Resource management domains (RMDs) are used as units for identifying and analysing: (i) crop and livestock practices; and (ii) constraints and opportunities for better water use. RMDs are defined by farming system, AEZ, national boundary and degree of urbanization (as a simple indicator of possible market opportunities). Essentially, the 32 RMDs identified are mapped by overlaying the farming systems (Map 2 in Main Report) on the AEZs (Map 1 in Main Report). Table 1 in the Main Report summarizes the defining characteristics of the RMDs (Map 3 in this annex), while a full description is given in the Table in this annex. The RMDs in Map 3 do not cover the total areas of all ten countries. Areas described as arid in either the farming systems or AEZ classification are excluded because of their minimal water and low populations. Areas with abundant water resources are also excluded as they of little concern in the present study. The eight RMDs defined as predominantly urban are shown on the map but not discussed in detail.
HIGHLAND TEMPERATE MIXED FARMING
The highland temperate mixed farming area covers 1.7 percent of the total area of the ten countries and is home to 5 percent of their population. It is of major importance in Lesotho and parts of South Africa, in eastern Zimbabwe and in central Angola. The highlands of Angola (high rainfall) are not included as an RMD.
Resource management domains
Highland temperate mixed farming in the subhumid zone of Lesotho (RMD2) covers 29 000 km2 with 1.2 million people and it covers 18 000 km2 in Zimbabwe (RMD3) with 0.8 million people. RMD2 covers nearly all of the agricultural area of Lesotho and provides livelihoods for more than 50 percent of the population. Crop production is almost all rainfed. The main crops are maize, sorghum and wheat (almost all of the last in Lesotho). Other important field crops are beans and peas. Maize, sorghum and beans are grown during the summer rains. Wheat and peas are winter crops, grown on late rains or residual moisture. Most households plant a small garden area to summer and winter vegetables, especially where they have access to some water. Ruminants are important.
Land and water resources
In RMD2, soils with management and inherent fertility problems are common (FAO, 1999c). The mountain soils are relatively fertile, but shallow and subject to erosion. The lowland soils are strongly acid, prone to erosion and with poor permeability. Yields are low because of unreliable rainfall and because many of the soils have low levels of fertility and poor moisture retaining capacities. Decreasing soil fertility and fertilizer use have led maize and sorghum yields to decline from 1 350 kg/ha in the 1970s to about 650 kg/ha today. Animal populations exceed the carrying capacity of the land and many are fed imported fodder. Pressure on the land is high, with no land available for expansion of agricultural production. High rainfall in the mountains feeds the headwaters of the Orange River. Most of the surface water of Lesotho is committed for use downstream. Some existing irrigation schemes have proved unprofitable.
The Eastern Highlands (RMD3) have infertile acid soils, steep slopes, high rainfall and few perennial streams. Most of the land is committed to national parks, forest reserves and estates.
MAP A5.1
Resource management
domains
Source: Farming Systems and poverty, improving farmers' livelihoods in a changing world by J. Dixon, Å. Gulliver with D. Gibbon, FAO and World Bank, 2002.
Agro-ecological Zones: Global Agro-ecological assessment, IIASA and FAO, 2000.
Production constraints are: erratic rainfall, steep slopes with shallow soils, low soil fertility, low value of produce and a land shortage. Hail, frost and roaming livestock may also damage crops. Opportunities for increased production are limited. The temperate climate conditions could be exploited by growing high-value, temperate crops. Other options for intensification are horticulture and stall-fed animal production. The high rainfall and sloping terrain provide opportunities for rainwater harvesting and supplementary irrigation.
CEREAL-ROOT CROP MIXED FARMING
The cereal-root crop mixed farming area covers 16 percent cent of the total area of the ten countries and is home to almost 15 percent of their population. It is the most important system in Angola and also important in Mozambique and Zambia. Large parts of the system, having a moist subhumid climate, have not been included as an RMD.
Resource Management Domains
Cereal-root crop mixed farming in the dry subhumid zone of Angola, Malawi, Mozambique and Zambia (RMD4-RMD7) covers 330 000 km2 with a total population of about 3 million.
Root crops, such as sweet potato, cassava and yams, are grown in addition to cereal crops (mainly sorghum). Other crops include pumpkins, okra and cowpea. Farmers with access to draught power sow the seed behind the drawn plough; other farmers dig planting holes by hoe. Root crops may be planted as a monocrop or as an intercrop. Half of the farmers never weed their root crops and do not apply fertilizer. Local planting material is used. The number of livestock per household varies considerably; the overall livestock density is low.
Land and water resources
Most farmers have enough land to cultivate and some practise shifting cultivation. A large proportion of the soils are either sandy, coarse gravelly or poorly drained. Average yields of sweet potato and cassava are 11-12 tonnes/ha. All four RMDs in this system have perennial rivers, tributaries (seasonal) and wetlands. The significant irrigation potential along the major drainage lines is only partially exploited.
The main constraints on increased production in this system of the dry subhumid zone are: low soil fertility, low value of produce and labour-intensive cultivation practices (handhoeing). With the exception of southern Malawi (RMD5), most of the area is remote with limited marketing facilities. There is an opportunity for growth through expansion of cropped area, higher yields, diversification to high value crops and the increased use of animal draught power. Higher yields can be achieved through conservation farming, integrated pest management and crop-livestock integration. This last option is based upon increased cultivation of fodder crops, with cut-and-carry feeding systems of stall-fed animals, including oxen. Manure from the animals is recycled into the cropping system. There is significant potential for irrigation and improved use of wetlands and dambos.
MAIZE MIXED FARMING
Maize mixed farming is one of the two most important food production systems in Southern Africa. It covers 17 percent of the total area of the ten countries and is home to 32 percent of their population. The system is nationally the most important in Malawi, Swaziland, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Those areas with a moist subhumid climate are not included as an RMD.
Resource Management Domains
Maize mixed farming in the dry subhumid zone (RMD8-RMD17) covers 592 000 km2 with an estimated rural population of 15 million. The same system in the semi-arid zone of Mozambique and Zimbabwe (RMD18 and RMD19) covers 113 000 km2 with a rural population of about 1.8 million.
Central to the farming system is the rainfed production of maize during the rainy season. Land preparation is done with the onset of the rains in November, either by animal-drawn mould-board ploughs or by hand (hoeing), immediately followed by planting. Lack of labour and draught power may delay land preparation and planting well into the rainy season. Both local seed and hybrid seeds are used. Fertilizer applications vary considerably, but are usually far below the recommended rates and not based on proven soil nutrient deficiencies. Some farmers apply manure or compost to selected parts of their farms. Weeding is done mostly by hand, but rarely sufficiently. Maize is primarily grown for home consumption, but surpluses are sold for cash or exchanged for other goods. Minor crops are sorghum, millet, pulses, sunflower, groundnuts, melons and cucurbits, either grown as single stands or mixed with maize. Locally, cotton and tobacco are important as cash crops. Where possible, vegetables are grown well into the dry season in low-lying sites with high groundwater table (wetlands). Livestock are an integral part of the farming system in Zimbabwe and Zambia. Animals are kept out of cropped fields during the rainy season but roam freely during the rest of the year. Livestock are used for home consumption (meat and milk), traditional exchange (e.g. dowry) and for emergency cash sales. Farmers keep oxen and donkeys for draught power. The overall livestock density is the highest in the region at 20 head/km2.
Land and water resources
The dry subhumid zone (RMD8-RMD17) has a mean annual rainfall of 550-1 000 mm in the growing period; in the 10-percent driest years, the figure is 250-600 mm. The total seasonal rainfall is usually enough to grow a maize crop, but mid-season dry spells of ten days or more may reduce yields. Once in 10-20 years, rainfall may be so low or so poorly distributed over the season that a complete crop failure is the result. With the same frequency, rainfall may be so high that waterlogging and flushing of nutrients (including fertilizers) cause low yields. Good soils occur in parts of Zimbabwe (RMD17) and Malawi (RMD9). Elsewhere, soils are mostly coarse gravelly, with low inherent chemical fertility and low moisture-holding capacity. Water resources are considerable, including perennial rivers, lakes, seasonal rivers, groundwater, wetlands and dams.
The semi-arid zone (RMD18 and RMD19) has a mean annual rainfall in the growing period of 300-550 mm; in the 10-percent driest years, the figure is less than 300 mm. Yield reductions and crop failures as a result of low rainfall or prolonged mid-season dry spells are common. Soils are mostly coarse gravelly, with low inherent chemical fertility and low moisture-holding capacity. Water resources are limited except along the Limpopo River in Mozambique (RMD18). Climate and topography are suitable for water harvesting.
The main constraints in the dry subhumid zone include: low and declining soil fertility, low value of produce and lack of land. Expansion of agricultural land is possible in Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe (RMD10, RMD16 and RMD17), but not in Malawi and Swaziland (RMD9 and RMD12). The large urban areas provide opportunities for wastewater reuse and the production of high-value crops (RMD8, RMD14 and RMD16). Good land husbandry practices may easily double or even quadruple present maize yields from about 1 tonne/ha to 4 tonnes/ha provided the right inputs are available at the right time.
The main constraints in the semi-arid zone are: low soil fertility and unreliable rainfall. Under good land husbandry, there is moderate potential for drought resistant crops. Rainwater harvesting may be an option at some sites and could be used with high-value crops. Animal husbandry could be improved greatly by stall feeding, disease control and timely offtake.
SMALLHOLDER FARMING IN SOUTH AFRICA
Smallholder farming in South Africa is one of the two most important food production systems in Southern Africa. In association with large commercial farming, it covers 21 percent of the total area of the ten countries and encompasses 32 percent of their population. Those parts of the system that are relatively wet or extremely dry (moist subhumid and arid zones respectively) are not included as an RMD.
Resource Management Domains
Smallholder farming in the dry subhumid zone of South Africa (RMD21) has an estimated rural population of 8.5 million and that of the semi-arid zone (RMD23) is about 6 million.
South African smallholder crop production is mainly for subsistence, with maize as the main staple. Farms are small, with an average of 1 ha under rainfed crops (mainly maize and groundnuts), vegetables under supplementary irrigation, and fruit trees (mainly mangoes). Both inputs and outputs are low. Average grain yields are about 400 kg/ha. Semi-commercial agricultural enterprises are common, including poultry, piggery, fish farming and cattle feedlots.
Land and water resources
In the dry subhumid zone (RMD 21), soils are variable and the agroclimatic suitability for rainfed maize is moderate. Most of the seasonal runoff is captured by dams. There are few perennial streams.
In the semi-arid zone (RMD 23), soils are coarse, gravelly or poorly drained (duplex soils). Rainfall is relatively low and highly variable. The agroclimatic suitability for maize and sorghum is very low. Perennial streams include tributaries of the Vaal and Orange rivers.
The main constraints include: high rainfall variability, poor soils, small farm size and a communal land tenure system. Soil acidification is a major soil productivity problem in South Africa. About 60 percent of the country’s cropland area is moderately to severely acid. In the semi-arid zone (RMD 23), low and unreliable rainfall further limit the potential for rainfed cropping. Most of the irrigation potential has already been realized. Because of relatively high population density, good infrastructure and proximity to urban centres, opportunities exist for intensification of agricultural production. Soil fertility problems should be addressed through domain-specific fertilizer recommendations and conservation farming. Rainwater harvesting may considerably improve water supply to farms, particularly in the semi-arid zone.
AGROPASTORAL MILLET/SORGHUM FARMING
Agropastoral millet/sorghum farming, common in Angola, Botswana, Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe, covers 9 percent of the area and encompasses 5 percent of the total population of the ten countries. Those parts of the system that have an arid climate are not included as an RMD.
Resource Management Domains
Agropastoral millet/sorghum farming occurs in the dry subhumid zone of southern Angola and southern Zambia (RMD24 and RMD25), covering 150 000 km2 with an estimated rural population of more than 1 million. The same system in the semi-arid zone of Namibia and Zimbabwe (RMD27 and RMD28) covers 218 000 km2 and has a rural population of about T2.4 million. The system also occurs in semi-arid southeastern Botswana, more or less coinciding with the urban and peri-urban zone of greater Gaborone (RMD26), for an area of 7 000 km2 and a total population of 215 000.
Farmers depend on crop production, livestock and off-farm employment for their livelihood. The major staple crops are pearl millet, sorghum and maize. Other major crops are groundnut, sunflower, bambaranut, cowpea and melon. Sweat potato may be grown in depressions or near the homestead. Cropping practices are similar to those for the maize mixed farming system, except that the use of mineral fertilizer is lower. Sorghum and millet are usually not fertilized unless free fertilizer is available. Manure may be applied to these crops. Oxen and donkeys provide draught power. Other livestock are kept for subsistence (meat and milk), sale, traditional exchange and insurance against crop failure. Livestock production is extensive, with few inputs and a low stocking rate because of low carrying capacity. Large concentrations of livestock may occur on the floodplains of major rivers with permanent water and good natural pastures.
Elsewhere, animals may concentrate around seasonal natural waterbodies or water pumps (‘cattle posts’ in Botswana). The number of animals may increase gradually during years with good rainfall and decrease suddenly during two or more consecutive years of low rainfall. Gathering, hunting and fishing may supplement the diet.
Land and water resources
Soils are mostly sandy or coarse gravelly and highly permeable, except along major drainage lines, where they may have finer texture and impeded drainage. The climate varies from dry subhumid in southern Angola (RMD24) and southern Zambia (RMD25) to semi-arid in southeastern Botswana (RMD26), northern Namibia (RMD27) and southwestern Zimbabwe (RMD28). Annual rainfall variability is high, particularly in the semi-arid zone. Generally, crops are more susceptible than livestock to unusually low or erratic rainfall. The livestock depend on natural vegetation, which is adapted to prevailing conditions and may recover quickly after some good rains. Animals may also be moved from one grazing area to the other in response to rainfall distribution.
The main constraints on crop production are the predominance of soils of inherently low fertility and an unreliable rainfall. Distance to markets is another problem, except for RMD26, which is close to Gaborone. Small, low-cost irrigation schemes along the major rivers could provide a reliable and varied source of food. Generally, the soils are not very suitable for rainwater harvesting.
Major limitations to extensive livestock production are: lack of drinking-water away from the principal rivers, occasional droughts (below average rainfall in two or more successive years) and remoteness. The productivity of animal farming could be increased considerably by timely offtake and by maintaining an equilibrium between available natural pasture, livestock numbers and herd composition.
PASTORAL FARMING
Pastoral farming occurs on 11 percent total area of the ten countries, encompassing 1.3 percent of their population.
Resource Management Domains
Pastoral farming is limited to the semi-arid and arid zones of Angola, Botswana and Namibia (RMD29-RMD31).
There are two distinct systems in Botswana and Namibia: freehold commercial livestock production and mixed livestock/crop production under communal management. Commercial farmers keep mainly cattle (Botswana) and sheep (Namibia). Communal farmers keep both cattle and smallstock, particularly goats. In Botswana, most of the livestock is under communal management, whereby animals range freely on communally-owned grazing land. Cattle are kept for draught power, social value and as a means of saving ‘on the hoof’. Some meat and milk is used for home consumption. Local breeds are dominant and herd management is characterized by low inputs, with little supplementary feeding. Unlike the commercial farmer, the traditional livestock producer does not respond adequately to the ever-changing availability of grazing and water for livestock, with the result that many animals may die during times of drought. Most farmers may try to grow some crops, depending on the rainfall pattern. Inputs are low and often limited to ploughing and planting, with little fertilizer or manure and not much weeding. In good years, several hectares may be ploughed with animal-drawn implements. Yields are low, with complete crop failures in dry years. ‘Molapo farming’ or ‘recession floodplain farming’, whereby crops are grown on residual soil moisture after seasonal flooding, is practised in the Okavango Delta.
Land and water resources
The soils are derived mostly from Kalahari sands and are deep, highly permeable and of low chemical fertility. The climate is arid to semi-arid and rainfed crop production is a risky endeavour. Irrigation potential is mainly limited to the Okavango and Cunene rivers. The soil and climate are generally not suitable for rainwater harvesting.
Major limitations to extensive livestock production are: lack of drinking-water away from the principal rivers, occasional droughts and remoteness. The productivity of animal farming could be increased considerably by timely offtake and by maintaining an equilibrium between available natural pasture, livestock numbers and herd composition.
Table A5.1: Selected resources management domains (RMDs) in Southern Africa
Table A5.1: Selected resources management domains (RMDs) in Southern Africa (Continued)
Table A5.1: Selected resources management domains (RMDs) in Southern Africa (Continued)
(1) Mugwira et al 1998, (2) IFAD 2000a, (3) ICRISAT 1996, (4) Beyerlee 1997, (5) Rohrbach & Mutiro, undated (6) SADC/ICRISAT (undated), (7) CIMMYT 1997, (8) CIMMYT 2002, (9) FAO 1999, (10) FAO AGDAT
Figure Table A5.1 - Selected resources management domains (RMDs) in Southern Africa (Continued)
