems respond to economic conditions. The livestock industry in the future is likely to use different systems from those used today. Conserved genetic variation will offer the resources to respond quickly and economically to changes in the market. Most countries have animal genetic variation with adaptive and performance traits which are not needed for present management and economic conditions. Future producers and consumers together with all concerned with economics would consider this generation unwise to have failed to conserve this flexibility for future economic changes.
2.1.2 Scientific
Breeds with unique traits are of great interest scientifically in a number of ways. Some obvious examples are the unique DNA sequences of species, breeds, strains and populations, the specialized physiological and adaptive functions and the opportunity to study animals as biological models. At the molecular level science is entering a new era when society will benefit from manipulation of biological material. DNA, which holds the coding for genetic variation, is the key to this breakthrough. DNA combinations are highly important to science, even though their nature and function is not yet understood. Genetic variation will be of increasing interest and importance to science both at the animal and molecular levels in the future. Loss of the full range of animal genetic variation which has been developed over thousands of years of natural and human selection would be a great loss to science.
2.1.3 Human culture
For thousands of years livestock have been intimately associated with human life. They are one of the special characteristics of human culture. They are comparable with many other reminders of man's past civilizations and life styles which, when threatened, are treasured and preserved with little dispute.
2.1.4 Global biodiversity
Animal, plant, forest, fish and wildlife genetic resources are equal major components of biological diversity. The domesticated animal species ought not to be viewed as totally separate from the species of plants, trees and animals still found in natural environments. Domestic animals not only share DNA as the common basis of their genetic nature with all other species, but are also integrated in many management systems with pasture and forest species and with wild animals. The overall approach to the conservation of biological diversity should ideally embrace all these species as well as the animal breeds which provide diversity within the domestic animal species. Although animals, plants and forestry may need separate operational programmes, the linkages should be recognized and the activities planned in relation to each other so that, where possible unity in the conservation of biological diversity is achieved rather than competition.
2.1.5 Development and sustainability
A primary goal of the management of global animal genetic resources is to ensure the sustainable development of animal agriculture in particular and of agriculture in general. This is built upon the premise that conservation and development are parts of one process. Conservation has very reduced meaning if use, however far in the future, is not a basic premise. Similarly use alone, as practiced by mankind today, automatically leads to loss of genetic diversity.
2.1.6 Environment
The environmental implications of domestic animals are substantial. There are billions of cattle, sheep and goats in human care in developing countries which daily move over huge areas of land, where they graze and browse on natural vegetation and depend upon natural supplies of water. The implications of their interactions with the other components of the environment are enormous. The interactions between domestic animals, wildlife, plants and trees, as well as micro-organisms, mean that any programme concerned with preserving the environment and biological diversity, especially in developing countries, must include animal genetic resources.
2.1.7 Social aspects
Livestock owners in developing countries are increasingly under economic pressure to change their indigenous breeds. In some cases such change can also affect their traditional lifestyle and thus have additional environmental impacts. Whether livestock owners decide for or against such changes, they deserve the support of the best information and the continued availability of animal genetic diversity so that they can make decisions which are valid for them, for their children and grandchildren, for their land - and for the global environment.
2.2 Conclusion on rationale for conservation
The above aspects of the rationale for the conservation of animal genetic resources are based on a recognition that society must use natural resources sustainably. An approach which is solely utilitarian and exploitative fails to anticipate tomorrow. Underlying the financial support for conservation is the concept of insurance. There are available and tried methods of conserving animal genetic resources which are neither costly in absolute terms nor in relation to the costs of preserving plants or forest trees.
2.3 The need for urgent action
The complex issues for and against planned conservation have been debated and evaluated in technical and economic terms in many different fora over the last ten years. Recently they have been formally reviewed by the member governments of FAO through the Committee on Agriculture (COAG), which approved the existing FAO programme without reservation and recognized the need to expand it to a global scale as quickly as possible. A report of this review is given in FAO (1990).
Why then, it may be asked, does such a global programme not already exist? No technical, scientific or philosophical barriers remain. Political approval and intent have been expressed. What are the limitations which have effectively precluded such a programme in the face of the unanimous support of national governments, the stated commitment of several international bodies, the scientific evidence and the expressed enthusiasm on the part of many private groups and individuals ? There are however two realms which, to date, have not been effectively structured and without which no further progress can be expected.
These are the topics on which this Expert Consultation is asked to provide recommendations. This paper identifies the needed activities and addresses the question of how they should be organized. A second paper by the same author discusses the issues of policy and finance.
3 Historic patterns in the use of animal genetic resources
3.1 Long term background
Since conservation involves not only the use of carefully designed practices in the present, but also anticipates the long term future, it is appropriate to pause for a moment and to look back over periods of time past to see how domestic livestock have come to their present position. Such a review highlights the extremely rapid pace of change now affecting animal genetic resources compared with the leisurely rates of change in the past. Time is limited. Options for conservation are reduced by delay. Perspectives on animal genetic variation are sharpened by standing back briefly to absorb the enormous impact of late twentieth century science and economics on domestic animals. Such a moment gives a better time frame against which to plan for the future.
Society has domesticated a limited number of animal species of which about fifteen are used generally for food, fibre and work. Six or seven of these are major species found in almost all communities throughout the world. They are cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, chickens, turkeys and in Asia, the buffalo. Although having centres of origin in specific locations these domesticated species, apart from the buffalo, have spread and are now used throughout the inhabited world. Through the large numbers of breeds and types which they comprise they exhibit great adaptability in the most diverse of climates and eco-systems. Since the breeds and types within a species can inter-breed, they provide an extraordinary and prolific source of genetic variation. Other domestic species - for example, camelidae, elephant and yak - are used by more limited numbers of people.
3.2 Eras of change for animal genetic resources (Hodges, 1990b)
3.2.1 Domestication
Centres of origin: 9,000-5,000 BC.
3.2.2 Migrations of human populations with their domestic animals
Adaptation of animals to hostile environments; isolation; genetic drift, natural and human selection; the result is an enormous number of highly adapted breeds of animals within each domestic animals species. 5,000 BC-1700 AD.
3.2.3 Controlled matings
Herd books; more intensive selection for preferred types. 1,700–1945 AD
3.2.4 Application of science
Artificial insemination; freezing of semen; new quantitative methods for selection of desired traits; computers; selection of inbred populations; crossbreeding; movements of semen and livestock internationally on a large scale. 1945-present.
3.2.5 Era of biotechnology
Started in 1980s, may be decades before widely applied at farm level, but has enormous potential; embryo manipulation including splitting, cloning, sexing; in vitro fertilization; transgenic animals with designer gene mix; new applications of quantitative genetics; hormonal control of reproduction, growth and lactation.
3.3 Evaluation of legacy of the past in animal genetic resources
Because developing countries have a greater range of natural environments than temperate zones, they have a wealth of indigenous animal and poultry breeds and types, which over thousands of years have become adapted to difficult and harsh conditions. Local breeds are frequently associated with characteristic human lifestyles, which have often been shaped around the indigenous animals in many different environments and agro-economic niches. The land resource includes tropical cropland, deserts, arid and sub-arid areas, rain forests, grasslands, cold tundra, high ranges, and a great variety of climates. Some arid areas cannot support large scale crop production and therefore maintain limited populations of specialized ruminant species and breeds which bring the poor natural herbage into the human food chain. Other examples of adaptation to a special environment are the trypanotolerant breeds of Central and West Africa where trypanosomiasis is endemic. There are many others less well known. In regions of higher elevation where insect vectors of some tropical animal diseases cannot live, for example in the highlands of East Africa, large livestock populations are found which consist of many breeds with differing adaptations.
The prevalence of small scale livestock ownership in many parts of the developing world and the isolation of communities over centuries contributes to the integration of animals with human lifestyles, diet, work habits, wealth and traditions. This isolation has resulted in many local breeds, usually easily identifiable by their different appearances. Often, however, it is not known whether these morphological differences are symptomatic of true genetic differences in performance. What is known, however, is the outstanding ability of many indigenous breeds to survive and support human life within specific agro-ecosystems. Until recently human interventions have been introduced only by the local people and have produced a variety of management systems ranging from the nomadic and transhumant to small livestock producers, large range systems and integrated crop/livestock farming.
Relatively little change took place during thousands of years. Although the colonial periods brought new livestock introductions to the Americas where some of the major species did not previously exist, by contrast, in Asia, Africa and the Middle East even the colonial periods brought little change in animal agriculture. Much has changed in the last forty years. In Europe and North America during this period man has changed the genetic make-up of domestic livestock through quantitative genetics allied to the widespread use of artificial insemination (AI) and the long-term storage of semen by freezing. Breed replacement was the first step, followed by constantly improved breeding methods within a few high performance breeds and resulting in massive increases in animal productivity. Though a little late in starting, conservation of the declining breeds has now been established in all countries of the developed world and only relatively few of the old indigenous breeds were totally lost.
The economic and technical orientation of western civilization calls for comparable changes and benefits to improve the livestock of developing countries. So, it has been tempting, both to the leaders of animal production in developing countries and to specialists in the developed world, to try to increase individual animal production in the tropics with similar methods. However, the transfer of these techniques and germplasm to developing countries has, to date, achieved only very limited success with ruminant livestock at the level of the producer. This is due to several reasons. First, temperate breeds of ruminants are largely unable to achieve their normal performance and even to survive for long in tropical environments. Second, the limited social and economic infrastructures have precluded the adequate use of the modern techniques of AI and field breeding programmes.
Nevertheless the increased international movement of genes in semen and increasingly in embryos has affected livestock of the developing world. Since the higher producing temperate breeds cannot survive in pure form, crossbreeding indigenous with temperate breeds is an attractive option. Crossing with exotic tropical breeds having both higher economic value and adaptation is also practiced. Frequently entering through government research or livestock stations, shipments of exotic semen, embryos and animals, as purchases, gifts or aid, have been used to produce crossbred animals which are then released into the community of livestock owners. These animals bring variable mixes of genes from the indigenous and the imported breeds. Success in raising production brings an additional cost; namely, that the indigenous breed, in pure form, faces dilution and possibly extinction. Failed introductions can also have similar effect. Consequently many indigenous breeds with unique adaptive genetic traits are today threatened by new breeding practices and exotic germplasm. Although hard, quantitative information is difficult to obtain, no serious observer of the local scenes doubts that indigenous breeds are at high risk. Some countries have tried to assess the extent of the loss and risk. For example, in Africa, the Organization for African Unity (OAU), through its Inter-African Bureau for Animal Resources (IBAR), has attempted breed surveys from time to time which, though far from complete, reveal significant numbers of breeds which are already threatened and many others whose populations are in decline. These surveys show clearly that breed erosion is mainly due to economic pressures on livestock owners to increase animal output by displacing indigenous breeds or by cross-breeding them with exotic breeds with higher performance. The same story is known in most other parts of the developing world. In all cases, the indigenous breed in pure form is under threat.
It is most important to state clearly at this point that the aim of conservation is not to preserve the indigenous breeds and their owners in developing countries in the status quo, without the benefits of improved animals. As already noted, well designed conservation programmes combine improved use and preservation of indigenous breeds in economically viable, scientifically sound, long term, sustainable programmes. However, such programmes are clearly not being offered to most livestock producers at present. It is not an easy task, as international agencies and national specialists have discovered. Even in optimum circumstances there are considerable organizational difficulties in structuring the crossbreeding of ruminants to obtain the desired gene mix.
It is concluded that in most developing countries where the infrastructures are generally poor, the only certain genetic result has been a decrease in numbers of the purebred indigenous animals. Nevertheless considerable efforts are in progress to assist livestock producers to benefit from improved output per animal. A good livestock development programme which includes a genetic component, should always aim to maintain a pure population of the indigenous breed. This is necessary for ongoing genetic improvement, otherwise the source of the adaptive genes needed for future generations of crossbred animals is lost.
4 Record of institutional activities
4.1 International activities since 1945
The United Nations has been concerned with animal genetic resources for more than forty years. As early as 1948, FAO published its first study on the subject, entitled “Breeding Livestock Adapted to Unfavourable Environments”. Growing FAO activities in this field are demonstrated by publications over the next twenty-five years, mostly arising from studies or projects on different livestock species. Examples are “Zebu Cattle of India and Pakistan (1953); “Types and Breeds of African Cattle” (1957); and “The Buffaloes of China” (1970). (See Appendix 1 for a full list of FAO and FAO/UNEP publications in this field.) This documentation, while valuable in its day, was often concerned with descriptions of the breeds in the natural environments where they were found. Genetic improvement was largely concerned with selection within the indigenous breed. It was slow and often limited in success. More, animal production was gained by improved health care and nutrition.
4.2 Increasing application of science
In the 1960s, when the technique for freezing semen became possible, interest in the international movement of animal germplasm grew rapidly with the aim of increasing livestock production in developing countries, many of which were newly independent. By that time the displacement of traditional breeds in the developed world was well advanced. No serious adaptation problems were encountered in Europe when temperate breeds replaced other temperate breeds. Consequently genetic improvement methods in developed regions emphasized selection within breeds using quantitative genetic techniques. However breed substitution and quantitative genetic methods were not easily transferred to the tropics where problems of animal adaptation became evident. As a result the focus of livestock improvement in the tropics moved to defining the appropriate mix of exotic and indigenous genes for a given environment, to the genetic effects of crossbreeding and to organizational methods for achieving the desired gene mix.
4.3 Growing interest in the environment
At the same time more thorough studies were started of the environment in which the domestic animal lives. This has resulted in a better understanding of the limiting factors of the environment in animal production and of the interactions between natural habitats and breeds with special adaptation traits. In developing regions other than Africa, these studies have resulted in the introduction of some practices to change the natural environment, thus adjusting a new animal gene mix to a modified environment. In Africa this approach has been very limited. Most African livestock systems for ruminants remain in an essentially unmodified natural environment.
4.4 The creation of United Nations Environment Programme
The growing international awareness of a deteriorating environment in the early 1970s led to the 1973 UN Stockholm Conference and to the creation of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). FAO was one of the first UN Specialized Agencies to join with the newly established UNEP in formulating joint projects which took account of the need for development and conservation to be practiced together. In the mid 1970s, a joint FAO/UNEP project for the Conservation and Management of Animal Genetic Resources was set up. It soon became clear that activity on a single country basis was inadequate. Many issues and needs were, in principle, common to all developing countries. FAO publications of the period show interest moving to regional activities and to the study of species found in many countries. Examples are “Bibliography on the Criollo Cattle of the Americas” (1977), Mediterranean Cattle and Sheep in Crossbreeding” (1978) and “Dairy Cattle Breeding in the Humid Tropics” (1979).
4.5 FAO/UNEP Technical Consultation and programme
In 1980, FAO and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) held a Technical Consultation on the Conservation and Management of Animal Genetic Resources, the aim of which was to identify priority areas and activities on a global and regional basis. All member governments of FAO and of UNEP were invited. Representatives of more than one hundred member governments participated. It should be noted that at that time the term ‘Management’ was used to include development activities; thus the concepts of improvement and conservation were already seen together. The meeting produced a comprehensive series of recommendations. These covered the reasons for genetic erosion in animal resources, rationale for conservation being linked with improved management, establishment of regional activities, data banks and gene banks, promotion of appropriate research in areas likely to aid conservation and reproduction, training nationals of developing countries, study of health barriers to movements of germplasm, breeding programmes for conservation and for improvement, special studies of the little known animal populations in the USSR and China, publication of a newsletter and the creation of an FAO/UNEP Joint Expert Advisory Panel.
These activities were all completed between 1982 and 1989, being financially supported by UNEP through a renewed joint FAO/UNEP project and by the FAO Regular Programme. FAO was the executing agency. Methodology studies and field trials in many countries were completed, documented and published for characterizing breeds, operating animal genetic data banks, sampling threatened populations, collecting semen, embryos and DNA, health checks and monitoring and establishing cryogenic gene banks.
A close watch was maintained on developments in biotechnology, especially in two areas which might contribute to improved conservation techniques. These are:
genome mapping, DNA handling and genome libraries, and
reproduction and embryo manipulation.
Training courses were held, a periodic publication - Animal Genetic Resources Information - was issued, the animal genetic resources of the USSR and China were surveyed and published and the FAO/UNEP Joint Expert Panel met several times to monitor progress and make further recommendations. Other Expert Consultations were also held for special subjects; for example, on the final appraisal of the trials to develop new Animal Descriptors.
In addition, the necessary infrastructures for regional cryogenic animal gene banks were negotiated with governments in 7 developing countries (Africa - Ethiopia and Senegal; Asia - China and India; Latin America - Argentine, Brazil, Mexico). Lack of funding has so far restricted the inflow of germplasm from other countries in the regions, although in Latin America a training course for nationals of participating countries has been held. Also an animal genetic data bank was arranged in 1988 by the European Association of Animal Production (EAAP) and FAO at Hannover, Germany which has a comprehensive set of data on all European breeds, (Simon, 1990). Nationals from the 7 developing country regional animal gene banks were trained at Hannover, (Hodges, 1990c). However, limited data has been flowing from developing countries.
In 1991, FAO set up a matching Data Bank which includes all developing regions. It has been designed to bring together in one system the animal genetic information contained in the large variety of FAO livestock reports, publications and projects. The FAO data base uses software developed at the FAO/EAAP Data Bank in Hannover, Germany. The FAO bank used Mason's “World Dictionary of Livestock Breeds” (Mason, 1988) as a framework. This is the only orderly world list of domestic breeds and although it has little characterization data, it nevertheless offers a unique classification of most breeds. The FAO Data Bank has names of 1608 breeds in Africa, Asia, Central and Latin America. 29% and 21 % have some information on production and population size, respectively (see note on FAO global animal genetic data bank in this publication). This will form the skeleton for a new developing world inventory.
4.6 Review of FAO/UNEP programme
In 1989, the FAO Committee on Agriculture (COAG), which is one of the Governing Bodies of the Organization, reviewed the programme on animal genetic resources. The COAG commended the work and recognized that there is now an urgent need to apply these proven conservation techniques on a global scale. Subsequently, the FAO Council affirmed the recommendations of the COAG and called for the programme to be expanded and further developed. It also recommended that lack of funding should not be the cause of delay in implementation nor lessen the impetus already achieved. Unfortunately, several events have prevented the implementation of the global programme so far. While it is clear that FAO's regular programme could never finance the development of the global programme, restrictions on FAO's budget in recent years have also unfortunately limited any expansion of the small group of FAO staff working on this sub-programme. The need for special funding was recognized by the COAG, which proposed a special trust fund for animal genetic resources and invited individual governments to donated. Apart from one or two significant indications of future support, this appeal has not resulted in any general response. This is due, in part, to the present economic climate and the absence to date of an agreed organizational system for a world wide programme. In the meanwhile, FAO is continuing with some activities supported by the Regular Programme and UNEP is continuing to provide some funds.
5 The present position
A solid decade of work on animal genetic resources conservation has been carried out by FAO and UNEP in cooperation with some other bodies and includes the following: the original consultation in 1980 at the inter-governmental and technical levels; constant monitoring of technical developments; design, trial and documentation of methods; identification of breeds in need of conservation; development of rationale and methods for the integration of development and conservation of animal genetic resources; pilot field programmes with select breeds; experience in training; establishment of needed technical infrastructures for data and gene banks; publications; raising levels of awareness among governments; and cooperation with other bodies having similar interests in animal genetic resources in the developing countries. Techniques are established, tested and ready for application, as listed in the following paragraphs.
6 Work done
6.1 Identification and sampling of threatened breeds
All needed knowledge is available on methods for identification of threatened breeds and populations, estimation of effective populations sizes, analysis of structure, demography and rates of change of populations, sampling techniques to ensure that genetic variation is preserved, avoidance of inbreeding, criteria for selection of animals for preservation, numbers of doses of semen, embryos or oocytes per donor and per breed, collection of blood and extraction of DNA and collection of appropriate records for long term storage and subsequent use of germplasm.
6.2 Animal gene banks
(a) Cryogenic storage of semen of most species and of embryos of some species are available techniques. Long term storage of DNA is a most convenient and practical process.
(b) Techniques for reproductive manipulation are available for collection of germplasm, including screening of male and female donors, evaluation, processing, freezing and labelling of semen and embryos
(c) Regional animal gene banks for the cryogenic storage of germplasm and DNA have been established in principle with key governments in Africa, Asia and Latin America. A training course has been held in the latter region. Such gene banks would provide uniform methodology and split samples for the secure storage of germplasm and DNA. Organizational and legal aspects need more work.
(d) Such regional animal gene banks are well suited to serve the interests of smaller countries whose national resources are limited and for which national animal gene banks would be extravagant. Many developing country governments have indicated their wish to take part in such regional facilities and also for their nationals to receive training in the needed techniques.
6.3 Animal health
Technical aspects of animal health procedures and protocols are well developed, including tests for suspect diseases, appropriate tests for shipment, quarantine and isolation and records to accompany samples.
6.4 Animal genetic data banks
(a) Methods exist for handling passport, characterization, census and other breed data. Software programmes have been prepared, tested and are in use in animal data banks.
(b) An Animal Data Bank is established and fully operational at Hannover in Germany, which has focussed largely mainly on the animal genetic resources of Europe. An Animal Data Bank for developing countries is established at FAO in Rome and is compatible with the German counterpart.
6.5 Preservation of breeding herds or flocks
Considerable experience has been gained in developed countries in establishing and operating breeding herds or flocks for preservation. Some of the larger developing countries have also established herds or flocks of breeding animals.
6.6 Breed development strategies
Experience has been gained on the introduction of genetic improvement programmes which integrate with the indigenous breeds and thus avoid endangering animal genetic resources.
6.7 Indigenous selection conservation programmes
New methods are under trial in both developed and developing countries for the genetic improvement of indigenous breeds. These include Nucleus Breeding, with or without Multiple Ovulation Embryo Transfer (MOET) and Genetic Screening.
6.8 Government approval
The FAO Committee on Agriculture (COAG) approved the work to date without reservation and recommended that it be expanded to an operational global programme as a matter of urgency. The work to be done is listed in outline below. More details are given in Hodges, 1991.
7 Tasks remaining
There are many breeds of indigenous livestock in developing countries which are declining. The rate of decline, the current numbers of animals, the distribution and likely dates for extinction are generally not known. Mason's Dictionary indicates some indigenous breeds have already been lost
The genetic characteristics of many threatened breeds in developing countries are poorly documented. Although their production may be relatively low, resulting in declining economic interest, breeds often have unique adaptive qualities.
Attempts to document the status of breeds by mail surveys have generally not been successful. It is most difficult to obtain accurate information in many countries and sub-regions where breeds are most at risk.
National boundaries are poor indicators of breed distribution. Breeds frequently exist in several countries, although known by different names.
Legal protocols are needed to ensure that the samples in a regional animal gene bank have identified ownership and access to third parties under agreed conditions is guaranteed.
Animal health protocols which are agreed in principle need to be established for the transfer of germplasm from country to country for storage in regional animal gene banks. The practical procedures must ensure that animal diseases are not spread via regional animal gene banks, that accurate records are established of the health status of the animals from which the samples are taken and that any restrictions are realistic and do not limit activities.
The existing data on indigenous breeds in developing countries must be brought together, examined and verified if needed, then collated into a useable system. While not necessarily meaning that it must be in one location, it must be uniform and accessible to all users.
Documentation is needed of breeds for which there is no data on genetic characterizations, population status or productions/ adaptability traits.
A World Watch List is required to provide governments with early warning.
Technical and financial support is requested by many developing countries wishing to develop breeding herds or flocks for preservation programmes.
Training programmes are needed for both national scientists and administrators in the operation and management of national programmes and to provide them with a window on their involvement and connection with the global facilities and programme.
Studies on genetic distance are needed to establish relationships between breeds having different names or being in different locations. These will also provide clues to preservation needs, and in the longer term will enhance the scientific understanding of adaptive and productive traits.
Provision of breeding strategies to national governments.
Creation of appropriate infrastructure and institutions to implement a global programme for animal genetic resources at national and international levels.
Source of new funding for a global programme.
8 Issues to be included in a global action plan
This comprehensive review of the past offers a harvest of valuable information for deciding where to go from here. Present decision makers also have a heritage of recommendations from earlier Expert Consultations and from the FAO COAG and Council. Combining this distilled experience of the last decade with new visions and rising interest from the world community, it should now be possible to design an Action Plan for the Management of Global Animal Genetic Resources. That is the task of the Expert Consultation in April, 1992. This paper, as an introduction to that Expert Consultation, provides an Agenda for that Action Plan. In other words it identifies the issues which ought to be considered for inclusion in the Action Plan at the national and international levels. This final stage of this paper therefore brings forward issues in an orderly way which must be addressed by the Expert Consultation.
8.1 Information handling
Handling of information includes the rationalization of existing limited amounts of data; the identification of breeds, environments and animal management systems from which additional data is needed; and the analyses of data to support valid decision making on conservation and utilization programmes. Rationalization of existing information and harvesting of new data will permit priority lists of breeds for special attention by country and region. A further output from the data handling activity will be the new World Watch List for Animal Genetic Resources.
8.2 Field programmes for individual breeds
Arising from the World Watch List will be identification of both high potential and high risk breeds. Field programmes will then be designed to the needs of individual breeds and will include development strategy plans and indigenous selection/conservation programmes.
8.3 Preservation
Priority must be given to preservation of breeds which are threatened. Even though their uniqueness may not be clearly documented, preservation action should be taken before they disappear. It is possible that some breeds which are not unique may be preserved. This is part of the price of ensuring that truly threatened breeds are not totally lost. It is a relatively small price.
Breeding herds or flocks for preservation programmes should be encouraged on a national basis, wherever possible, by drawing international attention to the declining and threatened breeds, seeking financial support and emphasizing the opportunity for individuals to contribute. Such in situ preservation is particularly important for poultry, where the cost of keeping individual live birds is modest.
8.4 Creation of appropriate infrastructures
New institutional facilities to support field activities will be needed. They need not be large, but they must be suitable for liaison with national governments, international bodies both governmental and NGO, and with bi-lateral organizations working on animal genetic resources. They should include Cryogenic Animal Gene Bank(s) and Animal Genetic Data Bank(s).
Training
Programmes for training nationals for a variety of tasks will be needed, including aspects of genetics, breed development strategy plans and indigenous selection/ conservation programmes, reproduction, data handling, sampling of donor animals, handling of semen and embryos, animal health controls and computer systems. FAO has already designed and used training courses on these topics.
8.6 National management of animal genetic resources
The national management of animal genetic resources will be a key activity. It will involve skills at the technical, personnel, diplomatic and financial levels. It will involve establishment of full cooperation between participating governments and will liaison with qualified agencies concerned with animal genetic resources.
It is considered vital that the programme should be linked nationally and regionally, not only philosophically, but in reality, with other projects concerned with different components of biological diversity and the environment. A major goal is to ensure the sustainable development of animal genetic resources. Conservation and development are parts of one process. The global programme must guarantee that present and future livestock owners, whatever their economic orientation and preferred animal management system, will have available the full range of animal genetic diversity.
Links between animal genetic resources and wildlife are recognized and should be explored and applied with benefit to both groups at national and regional levels. FAO has established good relationships with organizations in this field including UNEP and IUCN.
9 Conclusion
The discussion and experiences of the last decade provide a consensus that a global programme for the conservation and improved use of animal genetic resources is urgently needed. Such a programme has the aim of ensuring that no more animal genetic resources are lost and that those which are threatened by changing livestock and farming practices are secured for posterity. These ends are to be achieved by activities which recognize animal genetic resources, together with plant and forestry genetic resources and wild life as related, major components of biological diversity and of the environment. The needed technology and methods are available. The political will has been expressed and repeated in urgent terms by the FAO COAG and Council in the last two years.
The task is now to create a management system able to organize the conservation and the improved use of animal genetic resources so that they are linked in reality as well as in concept with the sustainable development of animal agriculture to meet increasing human needs and expectations. Several earlier Expert Consultations have addressed the technical and scientific issues. This Expert Consultation is asked for recommendations on organization, programme priorities and a budget. Both privilege and responsibility rest upon this meeting. In animal genetic terms we stand at an historic moment. Like Yalta or the Congress of Vienna in a different context, the output of the meeting, be it good or bad, will inevitably affect the future of the subject being decided. Expectations for a global programme for animal genetic resources have been raised over many years. Decisions on organization and structure have earlier been postponed. Now they must be made. In the words of Shakespeare “there comes a time in the affairs of men, which taken at the flood leads on to fortune”. For animal genetic resources, after many years, that time is now.
10 References
FAO (1981). Animal genetic resources conservation and management. Proc. of FAO/UNEP Technical Consultation in 1980. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No.24.
Hodges, John (1990a). Conservation of animal genetic resources in developing countries. In Genetic Conservation of Domestic Livestock, Ed. Alderson, Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau, pp 128–145.
Hodges, John (1990b). Animal genetic resources. Impact, Journal of Unesco, Paris, No.158. pp 143–154.
Hodges, John (1990c). Review of regional animal gene banks and recommendations from Hannover Workshop. In Animal genetic resources: a global programme for sustainable development. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No.80. pp 51–57.
Hodges, John. (1991). Animal genetic resources. FAO World Animal Review. No.68.pp 2–10
Mason, I.L.(1988) World dictionary of livestock breeds, types and varieties. 3rd (revised) edition Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau.
Simon, D. (1990). The global animal genetic data bank. In Animal genetic resources: a global programme for sustainable development. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No.80. pp 153–166.
11 Annex FAO and FAO/UNEP publications on animal genetic resources 3
| APAHP No. | |||
| 1977 | 1 | Animal breeding: selected articles from World Animal Review | |
| 1977 | 5 | Bibliography of the Criollo cattle of the Americas | |
| 1977 | 6 | Mediterranean cattle and sheep in crossbreeding | |
| 1978 | 8 | *Declining breeds of Mediterranean sheep | |
| 1979 | 13 | Buffalo reproduction and artificial insemination | |
| 1980 | 17 | *Prolific tropical sheep | |
| 1980 | 20/1 | *Trypanotolerant livestock in West and Central Africa | |
| Vol 1 - General study | |||
| 1980 | 20/2 | *Trypanotolerant livestock in West and Central Africa | |
| Vol 2 - Country studies | |||
| 1981 | 22 | Recursos geneticos animales en America Latina | |
| 1982 | 23 | Disease control in semen and embryos | |
| 1981 | 24 | *Animal genetic resources - conservation and management | |
| 1982 | 25 | Reproductive efficiency in cattle | |
| 1982 | 26 | Camels and camel milk | |
| 1982 | 27 | Deer farming | |
| 1982 | 30 | Sheep and goat breeds of India | |
| 1982 | 34 | Breeding plans for ruminant livestock in the tropics | |
| 1983 | *Animal genetic resources in Africa - high potential and endangered livestock. | ||
| Published: FAO/UNEP/OAU-IBAR | |||
| 1984 | 42 | Animal energy in agriculture in Africa and Asia | |
| 1984 | 44/1 | *Animal genetic resources: conservation by management, data banks and training | |
| 1984 | 44/2 | *Animal genetic resources: cryogenic storage of germplasm and molecular engineering | |
| 1984 | *Manual for training courses on animal genetic resources conservation and management Vol I and Vol II. Joint publications of FAO/UNEP and University of Veterinary Science, Hungary. | ||
| 1985 | 46 | *Livestock breeds of China | |
| 1986 | 54 | Small ruminants in the Near East: Vol I | |
| 1986 | 55 | Small ruminants in the Near East: Vol II | |
| 1985 | 56 | Sheep and goats in Pakistan | |
| 1985 | 57 | Awassi sheep | |
| 1986 | 59/1 | *Animal genetic resources data banks | |
| 1 - Computer systems study for regional data banks | |||
| 1986 | 59/2 | *Animal genetic resources data banks | |
| 2 - Descriptor lists for cattle, buffalo, pigs, sheep and goats | |||
| 1986 | 59/3 | *Animal genetic resources data banks | |
| 3 - Descriptor lists for poultry | |||
| 1986 | 60 | Sheep and goats in Turkey | |
| 1986 | 61 | *The Przewalski Horse and restoration to its natural habitat in Mongolia | |
| 1989 | 65 | *Animal genetic resources of the USSR | |
| 1987 | 66 | *Animal genetic resources - strategies for improved use and conservation | |
| 1987 | 67/1 | Trypanotolerant cattle and livestock development in West and Central Africa | |
| Vol I | |||
| 1987 | 67/2 | Trypanotolerant cattle and livestock development in West and Central Africa | |
| Vol II | |||
| 1987 | 68 | Crossbreeding Bos indicus and Bos taurus for milk production in the tropics | |
| 1988 | 74 | Small ruminants in the Near East, Vol III: North Africa | |
| 1989 | 76 by | Ex situ cryoconservation of genomes and genes of endangered cattle breeds means of modern biotechnological methods | |
| 1989 | 77 | A training manual for embryo transfer in cattle | |
| 1990 | 80 | *Animal genetic resources - a global programme for sustainable development | |
| 1990 | 82 | Reproduction in camels - A review | |
| 1991 | 83 | Training manual on artificial insemination in sheep and goats | |
| 1991 | 84 | Training manual on embryo transfer in water buffaloes | |
| 1991 | 88 | Small ruminant production and the small ruminant genetic resource in tropical Africa. | |
3 Publications with an APAHP number are in the FAO Animal Production and Health Series.
Publications marked with an asterisk * are joint FAO/UNEP publications.
