There are many areas in the world where there are no machines but very real needs. This booklet addresses those situations where there is still ample scope for village development.
In setting up any business, it is first necessary to establish the potential for the sale or use of the product. Although a major advantage of a processing business is avoiding the drudgery of daily tasks such as shelling, grinding or cleaning, there is no way to pay for machinery if the produce is only for personal consumption. That is why it is important to be aware of following alternative ownership scenarios and outlets.
Owner
The owner or owners may be:
Sales/outlets for products
These may be:
A simple business plan must be made, even if it is not on paper. The security of the business for several years is essential. If a machine has to be paid for within a certain period, then the markets for the produce plus the likely profits must be clearly identified. Market research sounds complicated, but it is essential to determine potential sales of the products and to be aware of any factors that may influence these projections. Discussions with other farmers, neighbours or tribal elders can raise awareness of the plans and objectives of other farmers or groups in the area. This is a way to avoid being in competition rather than cooperation with others, so that profit margins do not suffer as each tries to remain profitable.
If only one person in the community owns a machine, it places others at a disadvantage. Their unprocessed produce may not be able to compete with processed goods and may remain unsold. Other villages may suffer in the same way, and suddenly a whole area may actually be destabilized rather than secured. It is better to share the risks and benefits rather than focus on a single farmer. One way of achieving success is to include as many people as possible in the decision to invest in machinery and share the risks. This leads to a wider sense of ownership and responsibility and, with luck, to a larger customer base. Investigation may show that the markets are wider than anticipated and that local townships may be in need of particular kinds of food, especially with the growth of urbanization. Knowing this in advance means that a bigger machine could be bought, leading to more efficient operation and more opportunities for employment in the business. This may often need outside help from non-governmental organizations (NGOs), donor agencies or local government officers. Once sufficient development has taken place, roads, telephones, electrical power supplies, improved water supplies, drains and agricultural supply facilities can become part of the overall plan for the area.
Funding for new technology may come from a variety of sources. Aid agencies have funded numerous ventures in the past. Banks have always been ready to make safe loans, but often at high interest rates that increase the risk to the farmer. Government loan schemes may be safer, but they are not always easy to obtain. Dealers will often be prepared to set up a scheme, but their interests are purely commercial, so the buyer’s best interest is not always served. Inappropriate machines are often sold in this way. Farmers without education or training who live in an unstable environment are not good risks for loans. Even when they can pay in cash from their savings, they must identify a reliable dealer who will give them the best advice. Local extension services can be very useful in making farmers aware of issues such as competition, availability of loans, recommended dealers in the area and technical advice.
Commercial development can stimulate the local economy. Large companies may select an area as suitable for growing a particular crop such as coconut or groundnut and make advances to the local community with a view to buying the primary processed product. They may even be prepared to provide the initial investment for village processing machinery. Commercial crops are often grown on a larger scale, but certain crops lend themselves to local production. The presence of a large investor can help significantly in the provision of machinery, high quality seeds, fertilizer, growing information and market opportunities. The success of such developments depends on the degree of the community’s dependence on the investor. Each party has to protect its own interests, which can create difficulties. It is usually better for the community to retain its independence without being restricted to a single crop. Quality standards have to be maintained: for example, farmers who process their maize on their farms may spoil it with low-quality processing, while processing by a central store or trader may result in a higher-quality product. Traditional crops should still be grown and processed, so that lives are changed as little as possible. Introducing new crops and processing facilities, however, increases the chances of greater employment, greater security and sustainable futures.
Even if the choice of machine seems straightforward, it is still necessary to gather as much information as possible. It is preferable to see machines in operation elsewhere and discuss them with the owners. Dealers may have a range of types and sizes to offer and should be able to give guidance, but extension officers and current owners will probably be able to give the best advice. The money available and the potential of the machine will obviously be major influences.
Machines should ideally last at least ten years; some might give good service for more than 20 years, while others will have shorter lives for a variety of reasons. Regular maintenance is a key factor, requiring the availability of spare parts and repair skills. Many processing machines are like the proverbial axe: it will last forever as long as new heads and handles are available and the cost is not prohibitive. A reliable supply of raw materials and fuel is needed to keep the machines working and retain people’s trust in the system. As soon as confidence wanes, the business will be under threat, especially if there are alternatives.
Research and consultation into all alternatives should be conducted before deciding on a new cash crop. Processing staple foods does not require as much information, except in the choice of machine. Crop choice should be decided right from the start, based on full discussions to determine local needs and preferences. It can take time to introduce new crops and foods. Maize and cassava, for example, were not grown in Africa until relatively recently, yet now they are well established staples.
Hybrid varieties of sunflower have high oil yields and will grow in most parts of the tropics. New varieties of cassava and maize are being developed for improved disease resistance, flavour and yield. Although oil from groundnuts, seeds or fruitlets can be readily extracted by machine and usually finds a ready market, it is traditionally a slow, tedious process, which makes the oil relatively expensive.
Communities are often undernourished. As part of their development, new crops may be suggested that will diversify their diets, along with the machinery to process them.
Many enterprises fail because the supply of raw crops fails. Failure may result from a bad harvest caused by diseases or adverse weather conditions, or because alternative markets for produce are opened. Studying the experience and history of a locality can help to give a reasonable guarantee of material supply. Confidence in supply is greater if farmers buy machines to process their own crops and if their crops are sufficient. If not, other sources of crops for their machines to process should be investigated before launching into new enterprises. The prior agreement of the village as a whole to support or use the new technology adds greatly to the security of any business.
Energy and power choices
If a farmer or group does not want to invest in motor power, or there is no infrastructure to support it, energy can be supplied by water, wind, animals, the sun or hands and feet.
Water power, once widely used in developed countries, is only an option where there is a suitable water supply; mountainous countries are often well supplied with water. Designs are available for a range of high- and low-speed machines powered by turbines or waterwheels. If there is a reliable supply of water, it should be the first option considered, because water can provide high power at high speed if it is available at sufficient height and quantity. Minimum water requirements for small slow-moving waterwheels are about 0.5m3 per minute at a height of 3 m. A medium-sized pair of grinding stones 0.6 m in diameter will use about 0.5 kW.
Wind power has been used successfully in many countries. The windmill is a typical example of a grain-grinding machine. Winds are often unreliable and light in the tropics, however. Unless a region - perhaps an island - is known to have a reliable source of wind power, it is rarely a viable option for driving processing machinery.
Animal power is a choice in communities where animals are traditionally used for work. Donkeys, buffaloes, camels and oxen can all be used for processing crops; the machines have to be designed to suit the animal. The power is clearly provided at very slow speeds of about 1 rev/min, but at relatively high torque. Threshing, oil extraction and grinding are suited to animal power, provided the machine is designed to run in this way. In contrast, a machine driven by a motor has an input speed of at least 500 rev/min.
FIGURE 3 Solar drying rice in Sri Lanka.
Solar power is abundant in the tropics and should be utilized where possible for drying operations. Rain protection, simple solar collectors and aids to air flow can transform a risky, inefficient process into a reliable and efficient operation with little investment. Cassava, yams, spices, fruits and vegetables can all be preserved with solar dryers and stored for seasons of food shortage. Ventilated polythene covers on an A-frame can make a simple, inexpensive drier. More sophisticated types are available.
Biomass is a by-product of such crops as oil palm, rice, maize and sugar cane and can be used as a fuel for drying if it is available in sufficient quantities. Careful planning is required, however, to make sure that the system is sustainable and reliable. There is, for example, sufficient energy available in rice husk to drive a complete rice process plant if the means is provided to convert the energy into rotary power. Biomass has been used in the past to drive steam engines, but this is an unusual option these days.
Methane is a product of wet waste organic material. It is the natural gas that is produced in enclosed containers and makes an excellent fuel for diesel and petrol engines. By-products from fruit and vegetable processing plants and any other green trimmings can be used for methane production, as discussed later.
Hand or foot power can be used for a wide range of machines and tools that are available for small-scale processing. In the earliest stages of development, especially in remote regions, it is often wisest to start with manual or animal-driven machines; in peri-urban areas, electric or motor-driven machines are often more appropriate.
Diesel and petrol engines can range from 3 kW up to about 25 kW for village-scale operations. Diesel engines are more reliable than petrol engines. They cost more initially but are cheaper to run. Many diesel engines in developing countries have run for decades. Diesel engines are often used to drive generators, which, supply power to electric motors, lights and office equipment. A manual worker can sustain an output of about 75 W for some time, but a diesel engine can produce its power rating, say 3 kW, continuously. This gives up to 40 times the output and saves the expense of the worker’s wages. Engines do not require breaks or holidays, but they do require a substantial cash investment and a reliable supply of fuel.
FIGURE 4 Hammer mill in the Congo driven by a diesel engine.
Training in the care and maintenance of engines is essential. The first choice of motor and fuel would usually be diesel, provided diesel fuel is readily available. This fuel is also suited to tractors and many transport vehicles. If the enterprise has access to electricity, however, this would be the immediate choice because it is cheaper and simpler and more reliable in every way to operate. Electric motors are quiet, easy to start and cleaner; they produce no fumes and are available in a wide range of sizes. The main object of this booklet, however, is to address the needs of regions where there is no electricity.
