- The information is based on published or unpublished statistics of various state Forest Departments. Information per year was not readily accessible. It was available for the periods 1966–68, 1969–73 and 1974–78. In most cases figures for the years 1979 and 1980 were not yet published. Figures for periods 1966–70, 1970–75 and 1976–78 were derived by proportionate allocation from those of the periods 1966–68, 1969–73 and 1974–78 and for 1979 and 1980 the target figures have been taken in the absence of figures on actual achievements. In India the account year is counted from 1st April to 31st March of next year but has been assimilated for this study to the previous year;
- survival/success rates: absolutely no figures on survival and success of plantations are available. In the initial 2–3 years the gaps are usually filled so that three year old plantations are generally fully stocked. Opinion of foresters based on their observations varies. A commonly accepted survival/success rate of 70% (by no means statistically reliable) has been adopted.
Fuelwood plantations
Plantations with species suitable for fuelwood and fodder production which can also provide small timber to farmers have been grouped under this heading. The species used belong to the high yielding hardwoods category (PHH). The common species planted are willows (Salix spp.), oaks (Quercus spp.), and paharhi kikar (Robinia pseudoacacia) in the northwestern hill region. Along coastal areas Casuarina has given good results. In other parts of the country there are various species such as Ficus spp., neem (A zadirachta indica), babul (Acacia arabica) and some of the species enumerated in the PHH category for industrial plantations. The same remarks apply also to the estimated areas of fuelwood plantations as given for industrial plantations.
Areas of established fuelwood plantations estimated at end 1980 1
(in thousand ha)
| Category | Species | Years | 76–80 | 71–75 | 66–70 | 61–65 | 51–60 | Before 51 | Total |
| Age class | 0–5 | 6–10 | 11–15 | 16–20 | 21–30 | >30 | |||
| P..2a=PHH2a | Fast-growing hardwood species | 191 (115) | 84 (50) | 68 (41) | 40 (24) | 3 (2) | ε | 386 (232) | |
Survival/success rates: this category of plantation is generally raised near the habitations and the soil available is usually poor. As a result and despite best care the survival percent is lower than for industrial plantations. No proper figures exist anywhere in the country. On the basis of observations and experience it can safely be assumed that 60% of the plantations are successful.
Environmental plantations
The main objective of these plantations is to provide cover for soil and moisture conservation. They are usually raised on denuded hill slopes, ravines and other degraded soils, mostly in river valley catchments. Economic returns from wood production is a secondary consideration. Fast-growing broadleaved species (PHH) are suitable and are the only ones which have been planted. Robinia pseudoacacia, Ailanthus excelsa, Morus spp., Eucalyptus spp., bamboo species, Acacia auriculiformis, Dodonea viscosa, Bursera and such other species have been planted.
Areas of established environmental plantations estimated at end 1980 1
(in thousand ha)
| Category | Species | Years | 76–80 | 71–75 | 66–70 | 61–65 | 51–60 | Before 51 | Total |
| Age class | 0–5 | 6–10 | 11–15 | 16–20 | 21–30 | >30 | |||
| P..2b=PHH2b | Fast-growing hardwood species | 121 (61) | 119 (60) | 142 (71) | 152 (76) | 65 (32) | ε | 599 (300) | |
Survival/success rates: there are no figures available on survival from any part of the country. The plantations are raised in hostile environment and therefore low survival/success can be assumed. According to experience of local foresters about 50% of the plantations on an average can be regarded successful.
Other plantations
There are various categories of plantations that have been grouped together. Most of the plantations in this category are linear plantations along roadsides (avenues), canal banks, railsides. Several lines of fast-growing broadleaved plantations are raised to serve dual purpose of aesthetics and of requirements for fuel, fodder and small timber. The common species planted are Eucalyptus, Populus, Salix, Eugenia, Dalbergia sissoo, Ailanthus excelsa, Morus alba, Albisia procera, Ficus spp. etc. In addition some flowering trees and fruit trees are planted. Hundreds of kilometers of trees in several lines have been planted so far. The annual plantation festival called ‘Vanmahotsava’ results usually in the planting of scattered trees on public or private lands, parks, school grounds, etc. Since all these plantations do not form compact blooks no statistics is being given herewith.
Besides plantations of woody trees the Forest Departments and Forest Development Corporations are also carrying out plantations of other species not essentially meant for wood, termed as ‘Cash Crops’ which include rubber, cashew nut, coffee, cocoa, pepper, cardamom etc. Rubber and cashew plantations cover 1 500 and 3 500 ha in Kerala respectively. In Karnataka the corresponding figures were 5 500 and 28 300 ha as at end 1978.
All plantations
The following table results from the addition of the above tables by category of plantations.
Areas of established plantations estimated at end 1980 1
(in thousand ha)
| Category | Species | Years | 76–80 | 71–75 | 66–70 | 61–65 | 51–60 | Before 51 | Total |
| Age class | 0–5 | 6–10 | 11–15 | 16–20 | 21–30 | > 30 | |||
| PHL | Hardwood species other than fast-growing | 206 (144) | 173 (121) | 146 (102) | 136 (95) | 107 (75) | ε | 768 (537) | |
| PHH | Fast-growing hardwood species | 691 (441) | 555 (356) | 580 (371) | 365 (221) | 140 (84) | ε | 2331 (1473) | |
| PH | Subtotal hardwood plantations | 897 (585) | 728 (477) | 726 (473) | 501 (316) | 247 (159) | ε | 3099 (2010) | |
| PS | Subtotal softwood plantations | 22 (15) | 20 (14) | 18 (13) | 12 (8) | 11 (8) | ε | 83 (58) | |
| P | Total all plantations | 919 (600) | 748 (491) | 744 (486) | 513 (324) | 258 (167) | ε | 3182 (2068) | |
1 Figures in brackets correspond to areas reduced to account for success/survival rates.
1.2.3 Plantation characteristics
Establishment techniques for a particular species vary not only in space but also in time. This variation is coupled with variation of soils, ecology, provenances and object of management. Under these circumstances, no common characteristics for any species can be anticipated. However, some figures are given in the following table with the corresponding sources. Generally speaking there has been improvement in establishment techniques, selection of seeds and provenances as a result of research and field experience.
Plantation characteristics
| Species | Rotation years | M.A.I. m3/ha/year | Age of appraisal years | Source |
| Anthocephalus indicus | 75 | 6.3 to 7.4 | 6 to 19 | (25) |
| Ailanthus grandis | 60 | 10.0 to 20.0 | 22 to 42 | (25) |
| Acacia auriculiformis | 20 | 2.8 to 5.3 | 9 to 12 | (33) |
| Cryptomeria japonica | 70 | 21.0 to 24.8 | 24 to 35 | (25) |
| Dalbergia sissoo | 50 | 3.6 to 7.8 | 25 | (24) |
| Eucalyptus teriticornis (E. hybrid) | 15 | 1.3 to 5.6 | 14 to 15 | (33) |
| Gmelina arborea | 60 | 8.6 | 30 | (25) |
| Michelia champaka | 60 | 8.5 to 10.0 | 27 to 36 | (25) |
| Shorea robusta | 90 | 4.1 to 11.3 | 26 to 46 | (25) |
| Tectona grandis | 75 | 3.3 to 12.0 | 14 to 24 | (25) |
2. Present trends
2.1 Natural woody vegetation
2.1.1 Deforestation
The National Forest Policy formulated in 1952 had envisaged increasing forest areas to one third of total land area. It has not been possible however to implement this policy. On the contrary, forest land has been in many instances the only land available and alienated for river valley projects, minor irrigation projects, establishment of industries, settlement or rehabilitation of landless people, construction of roads and other communication systems. In the late 1950's and early 1960's, forest land was also allotted to people for farming under the ‘Grow more food’ programme which was abandoned later. Large-scale deforestation resulted also from rehabilitation schemes for refugees that came to India after partition and independence of the country.
Forest areas lost during the 22-year period from 1951 to 1972 were estimated in document (14) as follows:
| Purpose | Areas (in thousand ha) |
| River valley projects | 401 |
| Agricultural purposes | 2433 |
| Roads and communications | 55 |
| Establishment of industries | 125 |
| Miscellaneous | 388 |
| Total area lost | 3402 |
This represents an average annual area loss of 155 000 ha.
Taking the year as 1960/61 as reference the average annual deforestation amounts to 0.22% of the total forest area. However these figures relate only to planned and authorised alienation of forest land. In addition unauthorised deforestation is going on. Local villagers encroach upon forest land for the extension of their farms or for creation of new farms. In the majority of the cases the offender is evicted and the land restored to the government but the fact remains that deforestation has taken place. Though such clearings hardly exceed 1 or 2 hectares, and are usually less than one hectare, the cumulative effect is rather large.
Despite awareness of the problem on the part of the authorities, deforestation is going on unabated. In Uttar Pradesh for example, authorised deforestation amounted to 17 000 ha in four years. In other states, the situation is less serious, as for instance, in Himachal Pradesh where only 2 600 ha have been deforested in three years. Efforts are now made to increase forest areas through extension - afforestation schemes to vacant lands other than forest lands. The total “forest land” area (irrespective of vegetative cover) thus is regularly increasing as shown below:
| Years | 1972 | 1974 | 1976 | 1980 |
| Total forest land area (in thousand ha) | 74573 | 74623 | 74860 | 75781 |
Reliable statistics on deforestation are not available. Comparison of total forest land area for different years as indicated above cannot provide precise information on the changes in the total forest land area, since all the forest lands are not properly surveyed and figures for quite substantial areas are given as provisional. When the survey is conducted the correct figures may be lower or higher than the one reported earlier even if the area has remained the same. Similarly area figures are corrected at each revision of management plans either because of actual changes or purely for errors in the survey. The problem is complicated by the fact that the administrative boundaries are frequently changed and old records cannot be properly adjusted. When correct estimates of even shrinkage of areas are not available it is too much to expect the reliable figure for shrinkage of growing stock.
A study of recession of forest areas was made using 50 old and new Survey of India maps over periods varying from 25 to 66 years. The green colour wash was taken as forest area. The maps were distributed all over the country. Actual deforestation was determined and results show that annual recession ranges in average between 0.4 to 0.7 percent. In one instance (Garo district of Meghalya state) Negi (56) has observed an extreme annual recession rate of 4.5% due to shifting cultivation during four years (1973–77).
The deforestation of well-stocked forests is rarely resorted to. Deforestation affects mostly scrub (n) or open forests (NHc/NHO) and unmanaged logged over forests (N.fluc). Unmanaged virgin forests (N.fluv) are seldom encroached upon whereas managed production forests (N.f1m) are affected to a lesser extent. Unproductive forests (N.f2) too suffer. Estimates of the annual deforestation rates by category are given in the following tables. The corresponding projections for the period 1981–85 have been estimated roughly equal to those found for 1976–80.
Average annual deforestation
(in thousand ha)
| Periods | |||||
| 1976–80 | and | 1981–85 (projections) | |||
| NHCf1uv | NHCf1uc | NHCf1m | NHCf1 | NHCf2 | NHCf |
| 10 | 20 | 90 | 120 | 12 | 132 |
| NHBf1uv | NHBf1uc | NHBf1m | NHBf1 | NHBf2 | NHBf |
| 1 | 1 | 2 | 4 | ε | 4 |
| NSf1uv | NSf1uc | NSf1m | NSf1 | NSf2 | NSf |
| 1 | 1 | 7 | 9 | 2 | 11 |
| N.f1uv | N.f1uc | N.f1m | N.f1 | N.f2 | N.f |
| 12 | 22 | 99 | 133 | 14 | 147 |
2.1.2 Degradation
Unthoughtful use of the forest resources by the people living in the vicinity of the forests result in the degradation of forests, a process which is going on. Villagers remove woody vegetation for their use without any other consideration which results in depletion of the growing stock. Cattle associated with the men graze freely in forests and browse away the young regeneration and trample the soil. Quite often forests are set on fire by local villagers in order to get better grass for their cattle. These fires destroy young regeneration and soil microbes besides the loss to woody vegetation. Lopping of trees for fodder and fuel is common. Trees along the farm lands are killed by girdling for gradual extension of farm lands. For fuelwood young trees and shrubs are preferred due to ease of removal. All these activities result in depletion of existing stock of woody vegetation and also diminish chances of recoupement through natural regeneration. Depletion of ground cover and loss of fertility result in soil erosion. Forest areas around habitations, especially those which are not demarcated and are loosely controlled are being degraded at a fast speed. However, no quantitative assessment of the degradation process is available.
2.1.3 Trends in forest utilization
Wood for industry
The aggregate raw material requirement of industrial wood was projected by the National Commission on Agriculture (11) as below:
(in million m3)
| Year | Low income growth | High income growth | Extra for attempting exports of veneer and plywood |
| 1980 | 25 | 27 | |
| 1985 | 30 | 35 | 3.0 to 3.7 |
The recorded production of industrial wood in the country has been more or less stable at 9 to 10 million m3 whereas the requirements are increasing. The difference between supply and demand is covered by supplies from farm woodlots and other unrecorded sources which are getting more scarce. It is now proposed to increase productivity for which targets have been laid for the first time (41).
Production targets of industrial wood
(in million m3 roundwood)
| Year | existing production | additional production | Total |
| 1978/79 | 10.0 | 1.9 | 11.9 |
| 1979/80 | 11.9 | 1.9 | 13.8 |
| 1980/81 | 13.8 | 2.0 | 15.8 |
| 1981/82 | 15.8 | 2.2 | 18.0 |
| 1982/83 | 18.0 | 3.0 | 21.0 |
However, these targets are not likely to be achieved by 1985. At most, a 5% annual increase in production may be achieved. This will result in a production of about 13 million m3 of industrial wood by 1985.
Fuelwood
National Commission on Agriculture (11) has estimated the requirements of fuelwood at 184 million m3 in 1980 and 202 million m3 in 1985. Against this the recorded production from forests has been ranging from 15 to 17 million m3. By 1985 a recorded production of 20 million m3 of fuelwood may be achieved.
Other forest products
The demand for minor forest produce from the forests is likely to grow with increasing population. Statistics for demand and supply of these products is however not available.
2.1.4 Areas and growing stock at end 1985
The indications given in the preceding paragraphs lead to the following tables.
Areas of natural woody vegetation estimated at end 1985
(in thousand ha)
| Category | NHCf1uv | NHCf1uc | NHCf1m | NHCf1 | NHCf2 | NHCf | NHCa | NHc/NHO | nH |
| Broadleaved | 4835 | 3933 | 28990 | 37758 | 7626 | 45384 | 9198 | 5393 | 5378 |
| NHBf1uv | NHBf1uc | NHBf1m | NHBf1 | NHBf2 | NHBf | NHBa | |||
| Bamboo | 554 | 163 | 630 | 1347 | 73 | 1420 | 739 | ||
| NSf1uv | NSf1uc | NSf1m | NSf1 | NSf2 | NSf | NSa | |||
| Coniferous | 542 | 118 | 2442 | 3102 | 1200 | 4302 | 717 | ||
| N.f1uv | N.f1uc | N.f1m | N.f1 | N.f2 | N.f | N.a | |||
| All forests | 5931 | 4214 | 32062 | 42207 | 8899 | 51106 | 10654 |
Growing stock estimated at end 1985
(in million m3)
| NHCf1uv | NHCf1uc | NHCf1m | NHCf1 | NHCf2 | NHCf | ||
| VOB | VAC | VOB | VOB | AAC | VOB | VOB | VOB |
| 484 | 154.7 | 111 | 1944 | 29.04 | 2539 | 305 | 2844 |
| NSf1uv | NSf1uc | NSf1m | NSf1 | NSf2 | NSf | ||
| VOB | VAC | VOB | VOB | AAC | VOB | VOB | VOB |
| 83 | 29.3 | 7 | 373 | 2.92 | 463 | 110 | 573 |
| N.f1uv | N.f1uc | N.f1m | N.f1 | N.f2 | N.f | ||
| VOB | VAC | VOB | VOB | AAC | VOB | VOB | VOB |
| 567 | 104.0 | 118 | 2317 | 31.96 | 3002 | 415 | 3417 |
Bamboo growing stock at end 1985 (pure bamboo stands only)
(in million airdry tons)
| NHBf1uv | NHBf1uc | NHBf1m | NHBf1 | NHBf2 | NHBf |
| 5.2 | 0.6 | 5.9 | 11.7 | 0.4 | 12.1 |
2.2 Plantations
The future of plantations depends on many factors. At national level there is, in general, an increase in plantation target over the years. In the 1969–1974 five year plan 60% of the budget was earmarked for raising man-made forests with 9% spent on raising short rotation crops (4). Emphasis therefore still continued on long rotation crops. In the 5th five-year plan (1974–79) special emphasis has been put on afforestation, especially on raising quick growing species (41). During the period 1981–85 it can therefore be assumed that afforestation on long rotations (PHL) will remain the same as for 1975–80 whereas other plantations will increase by 20 to 25%. Estimated areas of plantations for 1985 are given in the following tables.
Although it is likely that survival/success rates will improve, the same coefficients have been used conservatively as for the preceding period.
Industrial plantations
Areas of established industrial plantations estimated at end 1985 1
(in thousand ha)
| Category | Species | Years | 81–85 | 76–80 | 71–75 | 66–70 | 56–65 | 51–55 | Before 51 | Total |
| Age class | 0–5 | 5–10 | 11–15 | 16–20 | 21–30 | 31–35 | >35 | |||
| PHL1 | Hardwood species other than fast-growing | 206 (144) | 206 (144) | 173 (121) | 146 (102) | 200 (140) | 43 (30) | ε | 974 (681) | |
| PHH1 | Fast-growing hardwood species | 455 (318) | 379 (265) | 352 (246) | 370 (259) | 216 (151) | 29 (20) | ε | 1801 (1259) | |
| PH.1 | Sub-total hardwood plantations | 661 (462) | 588 (409) | 525 (367) | 516 (361) | 416 (291) | 72 (50) | ε | 2775 (1940) | |
| PS.1 | Sub-total softwood plantations | 26 (18) | 22 (15) | 20 (14) | 18 (13) | 19 (13) | 4 (3) | ε | 109 (76) | |
| P..1 | Total industrial plantations | 687 (480) | 607 (424) | 545 (381) | 534 (374) | 435 (304) | 76 (53) | ε | 2884 (2016) | |
Fuelwood plantations
Areas of established fuelwood plantations estimated at end 1985 1
(in thousand ha)
| Category | Species | Years | 81–85 | 76–80 | 71–75 | 66–70 | 56–65 | 51–55 | Before 51 | Total |
| Age class | 0–5 | 5–10 | 11–15 | 16–20 | 21–30 | 31–35 | >35 | |||
| P..2a=PHH2a | Fast-growing hardwood species | 229 (137) | 191 (115) | 84 (50) | 68 (41) | 42 (25) | 1 (1) | ε | 615 (369) | |
Environmental plantations
Areas of established environmental plantations estimated at end 1985 1
(in thousand ha)
| Category | Species | Years | 81–85 | 76–80 | 71–75 | 66–70 | 56–65 | 51–55 | Before 51 | Total |
| Age class | 0–5 | 5–10 | 11–15 | 16–20 | 21–30 | 31–35 | >35 | |||
| P..2b=PHH2b | Fast-growing hardwood species | 145 (73) | 121 (61) | 119 (60) | 142 (71) | 190 (95) | 27 (13) | ε | 744 (373) | |
All plantations
The following table results from the addition of the above tables by category of plantations.
Areas of established plantations estimated at end 1985 1
(in thousand ha)
| Category | Species | Years | 81–85 | 76–80 | 71–75 | 66–70 | 56–65 | 51–55 | Before 51 | Total |
| Age class | 0–5 | 5–10 | 11–15 | 16–20 | 21–30 | 31–35 | >35 | |||
| PHL | Hardwood species other than | 206 (144) | 206 (144) | 173 (121) | 146 (102) | 200 (140) | 43 (30) | ε | 974 (681) | |
| PHH | Fast-growing hardwood species | 829 (528) | 691 (441) | 555 (356) | 580 (371) | 448 (271) | 57 (34) | ε | 3160 (2001) | |
| PH | Subtotal hardwood species | 1035 (672) | 897 (585) | 728 (477) | 726 (473) | 648 (411) | 100 (64) | ε | 4134 (2682) | |
| PS | Subtotal softwood species | 26 (18) | 22 (15) | 20 (14) | 18 (13) | 19 (13) | 4 (3) | ε | 109 (76) | |
| P | Total all plantations | 1061 (690) | 919 (600) | 748 (491) | 744 (486) | 667 (424) | 104 (67) | ε | 4243 (2758) | |
1 Figures in brackets correspond to areas reduced to account for success/survival rates.
Bibliography
(1) Griffith, A.L. 1948 “Manual of General Silviculture for India” - Publication Division, Government of India - Delhi
(2) Forest Research Institute 1961 “Hundred Years of Indian Forestry” (two volumes) - Forest Research Institute and Colleges - Dehradun
(3) Champion, H.G. & Seth, S.K. 1968 “General Silviculture for India” - Publication Division, Government of India - Delhi
(4) Champion, H.G. & Seth, S.K. 1968 “A Revised Survey of the Forest Types of India” - Publication Division, Government of India - Delhi
(5) Government of India 1968 “Progress Report - Department of Agriculture, Government of India for 1960–65” - prepared for the Commonwealth Forestry Conference - 1968 - Delhi
(6) Guhathakurta, P. & Ansari, A.S. 1970 “The Rate of Growth of Some Species in North Bengal” - West Bengal Forest Department - Calcutta
(7) Preinvestment Survey of Forest Resources 1970 “Yields and Costs of Industrial Wood and Bamboo” - a report of Preinvestment Survey of Forest Resources, Government of India - Dehradun
(8) Kaul, O.N. & Sharma, D.C. 1971 “Forest Type Statistics” - Indian Forester No.7, vol. 97 - Dehradun
(9) Forest Department 1972 “Nagaland Forests” - Forest Department of Nagaland - Imphal
(10) Government of India 1972 “Report of the Task Force on Forest Resources Survey” - Planning Commission, Government of India - Delhi
(11) Government of India 1972 “Report of the National Commission on Agriculture - Production Forestry - Man-made Forests” - Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India - Delhi
(12) Forest Department 1974 “A Digest of Forest Statistics” - Forest Department of Jammu and Kashmir - Srinagar
(13) Government of India 1974 “Progress Report of Department of Agriculture, Government of India for 1966–72” - prepared for the 10th Commonwealth Forestry Conference - Delhi
(14) Government of India 1975 “Forest Area Statistics Bulletin No. 11” - Central Forestry Commission, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India - Delhi
(15) Anonymous 1976 “Atlas of Forest Resources of India” - National Atlas Organization - Calcutta
(16) Forest Department 1976 “Assam Forests at a Glance” - Forest Department of Assam - Gauhati
(17) Forest Department 1976 “Forest Statistics” - Forest Department of Himachal Pradesh - Simla
(18) Government of India 1976 “India's forests - 1976” - Central Forestry Commission, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India - Delhi
(19) Gupta, G.P. 1976 “Shifting Cultivation - Maladies and Remedies” - Proceedings of seminar on shifting cultivation in northeast India
(20) Jha, S.D. 1976 “Practice of Shifting Cultivation” - Proceedings of seminar on shifting cultivation in northeast India
(21) Preinvestment Survey of Forest Resources 1976 “Forest Resources Report of Chenab Valley, Jammu and Kashmir” - Preinvestment Survey of Forest Resources - Dehradun
(22) Preinvestment Survey of Forest Resources 1976 “Forest Resources Report of Bhagirathi, Bhillangana and Yamuna catchments, Uttar Pradesh” - Dehradun
(23) Preinvestment Survey of Forest Resources 1976 “Forest Resources Report of Kameng and Subansiri Districts of Arunachal Pradesh” - Dehradun
(24) Preinvestment Survey of Forest Resources 1976 “Forest Resources Report of Tripura” - Dehradun
(25) Preinvestment Survey of Forest Resources 1976 “Forest Resources Report of Manipur” - Dehradun
(26) Forest Department 1977 “Annual Administration Report of 1976–77” - Arunachal Pradesh Forest Department - Itanagar
(27) Forest Department 1977 “Arunachal Pradesh Forests” - Forest Department of Arunachal Pradesh - Itanagar
(28) Forest Department “Forest Statistics” - Forest Department of Bihar - Ranchi
(29) Forest Department 1977 “Annual Research Report for 1973/74 to 1975/76” - Forest Department of Bihar - Ranchi
(30) Forest Department 1977 “Haryana Forests” - Forest Department of Haryana - Chandigarh
(31) Preinvestment Survey of Forest Resources 1977 “Forest Resources Report of Narayanpur Catchment Bastar District, Madhya Pradesh” - Dehradun
(32) Preinvestment Survey of Forest Resources 1977 “Forest Resources Report of Adilabad District, Andhra Pradesh” - Dehradun
(33) Preinvectment Survey of Forest Resources 1977 “Forest Resources Report of South West Bihar (part)” (vol.I) - Dehradun
(34) Forest Department 1978 “Facts and Figures of Forest Department” - Forest Department of Andhra Pradesh - Hyderabad
(35) Forest Department 1978 “Andhra Pradesh Forests” - Forest Department of Andhra Pradesh - Hyderabad
(36) Forest Department 1978 “Maharashtra Forests” - Forest Department of Maharashtra - Pune
(37) Forest Department 1978 “Forest Statistics” - Forest Department of West Bengal - Calcutta
(38) Government of India 1978 “Indian Forestry - 1978” - Forestry Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India - Delhi
(39) Government of India 1978 “Annex 6 of Draft Report (for discussion) of the Sub-Committee on Pulp and Paper Industry” - Forestry Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India (unpublished)
(40) Preinvestment Survey of Forest Resources 1978 “Forest Resources Report of Rajgarh and Nahan Catchments of Himachal Pradesh” - Dehradun
(41) Srivastava, B.P. 1978 “Forest Situation in India” - Proceedings of FAO/SIDA seminar - Delhi
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(43) Forest Department 1979 “Ankrhon ki Paridhi mein” - Forest Department of Madhya Pradesh - Bhopal
(44) Forest Department 1979 “Forestry Statistics” - Forest Department of Uttar Pradesh - Lucknow
(45) Government of India 1979 “India - Reference Annual” - Publications Division; Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India - Delhi
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(47) Preinvestment Survey of Forest Resources 1979 “Forest Resources Report of Gujrat” (unpublished)
(48) Preinvestment Survey of Forest Resources 1979 “Forest Resources Report of Meghalaya” - Dehradun
(49) Preinvestment Survey of Forest Resources 1979 “Forest Resources Report of Sikkim (part)” - (unpublished)
(50) Preinvestment Survey of Forest Resources 1979 “Forest Resources Report of Udaipur Forest Division, Rajasthan” (vol.I) - Dehradun
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(52) State Governments Unpublished forest statistics of various states
(53) State Governments Annual reports of Forest Departments of various states for different years
(54) Thangam, E.S. 1979 “Shifting Cultivation and Rehabilitation of Degraded Forests” - (stencil) - Chief Conservator of Forests - Arunachal Pradesh
(55) Anonymous 1980 “Country Report of India” - prepared for 8th World Forestry Conference - Delhi
(56) Negi, G.S. 1980 “Case Study of Shifting Cultivation in Garo District of Meghalya” (stencil) - Photointerpretation section of Preinvestment Survey of Forest Resources - Dehradun
Annex 1
Methodology adopted and results derived from the interpretation of Landsat satellite imagery for the state of Orissa and the northeastern region of India.
1. Introduction
Landsat satellite imagery of different bands pertaining to Landsat 2 for Orissa and the northeastern region were procured and interpreted to supplement the forest statistics at state level. The interpreted Landsat imagery, after verification, were transferred to the base maps on 1:1 million scale and areas of the various landuse classes were determined.
2. Base map used
Maps prepared by Survey of India on 1:1 million scale for the state of Orissa and the northeastern region have been used as base maps for transferring the information from interpreted Landsat imagery and for area computation.
3. Landsat products used
Black-and-white transparencies of bands 5 and 7 and standard colour composite transparencies (bands 4, 5, 7) were used of the following scenes:
| Orissa state | |||||||||
| Path | Row | Identification No. | Date | Path | Row | Identification No. | Date | ||
| 152 | 044 | 2717 03493 | Jan. 1977 | 151 | 045 | 2716 03541 | Jan. 1977 | ||
| 152 | 045 | 2717 03595 | Jan. 1977 | 151 | 044 | 2734 03530 | Jan. 1977 | ||
| 152 | 046 | 2645 04031 | Oct. 1976 | 150 | 044 | 2661 03502 | Nov. 1976 | ||
| 152 | 047 | 2645 04034 | Oct. 1976 | 150 | 045 | 2625 03520 | Oct. 1976 | ||
| 152 | 048 | 2717 04011 | Jan. 1977 | 150 | 046 | 2715 03485 | Jan. 1977 | ||
| 151 | 047 | 2608 03554 | Dec. 1976 | 149 | 046 | 2318 03542 | Dec. 1975 | ||
| 151 | 046 | 2734 03535 | Jan. 1977 | 149 | 045 | 2066 03555 | March 1975 | ||
| Northeastern region | |||||||||
| Path | Row | Identification No. | Date | Path | Row | Identification No. | Date | ||
| 149 | 041 | 2732 03402 | Jan. 1977 | 146 | 041 | 2711 03240 | Jan. 1977 | ||
| 149 | 042 | 2732 03405 | Jan. 1977 | 146 | 040 | 2711 03233 | Jan. 1977 | ||
| 148 | 042 | 1213 04011 | Feb. 1973 | 145 | 040 | 2710 03175 | Jan. 1977 | ||
| 148 | 041 | 2713 03352 | Jan. 1977 | 145 | 041 | 2710 03182 | Jan. 1977 | ||
| 147 | 041 | 2748 03282 | Feb. 1977 | 145 | 042 | 2710 03184 | Jan. 1977 | ||
| 147 | 042 | 2748 03285 | Feb. 1977 | 145 | 043 | 2710 03191 | Jan. 1977 | ||
| 147 | 044 | 3003 303432 | April 1978 | 145 | 044 | 2404 03291 | March 1976 | ||
| 147 | 043 | 3005 103430 | April 1978 | 145 | 045 | 3004 903320 | April 1978 | ||
| 146 | 044 | 2063 03382 | March 1975 | 144 | 041 | 2061 03254 1 | March 1975 | ||
| 146 | 043 | 2711 03245 | Jan. 1977 | 144 | 040 | 2691 03180 | Dec. 1976 | ||
| 146 | 042 | 2711 03242 | Jan. 1977 | 143 | 041 | 2312 03175 | Nov. 1975 | ||
1 Only print of band 5 available.
4. Methodology
Attempt was made to define a classification compatible with the one used for the collection of information at state level, itself derived from that adopted in the global project.
4.1 Preliminary interpretation
Imagery of bands 5 and 7 of northeastern region and Orissa were scanned and studied. On the basis of grey shades differenciation, on band 5, of different colours on colour composite and of their correspondence with available ground truth data (in the form of forest type maps prepared from serial photographs) the following tentative classification key was prepared pending verification:
As no distinction was possible on Landsat imagery between areas affected by shifting cultivation and degraded forests, it was decided to collect this information either in the field during field visits or from other sources of information.
The interpretation of Landsat products was done with the help of light table and mirror stereoscope. The finer details were interpreted using a magnifying lens on one product. The combination used for interpretation under mirror stereoscope was band 5 and colour composite. Help of band 7 product was also taken to separate and identify water bodies, not prominent on other products.
4.2 Collection of ground truth data and field verification
A detailed and extensive field visit of Orissa state was undertaken to supplement and correct the office interpretation. Interpretation carried out in the office was checked in the field and areas marked as closed forest, degraded forest, water bodies, non-forest etc. on band 5 and colour composite were confirmed and verified. Data regarding areas affected by shifting cultivation were obtained from related working plan and local forest officers for the entire state and reported on to 1:250 000 scale, Survey of India topo sheets. The data collected on topo sheets were used in delineating the areas affected by shifting cultivation in closed forest and degraded forest.
Due to unavoidable circumstances, it was impossible to arrange a field visit to the northeastern region. Ground truth data available in the office or from other sources, especially on shifting cultivation, were used in carrying out and completing the interpretation of imagery.
Using the field data, a revised classification key was evolved and all the imagery of Orissa state and the northeastern region were interpreted on the basis of this new key. The various classes separated are presented below:
“Closed forests” means well-stocked forests having an average crown cover ranging from 50% to 60%. In some cases crown covers as low as 30% or as high as 90% are also included in this category.
“Degraded forests” are forests which have been badly affected due to biotic interference or natural calamities such as fires. Their tree cover has been depleted to an average crown cover of 20% (10–30%). In the degraded forests, artificial regeneration or plantations have been carried out wherever local factors are favourable. However the reflectance of these patches is similar to that of the adjoining natural forests and they have also been included in the category of degraded forests.
“Closed forests affected by shifting cultivation” are closed forests affected by the shifting cultivation cycle. This class includes new and old clearings, secondary growth forest etc.
“Degraded forests affected by shifting cultivation” includes degraded forests affected by shifting cultivation as in the case of closed forests.
“Alpine pastures and scrub land” are areas found adjoining to snow line where good quality forest cannot grow due to adverse climatic conditions, and which are covered by grasses or scrubs.
“Non-forest” includes areas such as agricultural land (irrigated or dry), culturable and unculturable waste land, miscellaneous tree crops and groves, permanent pastures and other grasing lands, towns etc.
“Snow covered areas” includes those areas under permanent snow cover above snow line.
“Water bodies” corresponds to major rivers, lakes or reservoirs.
5. Preparation of map and computation of areas
The interpreted details on the imagery were transferred on to the base maps. In the case of Orissa state the map prepared was photographically enlarged four times (i.e. at 1:250 000 scale) and area figures were computed using planimeter. This procedure was adopted specially in Orissa as forests occur often in the form of small scattered patches.
Area figures in the northeastern region were computed using a 2 mm dot grid at 1:1 000 000 scale as forests are found in large compact patches. The areas covered by class and state as found in the study are indicated below.
Areas estimated by interpretation of Landsat imagery
(in thousand ha)
| State | Closed forest | Degraded forest | Closed forest affected by shifting cultivation | Degraded forest affected by shifting cultivation | Alpine pastures and scrub land | Non-forest | Snow covered areas | Water bodies | Total geographical area |
| Orissa | 2832 | 1049 | 622 | 1036 | - | 9674 | - | 366 | 15579 |
| Arunachal Pradesh | 5702 | 47 | 331 | 463 | 1104 | 193 | 472 | 47 | 8359 |
| Assam | 1941 | 599 | 250 | 166 | 4465 | 431 | 7852 | ||
| Manipur | 227 | - | 1329 | 448 | 232 | 2236 | |||
| Meghalaya | 435 | 160 | 523 | 501 | 627 | 2 | 2248 | ||
| Misoram | 419 | 1 | 1352 | 259 | 64 | 14 | 2109 | ||
| Nagaland | 449 | 28 | 244 | 853 | 78 | 1652 | |||
| Tripura | 286 | 27 | 438 | 184 | 114 | 1049 | |||
| Total northeastern region | 9459 | 862 | 4467 | 2874 | 1104 | 5773 | 472 | 494 | 25505 |
Indonesia occupies a total land area of 1 919 300 km2 within the southeast Asian archipelago bounded by latitudes 5°N and 11°S and longitudes 94° and 141°E. The Indonesian archipelago consists of some 13 600 islands, of which about 6 000 are inhabited. Common land boundaries are with the Federation of Malaysia (with the states of Sabah and Sarawak on Borneo island) and with Papua New Guinea. Otherwise the archipelago lies between the Indian Ocean to the west and south and the Pacific Ocean to the north-east and is separated from Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore by the Straits of Malacca and the South China Sea, from the Philippine islands by the Sulawesi Sea and from Australia by the Arafura Sea and Timor Sea. The vast distances within the country are illustrated by the straight lengths from the northwestern tip of Aceh province in Sumatra to the southeastern corner of Irian Jaya - 5 300 km approximately - and from Talaud island (close to the Philippine island of Mindanao), to Roti island (southeast of Timor island), roughly north-south - 1 775 km approximately.
General topography for the three largest islands (Sumatra, Kalimantan and Irian Jaya) can be characterised by extensive coastal plain and inland hilly areas up to about 1 000 m. These amount to 74% of land area in central and southern Sumatra, 40% in northern Sumatra, 84% in western and central Kalimantan, 50% in eastern Kalimantan and 60% in Irian Jaya. The remaining areas are mountainous, formed by the Barisan Range in western Sumatra, the interior ranges mainly of eastern Kalimantan and the Bird's Head, Northern and Central Ranges in Irian Jaya. Sulawesi is largely mountainous, with only 40% below 1 000 m, mainly in south and south-east. Java is characterised by a series of fifteen volcanoes and other mountains well spaced with, between them, fertile plains and further a broad northern coastal plain to the Java Sea, with 63% of the area below 1 000 m. The Maluku and Nusatenggara islands are of smaller size, containing volcanoes and mountains; plains and lower hills are limited to 44% (below 1 000 m a.s.l.) (7).
The climate of the country has been broadly mapped based on the ratio dry-to-wet period (1) (7) showing ever-wet (ratio percentage up to 14.3) and semi-wet (14.3–33.3%) distributed over all of Kalimantan, all of Sumatra except the northern coastal strip, Irian Jaya except the south-east, central Sulawesi and most of its northern arm, the Halmahera and Aru islands of the Maluku and over south-west Java as well as the mountainous parts of central Java. All other areas are shown as semi-arid or monsoon types, with highest ratio percentages (110–300%) found in Nusatenggara, especially the eastern islands. Mountains have a marked effect on local climate as is illustrated by the lowest average rainfall in the country found in Palu valley of west central Sulawesi, i.e. 550 mm per year (ratio percentage: 167–300). The bulk of the Indonesianland masses fall in the ever-wet and semi-wet climates, where also the greatest forest resources are found. These typical humid tropics are broadly characterized for lowlands and hilly country, up to approximately 1 000 m, by: (i) mean day temperature: 32°C, mean night temperature: 22°C, diurnal variation in coastal plains: 5.5–8.5°C and inland 8.5–11°C, monthly variation: about 2°C; (ii) monsoon winds, but outside the typhoon belt; (iii) average annual rainfall 2 500–3 000 mm, exceeding 5 000 mm on exposed higher sites; (iv) daily average humidity 90%, only slightly influenced by monsoon seasons; (v) thunderstorms occurring all year round, up to 200 days a year, with a peak in the afternoon (2).
The population in 1980 is estimated (13) at slightly over 142 million (at the latest labour survey in 1976 it was assessed as 127.5 million). Annual growth rate is currently estimated at 2.35% approximately. The expected population in 1985, is estimated as at more than 157 million. In 1976, 104 million people, or almost 82% of the total population lived in rural areas. In 1980, about 99 million or 63% of the population, live in Java, which account for only 7% of total land area of the country, resulting in a very high population density of over 610 persons/km2 for Java. The next most densely populated island is Bali, with 410 persons/km2 (2.5 million). Other islands groups are much less densely populated: Sumatra: 43 persons/km2 (27 million); Kalimantan: 10 persons/km2 (7 million); Sulawesi: 41 persons/km2 (11.5 million); Nusatenggara: 80 persons/km2 (6 million); the Maluku: 15 persons/km2 (2 million) and Irian Java: 2 persons/km2 (1.5 million). From 1972 to 1979 slightly over 500 000 persons have transmigrated from Java and Bali (in 71/72 at an annual rate of 19 000 per year and in 78/79 of over 110 000 persons). The areas of resettlement were located in the following provinces (in order of decreasing importance): Jambi (Sumatra), South Sulawesi, Bengkulu (Sumatra), South Sumatra, East Kalimantan and Lampong (Sumatra). Numbers of persons settled annually in each of these areas in 1978/79, varied between 10 000 and 23 000 (13).
The country is divided into 27 provinces and special areas (urban agglomerations): 8 on Sumatra, 4 on Kalimantan, 5 on Java, 4 on Sulawesi and Bali, West Nusatenggara, East Nusatenggara, Timor, the Maluku and Irian Java. Road infrastructure is very poor to non-existent in eastern Sumatra, Kalimantan and Irian Java, where most transportation is done by river, as well as on Sulawesi, the Maluku and Nusatenggara islands. With the Trans-Sumatra Highway, interior areas of central and southern Sumatra have become more accessible, but infrastructure is still lacking especially along Sumatra's west coast. A Trans-Kalimantan highway is under construction. Java possesses a comparatively dense road and rail network, though inadequate for its huge population. Inter-island shipping links are of many types, but frequently inadequate.
