Part II
COUNTRY BRIEFS (continued)

NEPAL (continued)

Production, exports and domestic consumption of wood products for selected years (10) (in m³)

¹ In addition to the recorded log production, some unauthorized cutting, perhaps 25–35% of the recorded volumes, is known to have occurred in the 70's, mostly for export.
² Recorded production minus recorded exports.
³ Estimated at 0.57 m³ (20 ft³) per person.

Other forest products

Most of the fuelwood is consumed within the country, the rest being exported to India. Annual per capita consumption of fuelwood in the Terai as surveyed by Nepal Energy sector is 386 kg (0.5 m³). In the Hills fuelwood consumption per capita is estimated (14) at 633 kg (0.9 m³). On the basis of population projections, total consumption and export of fuelwood have been estimated as follows (14).

Consumption and export of fuelwood
(in million m³)

A part of the fuelwood is obtained as a by-product of log harvesting and sawmilling, but most of it is obtained by the consumers directly from the forest and goes unrecorded. The Fuelwood Corporation of Nepal, which is a government undertaking, has the responsibility to meet the firewood needs of the capital and other parts of the country wherever it functions through its branches. It has sale depots at different points in Kathmandu with firewood hauled from Terai forests within a distance of 15 to 200 km.

Rosin and turpentine are the most important among the other forest products. Two factories were set up with an annual production of 3 000 and 6 000 tons east and west of Karnali river. Medicinal plants and other minor forest produce are collected and either used directly by the local population or sold through contractors. The important ones are: kattha, an extract obtained from the wood of khair (Acacia catechu) which is used as an ingredient of chewing better leaf (pan), the myrobolans (fruits of Terminalia) which have great medicinal value, honey, gums, skins and hides. Lemmon grass oil is also produced.

1.1.3 Present situation of the growing stock

Gross volumes, to a 10 cm top outside bark, of the commercial forests of the country (VOB) were estimated in the framework of the Department of Forests/USAID Forest Survey Programme in 1963/65 (1) (4) and have been used in this study. The gross volumes of non-commercial forests have been taken in this study at half that of the corresponding commercial forests. There is wide variation in the growing stock per hectare, depending on forest types, species composition, site factors, management and exploitation status.

Growing stock estimated at end 1980
(totals in million m³)

¹ “Terai hardwood forests”
² “Khair - sissoo forests”

1.2 Plantations

1.2.1 Introduction

Natural forest resources have been seriously depleted during the last 25 years through encroachment by agriculture, illicit fellings and export of timber from the Terai, construction of the east-west national highway, etc. The need for a planned plantation programme to compensate these losses was felt already in 1958. Plantations on modest scale started in 1964 in the Kathmandu, Chautara and Trishuli forest divisions. However it was only in 1975–76 that a national afforestation programme was launched with the following objectives: increase of forest area to compensate the loss already occurred, supply of forest produce to match the increase in demand, conversion of economically less valuable forests to better ones, soil and moisture conservation and afforestation of barren slopes.

In the fifth five year plan (1975/76 – 1979/80) in which the national afforestation programme was introduced a target of 20 000 ha was fixed (8 400 ha in the Terai and 11 600 ha in the Hills). However, due to shortage of funds, this target had to be reduced and only 2 200 ha per annum could be planted.

In the last years, an important fuelwood plantation programme for the Hills has been under preparation but there has been no significant planting until 1980 (see section 2.2).

1.2.2 Areas of established plantations

Industrial plantations

Almost all the plantations in the country have been established with species of industrial importance. No distinction is made between industrial plantations and others. However considering the location, the terrain and other factors, it can be estimated that 70% of the plantations raised are mainly for industrial use. In the hill valleys the most commonly planted species are: chir pine (Pinus roxburghii), blue pine (Pinus wallichiana), “american pine” (Pinus patula). They constitute about 75% of the planted area. The other species are champ (Michelia champaca), ritha (Sapindus detergens), utis (Alnus nepalensis), Celtis australis, bokaino (Melia azederach), etc. In the Terai khair (Acacia catechu), sissoo (Dalbergia sissoo), and teak (Tectona grandis) are the most common ones. Besides, bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus) and white siris (Albizia procera) and semal (Bombax ceiba) are also planted. Some of the plantations of Alnus nepalensis and chir pine (Pinus roxburghii) are mainly for soil conservation rather than for production of wood for industry. Because no separate statistics were found for these plantations, they are included here in the industrial plantations.

Figures for areas planted since 1966/67 have been obtained from (17) and the same projected for 1978/79 and 1979/80 taking the average of the last three years. Reliable data on survival/success rate are not available. An overall rate of 60% has been assumed taking into account the various constraints faced, such as unfavourable sites, logistic difficulties, lack of funds for maintenance, etc. On this assumption areas of established industrial plantations are the following.

Areas of established industrial plantations estimated at end 1980
(in thousand ha)

Other plantations

Other plantations are, for the time being, those raised for soil and moisture conservation and aesthetics. In the hills koiralo (Bauhinia variegasa), lahere pipal (Populus sp.), bainse (Salix babylonica), Jacaranda ovalifolia, Callistemon viminalis, etc. have been planted. In the Terai region, gulmohar (Delonix regia) and rejbraksha (Cassia fistula) are common species. The survival/success rate has been assumed at 50 percent since this type of plantations are more liable to failure due to poor soil and hostile climate. As already mentioned some of the soil conservation and watershed management plantations are inevitably included under industrial plantations.

Areas of established non-industrial plantations estimated at end 1980
(in thousand ha)

All plantations

The following table derives from the compilation of the above ones.

Areas of established plantations estimated at end 1980
(in thousand ha)

1.2.3 Plantation characteristics

The plantations in Nepal have not a long past and few of them have already reached rotation age. This is one reason why no information is yet available on their growth and yield characteristics.

2. Present trends

2.1 Natural woody vegetation

2.1.1 Deforestation

The main cause of deforestation in the country is due to organized as well as spontaneous settlement of landless people. The population pressure in the hills have caused migration of population to the Terai and Inner Terai regions. The Nepal Resettlement Company was formed for settlement of migrant families. HMG proposed a five year resettlement plan for 1973/74 – 1977/78. On average 3 000 families were to be settled annually. Each family is allotted 2.7 ha of forest land resulting in a total annual loss of forest of about 8 000 ha. In addition to this legalised reduction of the forest areas, illegal settlement and extension of agriculture continue taking their toll.

The shifting cultivation in its primitive form is almost abandoned except in some pockets of the hilly region around Chitwan (central Nepal) where people of Khubu tribe are still engaged in this type of agriculture.

Forest area estimates for the flat portions of the Terai and the Inner Terai have been worked out by the UNDP/FAO/Nepal Forest Development project on the basis of analysis of the 1972 Landsat satellite imagery. A comparison with the findings of the 1964 inventory results indicate that about 340 000 ha (31% of the commercial forests or 4% per annum) were lost during the period 1964/72 (13). The same document also mentions that about 180 000 ha of forest were lost for colonisation and agriculture settlement between 1963 and 1972 with the following breakdown (13):

(in thousand ha)

It is presumed that the balance of 160 000 ha had been lost due to illegal/unorganized encroachment by squatters.

A study carried out by the Indian Preinvestiment Survey of Forest Resources in western Nepal for a paper mill project covered almost one third of the total area of Nepal viz. 39888 km². From the analysis of 1977 Landsat imagery it was observed that the vegetated forests covered 43.3% of the total land area. The percentage of forest area in the the same region in 1964 was 63.7%. This indicates an overall annual reduction rate of 2.9% (Hills and Terai).

Although the Hills have had their population increasing, statistics indicate that migration has principally been into the Terai and Inner Terai. The reduction rate of commercial forest area in the hills is much lower that that of the Terai: losses due to commercial exploitation are minimal because of inaccessibility and non-commercial losses due to firewood and grazing would generally result in depletion of the growing stock and gradual decreases in area rather than in large scale deforestation. In the Hills most of the settlements take place in the commercial forests since the non-commercial forests are situated either on steep slopes or on rocky and poor soils. Therefore it can be assumed that deforestation - estimated at 1.5% yearly in the Hills - is at the expense of commercial forests only.

In the Terai encroachment takes place in both the non-commercial and the commercial forests although valuable forests are definitely regarded with deference. Deforestation can be distributed roughly in 25% in non-commercial forests, 25% in sal forests and 50% in other commercial forests, the overall deforestation rate in the Terai being estimated at 5.0% yearly.

The government and the Department of Forests are conscious of these problems. The government has approved a 22-point National Forestry Plan which, among other things, envisages a “Forest Encroachment Control Programme”. In the following table it is assumed that the measures taken will compensate the effects of the increased population pressure and result in a stabilization of the present deforestation rate.

Average annual deforestation
(in thousand ha)

Deforestation is not evenly distributed as illustrated by the comparative study carried out for Banke and Bardia districts from the interpretation of April 64 (6) and December 71 serial photographs. The results are summarised hereunder.

¹ Forest areas as percent of total area

2.1.2 Degradation

Excessive use of the woody vegetation by rural people results in its degradation and erosion of the carrying soils. One main factor is fuelwood collection for which young trees and shrubs are preferred for the sake of facility, although lopping of trees for fuel and fodder is common. Cattle graze freely in the forests, browse regeneration and trample the soils. Quite often forests are set on fire by villagers to get a better grass for their cattle. Forest fringes along the farmlands are gradually encroached on by girdling of the trees. All these activities result in depletion of the growing stock and in reduction of the forest growth, reduce the possibilities of natural regeneration and increase the dibility of the soils which are gradually deprived of their vegetative cover.

2.1.3 Trends in forest utilisation

Taking the present per capita consumption and accounting for population growth only, the future demand of timber for 1985 has been projected as follows (14):

Therefore increase in production is one of the main objectives of the development programme planned for 20 districts. There is possibility of increasing log output per hectare and also total output. The present system of auction sale is not working quite satisfactorily. An abuse of the system arises from the operations of contractors, who obtain cutting rights near the border, and using imported contract labour (in a country with a high unemployment), cut logs for export to Indian sawmills; the location of their operations enables substantial illegal (and unrecorded) felling for export.

Fuelwood requirements will also rise with population increase. Taking the present per capita consumption and accounting for population growth only, the demand of fuelwood for 1985 has been projected as follows:

Fuelwood demand in 1980 and 1985
(in thousand ha)

2.1.4 Area and growing stock at end 1985

The indications given in the previous section, used in combination with the area and volume estimates at end 1980, leads to the estimates at end 1985 presented below:

Area of natural woody vegetation estimated at end 1985
(in thousand ha)

Growing stock estimated at end 1985
(in million m³)

2.2 Plantations

It is assumed that the traditional plantation programmes will result in the same area of successfully established plantations during the next five year period as in the previous five year period. In addition the massive “Community Forestry Development Project” financed by the World Bank and assisted by UNDP/FAO will create a significant area of fuelwood plantations during 1981–85 period, which has been tentatively estimated at 10 000 ha of successfully established new plantations and the rehabilitation of 40 000 ha of degraded forest land. At the end of 1980, 70 nurseries have been set up with a total annual capacity of 2 725 000 seedlings, and 50 ha of Panchayat forests have been planted. Other integrated rural development projects and bilaterally assisted forestry projects are expected to contribute also to reforestation in the country.

Industrial plantations

Areas of established industrial plantations estimated at end 1985
(in thousand ha)

Other plantations

Areas of established non-industrial plantations at end 1985
(in thousand ha)

All plantations

Areas of established plantations at end 1985
(in thousand ha)

Bibliography

(1) Department of Forests/USAID 1967 “Forest Statistics for the Tarai and Adjoining Regions - 1967”- Forest Resources Survey Publication No. 4 - Kathmandu

(2) Champion, H.G. and Seth, S.K. 1968 “A Revised Survey of the Forest Types of India” - Publications Division, Government of India - Delhi

(3) Anonymous 1973 “Management Plan for the Timber Corporation of Nepal Forest Reserve” - Kathmandu

(4) Department of Forestry 1973 “Forest Statistics for the Hill Region” - Forest Resources Survey Publication No. 21 - Kathmandu

(5) Government of Nepal 1974 “Population Projections for Nepal 1971–1986” - Central Bureau of Statistics - Kathmandu

(6) FAO 1975 “Forest Development - Nepal - Land Use” - FO: DP/NEP/69/513-Technical Report - Rome

(7) FAO 1975 “Forest Development - Nepal - Interim Report” - FO: DP/NEP/69/513 - Interim Report - Rome

(8) Dobrenez, J.F. 1976 “Le Népal - Ecologie et Biogéographie” - Editions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique - Paris

(9) Tribhuwan University 1976 “Nepal - the Energy Sector” - Institute of Sciences - Tribhuwan University - Kathmandu

(10) Asian Development Bank 1977 “The Forest Economy of Nepal”

(11) Department of Forests 1977 “National Report on Forestry (Period: 1974–1976) - Nepal” - Asia Pacific Forestry Commission - Tenth Session - 6–10 June 1977 - Kathmandu

(12) FAO/World Bank Cooperative Programme 1977 “Report of the Nepal Forestry Identification Mission” - Report No. 9/77 DDC Nep. 8 - Rome

(13) World Bank 1977 “Agriculture Sector Survey - Nepal” - Washington D.C.

(14) Sharma, E.R. and Amatya, D.B. 1978 “Degradation of Forest Resources in Nepal” - in Nepal Journal of Forestry - Vol.1 1978 - No. 4 - Kathmandu

(15) UNFPA/FAO 1978 “Nepal Country Report in Shifting Cultivation”

(16) World Bank 1978 “Country Review Paper No. 4 - Nepal” - Report No. 38110 - 78 - XB - Washington, D.C.

(17) Department of Forests 1979 “Annual Report 1977–78 - Afforestation Office” (in nepalese) - Kathmandu

(18) FAO 1980 “National Parks and Wildlife Conservation - Nepal - Project Findings and Recommendations” - FO: DP/NEP/72/002 - Terminal Report - Rome

(19) FAO 1980 “A Reconnaissance Inventory of the Major Ecological Land Units and their Watershed Condition in Nepal” (draft) - by D. Nelson, P. Laban, B.D. Shrestha and G.P. Kandel - Kathmandu

PAKISTAN

Pakistan spreads over more than 800 000 km² between latitudes 24 and 27°N and longitudes 61 and 75°E. It is bounded on the northwest by Afghanistan, on the north by the USSR and China, on the east by India and on the south by the Arabian Sea. The country can be divided into three main geographical regions:

• the mountains occupy the northern and western parts of the country. The northern mountains are the termination of the great Himalayan range with a number of peaks well above 6 000 m permanently clad with snow. The submountainous areas are extensive, forming a number of plateaus and valleys. The western mountains are not very high and are associated with plateaus, semi arid valleys and plain land, most of which are unproductive;

• The Indus plain is the western part of the indo-gangetic plain which forms one of the most prominent and extensive physiographic divisions of the subcontinent. The plain is believed to be more than one thousand metre deep and is formed by the large quantitites of alluvial material deposited since time immemorial by the Indus and several of its tributaries. The land is fertile and heavily populated;

• the coastal zone is a narrow fringe bordering the Arabian Sea. It includes also the Indus delta, and the saline marshes of Rann of Kutch.

The climate of the country, which lies in the subtropical region, is varied due to the wide ranges of altitudes and distances to sea. The larger part of the country is situated in the arid and semi-arid zones. Part of the rainfall in the high hills is received in the form of snow. Lower down the annual rainfall averages between 750 and 900 mm, decreasing progressively to the west and south as low as 125 mm in certain areas. The climate is considerably influenced by monsoon winds which come from the southeast in the summer and by cyclonic disturbances which originate in the Mediterranean Sea during winter. About 70 percent of the average precipitation is received from June to September. Differences in temperature between seasons are relatively high.

Most of the hilly area is denuded and has little soil left. Submountainous plateaus and the adjoining plains have well drained alluvial soils and part of the corresponding agriculture land is very fertile. The Indus plain is composed of silt, sand, clay and rarely gravel. Much of the land in this basin was desertic and has been developed by irrigation. Due to the arid conditions, evaporation exceeds precipitation and this may result in accumulation of salt in the soils rendering them less productive.

Population of the country according to the 1972 census was 67.3 million. It is expected to have 82.45 million inhabitants approximately in 1980 growing at an annual rate of 2.6%. Labour force engaged in agriculture is estimated at 13.3 million with an annual growth rate of 2.2% approximately (16).

1. Present situation

1.1 Natural vegetation

1.1.1 Description of the vegetation types

The natural vegetation of the country is particularly varied ranging from tropical thorn forest to temperate and alpine types. The main formations are presented below within the broad categories used in this study.

Closed broadleaved forests (NHC)

The mangrove forests or coastal forests are located in the shallow waters along the coast near the mouth of river Indus. The forests are poorly stocked and the species are few. They are mainly composed of Avicennia officinalis and cover an area of about 350 000 hectares. Where accessible they are heavily cut for fuelwood and are mostly shrubby. The leaves serve as a valuable fodder. In the inaccessible areas, trees attain a height of about 10 m. They have little productive value except for small quantities of firewood and for grazing.

The “upland hardwood forests” occur on mountains above 1 500 m elevation in small patches in the shallow and moist depressions and other sheltered spots. They also form strips along the mountain streams. Large patches of this type of forests are rare. Individual trees may be very large in size since many are mature and overmature. The most common trees are oaks (Quercus dilatata and Q. semecarpifolia), walnut (Juglans regia), horse chestnut (Aesculus indica), alder (Alnus nitida), kalakath (Prunus spp.), maple (Acer spp.), batangi (Pyrus pashia) etc. Betula, Populus and Rhododendron species are also present. They correspond to types 12/C1b, 12/C1e and 12/C2a of Champion and Seth's classification (2). In the dry temperate forests, between 1 800 m and 3 000 m west of the Indus, and also in isolated patches east of the Indus not reached by the monsoon rains and where rainfall is confined to winter rain and snow, the broadleaved are represented by Acer spp., Fraximus spp., Quercus spp., Pistacia khinjak, etc. These forests are also limited to patches of various size in the moist depressions or along mountain streams. They correspond to type 13/C3 of Champion and Seth's classification (2).

Open broadleaved forests (NHc/NHO)

The “riverain forests” occur in Sind and Punjab along the banks of the Indus and of other rivers, mainly within the protection embankments. They are subject to seasonal flooding with erosion and deposition. Most of these forests are unproductive. They are being converted gradually to plantations. Their extent is about 300 000 hectares. Kikar (Acacia arabica) is the main species with some Populus euphratica, Prosopis spicigera, etc. In the drier parts Tamarix spp. occur in depressions together with shisham (Dalbergia sissoo). Fuelwood is the main product although, in Sind, kikar is a major source of pitprops, for the mining industry. These forests correspond to type 5/E3 of Champion and Seth's classification (2).

Coniferous forests (NS)

The coniferous forests are the most important commercial forests and can be grouped into two classes:

• the “chir pine forests”, or low level conifers, occur from a little below 900 m elevation up to 1 650 m on the mountain slopes. The principal species is chir pine (Pinus roxburghii). Some oaks (Quercus dilatata) and other broadleaved species occasionally grow in these forests where lopping for fodder and fuel is minimal, but they do not have any real commercial importance. Chir pine occurs almost in pure form in the top canopy which is moderately dense and reaches a height of 25 to 35 m. The undergrowth is usually dense and consists of species such as granda (Carissa spinarum), sanatha (Dodonea viscosa) etc. In some areas shrubs are completely absent due to frequent fires. A rich grass growth develops during the rainy season and dries up and is flattened down in winter. The subtropical climate of these lower elevation foothills of the Himalayan range is favourable to permanent living and as a result the forests have been subjected to heavy population pressure. They correspond to type 9/C1b of Champion and Seth's classification (2);

• the “high level conifers” belong to the temperate zone and range in altitude from 1 650 m up to about 3 000 m. These limits depend considerably on the aspects of the slopes. The stocking varies with the extent of degradation by agriculture (from below) and by summer grazing of alpine pasture (from above). Most of these forests grow on very steep slopes, between 60% and 100% and occasionally up to 150%. Average slope is about 75%. Many slopes of less than 60% have been terraced for agriculture. The principal commercial species are deodar (Cedrus deodara), kail or blue pine (Pinus wallichiana), fir (Abies pindrow) and spruce (Picea smithiama). Taxus baccata also occurs in the form of scattered trees or small patches. Size of the trees is generally very large because of the selection system of management and the long rotation period. Part of these forests is inaccessible. They correspond to types 12/C1c and d and 12/C2b of Champion and Seth's classification (2);

• west of the Indus and also in small patches east of it where monsoon rains do not reach and the low rainfall is confined to winter rains and snow, the above type is replaced by xerophytic temperate forests. In these forests the canopy is open and trees are stunted. In the extreme northwest and west the main coniferous species are chilgosa (Pinus gerardiana) and Juniperus macropoda. These forests correspond to types 13/C2a and b of Champion and Seth's classification;

• the “alpine forests” occurring between 2 850 and 3 600 metres are a mixture of conifers and broadleaved trees. The conifers are represented by Abies webbiana and a high altitude variety of Pinus wallichiana. The broadleaved species are Betula utilis and Rhododendron campanulatum. The crop is very open and stunted. The usual height for conifers is about 18–20 m and for broadleaved species 9–10 m. They are unproductive for industrial wood due to their poor stocking. Moreover most of these forests are inaccessible.

Scrub formations (nH)

The scrub formations in Pakistan can be grouped into three main types:

• the “tropical thorn forests” are also known as scrub forests of the plains or desert scrub and correspond to type 6 B/C1 of Champion and Seth's classification. A number of thorny species like jand (Prosopis spicigera), karir (Capparis aphylla) and phulai (Acacia modesta) are representative of this type. Frash (Tamarix articulata), pelu (Salvadora oleoides) and mesquite (Prosopis juliflora) grow also commonly in the degraded lands. These forests provide firewood to local communities and forage to cattle. They consist of small patches of short boled, low-branching tree species and a variety of shrubs, scattered over a total area of 1.1 million ha in the plains which offer great potential for development as rangelands;

• the “subtropical dry evergreen forests” correspond to type 7/DS1 of Champion and Seth's classification (2). These formations are constituted by evergreen species of small size trees and shrubs. They grow up to about 1 000 m altitude on the hill slopes. Main species are phulai (Acacia modesta) and kau (Olea cuspidata), which are useful sources of firewood. Other species are ber (Zizyphu jujuba), Dodonea viscosa, etc. A large part of these forests is degraded by grazing, browsing, lopping and over exploitation for firewood. They play an important role as vegetative cover of the main water catchments;

• the “alpine scrub” corresponding to groups 15 and 16 of Champion and Seth's classification (2) is composed of rhododendrons and junipers above 3 500 m. They do not have any economic importance.

1.1.2 Present situation of the woody vegetation

Present areas

Forest resource data compiled by the Ministry of Food and Agriculture of the Government of Pakistan as of 1979/80 is given in the table below (16):

Forest areas by provinces (1979/80)
(in thousand ha)

¹ In addition to 1 679 000 ha of coniferous forests, a World Bank report mentions 167 000 ha of area in the Tribal Zone not included in the national statistics. Thus the total area of montane coniferous forest comes to 1 846 000 ha. This has been rounded off to 1 840 000 ha for the period end 1980, taking into account the annual rate of deforestation (see para. 2.1.1).

² The areas mentioned here correspond to rangelands under the control of the Forest Department. The total area of the rangeland in the country is reported as 66 270 000 ha.

For the purposes of the present report, the data given by the Forest Department were reappraised to conform to the standard classification of the natural woody vegetation used in this study:

Areas of natural woody vegetation estimated at end 1980
(in thousand ha)

Following comments are necessary for a proper understanding of this table:

• the upland broadleaved forests are not mentioned as such in the forest statistics of the government. Their area has been derived by dividing the total area of montane coniferous forests (total: 1 840 000 ha by the end 1980) into viz. NHCf and NSf in the ratio of 0.28:0.72. The ratio is based on the forest inventory reports in selected catchments of Himalayas (5) (6). This gives a figure of 51 500 ha for NHCf and 1 325 000 ha for NSf;

• the woodlands and shrublands include 295 000 ha of the riverain forests and 1 105 000 ha of the shrub forests as reported by the government;

• major part of the upland broadleaved forests, estimated as 295 000 ha, are inaccessible (NHCf2i). The coniferous forests being more valuable, have been more exploited. The total inaccessible area estimated as 485 999 ha is proportionately much less (NSf2i);

• NHC/NSf1uv (virgin unmanaged productive closed broadleaved and coniferous forests) are not completely free in fact from human interference. There is no commercial exploitation but local population collects timber and firewood from these forests. However the production is practically compensated by natural growth and the forests remain almost unaltered;

• NHC/NSf1uc represents forests not covered by intensive forest management but which have been however exploited due to their accessibility and to population pressure;

• about half of productive coniferous forests are intensively managed (NSf1m);

• part of the riverain forests (here classified as woodlands), which are considered as open broadleaved forests (NHc/NHO), are intensively managed for timber and fuelwood (NHc/NHO1m) and the rest has been overexploited and is considered as unproductive for physical reasons (NHc/NHO2i);

• scrub formations (Nh) occur in alpine, upland and lowland broadleaved zones;

• the figures in the above table include all forests of Gilgit, Azad - Kashmir and tribal areas.

Ownership

There are various categories of forest ownership some of them particular to Pakistan:

• state owned forests are under the control and management of the Forest Departments; they are found over the entire country;

• cantonment and municipal forests are located in and around the urban centres and are under the ownership of the local bodies. They are however controlled and managed by the Forest Departments;

• private forests are owned by individuals or by communities and are found mainly in the hill region. Most of them are called “Guzaras”; the others are the “communal forests”;

• private forest areas subjected to erosion hazards are taken over by the government under the Chose Act (“Chose-Act-Forests”). In some cases people hand over their forest land to the Forest Departments which then comes under “Section 38 Lands”. Some lands not suitable for agriculture have been taken over by the government and their management entrusted to Forest Departments. They are called “Resumed Lands”. Thus private forests can be under private control (“Guzaras” and “Communal”) or under control of the Forest Departments.

The following table gives an indication of the extent of these forests in 1972–73 (11) (14) excluding Northern areas.

Designated forest area by ownership (1972–73) ¹
(in thousand ha)

¹ irrespective of vegetation cover
² figures from (16)