TABLE 8b - Areas of established plantations estimated at end 1985 (projections)
Non-industrial plantations
(in thousand ha)
| Country | Hardwood species | Softwood species | All species | ||||||||
| Other than fast-growing | fast-growing | All hardwood species | |||||||||
| PHL 2 | PHH 2 | PH.2 | PS.2 | P..2 | |||||||
| total | 1981–85 | total | 1981–85 | total | 1981–85 | total | 1981–85 | total | 1981–85 | ||
| Chad | 4.4 | 1.2 | 4.4 | 1.2 | 4.4 | 1.2 | |||||
| Gambia | |||||||||||
| Mali | 2.7 | 1 | 2.7 | 1 | 2.7 | 1 | |||||
| Niger | 14 | 8 | 14 | 8 | 14 | 8 | |||||
| Senegal | 17.8 | 9 | 5.2 | 5 | 23 | 14 | 23 | 14 | |||
| Upper Volta | 22 | 10 | 22 | 10 | 22 | 10 | |||||
| NORTHERN SAVANNA REGION | 60.9 | 29.2 | 5.2 | 5 | 66.1 | 34.2 | 0 | 0 | 66.1 | 34.2 | |
| Benin | 10.15 | 1.1 | 11.25 | 11.25 | |||||||
| Ghana | 37.1 | 2 | 15.4 | 1.5 | 52.5 | 3.5 | 52.5 | 3.5 | |||
| Guinea | 0.25 | 0.1 | 0.75 | 0.2 | 1 | 0.3 | 1 | 0.3 | |||
| Guinea-Bissau | 0.15 | 0.1 | 0.15 | 0.1 | 0.15 | 0.1 | |||||
| Ivory Coast | 8.2 | 2 | 0.9 | 9.1 | 2 | 9.1 | 2 | ||||
| Liberia | |||||||||||
| Nigeria | 16.1 | 3.5 | 5.9 | 1.5 | 22 | 5 | 22 | 5 | |||
| Sierra Leone | 0.9 | 0.4 | 0.9 | 0.4 | 0.9 | 0.4 | |||||
| Togo | 0.95 | 0.05 | 3.15 | 0.3 | 4.1 | 0.35 | 4 | 0.35 | |||
| WEST AFRICA | 73.6 | 8 | 27.4 | 3.6 | 101 | 11.6 | 0 | 0 | 101.1 | 11.6 | |
| Angola | 99.2 | 10 | 99.2 | 10 | 99.2 | 10 | |||||
| Cameroon | 10.6 | 2.5 | 10.6 | 2.5 | 10.6 | 2.5 | |||||
| Central African Republic | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.5 | ||||||||
| Congo | |||||||||||
| Equatorial Guinea | |||||||||||
| Gabon | |||||||||||
| Zaire | 5.2 | 1.7 | 5.2 | 1.7 | 5.2 | 1.7 | |||||
| CENTRAL AFRICA | 0 | 0 | 115.5 | 14.2 | 115.5 | 14.2 | 115.5 | 14.2 | |||
| Burundi | 16.5 | 3.5 | 16.5 | 3.5 | 4 | 4 | 20.5 | 7.5 | |||
| Ethiopia | 147 | 50 | 147 | 50 | 147 | 50 | |||||
| Kenya | 38.9 | 15 | 38.9 | 15 | 38.9 | 15 | |||||
| Madagascar | 40 | 131.5 | 20 | 171.5 | 20 | 7.5 | 5 | 179 | 25 | ||
| Malawi | 4.3 | 2 | 4.3 | 2 | 4.3 | 2 | |||||
| Mozambique | 17.5 | 8 | 17.5 | 8 | 17.5 | 8 | |||||
| Rwanda | 36.5 | 13 | 36.5 | 13 | 5 | 3 | 41.5 | 16 | |||
| Somalia | 18.5 | 7.5 | 18.5 | 7.5 | 18.5 | 7.5 | |||||
| Sudan | 189.7 | 60 | 189.7 | 60 | 189.7 | 60 | |||||
| Tanzania | 64 | 34 | 64 | 34 | 64 | 34 | |||||
| Uganda | 37 | 5 | 37 | 5 | 37 | 5 | |||||
| Zambia | 4.5 | 1.5 | 4.5 | 1.5 | 2.3 | 0.8 | 6.8 | 2.3 | |||
| Zimbabwe | 25.9 | 10 | 18.3 | 6 | 44.2 | 16 | 0.4 | 44.6 | 16 | ||
| EAST AFRICA AND MADAGASCAR | 274.1 | 77.5 | 516 | 158 | 790.1 | 235.5 | 19.2 | 12.8 | 809.3 | 248.3 | |
| Botswana | |||||||||||
| Namibia | |||||||||||
| TROPICAL SOUTH AFRICA | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
| TROPICAL AFRICA | 408.6 | 114.7 | 664.1 | 180.8 | 1072.7 | 295.5 | 19.2 | 12.8 | 1091.9 | 308.3 | |
TABLE 8c - Areas of established plantations estimated at end 1985 (projections)
All plantations
(in thousand ha)
| Country | Hardwood species | Softwood species | All species | ||||||||
| Other than fast-growing | fast-growing | All hardwood species | |||||||||
| PHL | PHH | PH | PS | P | |||||||
| total | 1981–85 | total | 1981–85 | total | 1981–85 | total | 1981–85 | total | 1981–85 | ||
| Chad | 4.4 | 1.2 | 4.4 | 1.2 | 4.4 | 1.2 | |||||
| Gambia | 0.3 | 0.1 | 1.7 | 0.6 | 2 | 0.7 | 2 | 0.7 | |||
| Mali | 4.4 | 2.5 | 4.4 | 2.5 | 4.4 | 2.5 | |||||
| Niger | 14 | 8 | 14 | 8 | 14 | 8 | |||||
| Senegal | 19.7 | 9 | 6.8 | 5 | 26.5 | 14 | 26.5 | 14 | |||
| Upper Volta | 22 | 10 | 22 | 10 | 22 | 10 | |||||
| NORTHERN SAVANNA REGION | 64.8 | 30.8 | 8.5 | 5.6 | 73.3 | 36.4 | 0 | 0 | 73.3 | 36.4 | |
| Benin | 17.9 | 1.1 | 19 | 19 | |||||||
| Ghana | 66.65 | 6.5 | 15.4 | 1.5 | 82.05 | 8 | 2.4 | 1.2 | 84.45 | 9.2 | |
| Guinea | 1.05 | 0.1 | 1.65 | 0.45 | 2.7 | 0.55 | 1 | 0.3 | 3.7 | 0.85 | |
| Guinea-Bissau | 0.7 | 0.4 | 0.15 | 0.1 | 0.85 | 0.5 | ε | ε | 0.85 | 0.5 | |
| Ivory Coast | 72.9 | 30 | 1.7 | 74.6 | 30 | 0.3 | 74.9 | 30 | |||
| Liberia | 2.5 | 0.9 | 5.2 | 1.6 | 7.7 | 2.5 | 8.6 | 7.5 | 16.3 | 10 | |
| Nigeria | 166.7 | 72.5 | 113.4 | 46.5 | 280.1 | 119 | 12.2 | 10 | 292.3 | 129 | |
| Sierra Leone | 3.85 | 0.9 | 3.35 | 0.5 | 7.2 | 1.4 | 7.2 | 1.4 | |||
| Togo | 10.1 | 1.65 | 3.15 | 0.3 | 13.25 | 1.95 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 13.35 | 2.05 | |
| WEST AFRICA | 342.3 | 112.9 | 145.1 | 51 | 487.4 | 163.9 | 24.6 | 19.1 | 512 | 183 | |
| Angola | 149.2 | 12 | 149.2 | 12 | 22 | 2 | 171.2 | 14 | |||
| Cameroon | 13 | 4 | 11 | 2.5 | 24 | 6.5 | 1.5 | 0.5 | 25.5 | 7 | |
| Central African Republic | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.5 | ||||||||
| Congo | 4.2 | 0.3 | 10.8 | 0.7 | 15 | 1 | 2.9 | 0.1 | 17.9 | 1.1 | |
| Equatorial Guinea | |||||||||||
| Gabon | 19 | 4 | 4 | 23 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 24 | 5 | ||
| Zaire | 18.5 | 0.5 | 5.2 | 1.7 | 23.7 | 2.2 | 1 | ε | 24.7 | 2.2 | |
| CENTRAL AFRICA | 54.7 | 4.8 | 180.7 | 20.9 | 235.4 | 25.7 | 28.4 | 3.6 | 263.8 | 29.3 | |
| Burundi | 0.1 | 16.5 | 3.5 | 16.6 | 3.5 | 16.4 | 10 | 33 | 13.5 | ||
| Ethiopia | 147 | 50 | 147 | 50 | 1.2 | 148.2 | 50 | ||||
| Kenya | 3 | 42.9 | 15 | 45.9 | 15 | 185 | 35 | 230.9 | 50 | ||
| Madagascar | 40 | 136.5 | 25 | 176.5 | 25 | 149.5 | 35 | 326 | 60 | ||
| Malawi | 5.8 | 0.5 | 8 | 2 | 13.8 | 2.5 | 71 | 2 | 84.8 | 4.5 | |
| Mozambique | 0.4 | ε | 23.7 | 11 | 24.1 | 11 | 19.3 | 7 | 43.4 | 18 | |
| Rwanda | 1.3 | 0.4 | 36.5 | 13 | 37.8 | 13.4 | 8.2 | 3.6 | 46 | 17 | |
| Somalia | 18.5 | 7.5 | 18.5 | 7.5 | 18.5 | 7.5 | |||||
| Sudan | 251.65 | 66.5 | 251.65 | 66.5 | 3.2 | 0.5 | 254.85 | 67 | |||
| Tanzania | 10.75 | 1 | 64.5 | 34.05 | 75.25 | 35.05 | 65.15 | 7.6 | 140.4 | 42.65 | |
| Uganda | 3.3 | 1 | 37 | 5 | 40.3 | 6 | 14.9 | 3.5 | 55.2 | 9.5 | |
| Zambia | 18.2 | 4.5 | 18.2 | 4.5 | 32.1 | 7.8 | 50.3 | 12.3 | |||
| Zimbabwe | 26.4 | 10 | 30.65 | 10 | 57.05 | 20 | 73.2 | 10 | 130.25 | 30 | |
| EAST AFRICA AND MADAGASCAR | 361.2 | 86.9 | 561.5 | 173.1 | 922.7 | 260 | 639.1 | 122 | 1561.8 | 382 | |
| Botswana | |||||||||||
| Namibia | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.3 | ||||||||
| TROPICAL SOUTH AFRICA | 0 | 0 | 0.3 | 0 | 0.3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.3 | 0 | |
| TROPICAL AFRICA | 823 | 235.4 | 896.1 | 250.6 | 1719.1 | 486 | 692.1 | 144.7 | 2411.2 | 630.7 | |
● As has already been underlined in para. 1.2.1 there is a trend towards the use of species and provenances selected for their high productivity. This is the reason why, as far as industrial timber plantations are concerned, there is a tendency to use species which can be harvested in rotations less than 45 years (Terminalia superba, T. ivorensis, Triplochiton scleroxylon, Cedrela odorata), to reduce planted areas with species on longer rotations such as: Tarrietia utilis, Khaya ivorensis, Tectona grandis, and to abandon species with very slow growth and rotations of more than 80 years such as Entandophragma spp. and Tieghemella heckelii. This policy, mostly dictated by the need to justify financial loans contracted by the states with development banks, seems fairly systematic. However, African forests have mostly been logged for their wood of high technological quality, fine grain and appearance. They still contain large quantities of light species of soft wood for veneer. However, medium rotation timber species presently planted possess similar properties and some, such as Terminalia superba and Triplochiton scleroxylon, occur frequently in African forests. It is therefore also justifiable to contemplate the planting of species such as Khaya ivorensis and Tectona grandis, of which the qualities are such that, their use in 60 to 80 years is fairly well assured.
As far as industrial plantations for pulp production and non-industrial plantations for fuelwood are concerned, the selection of species, provenances and clones of high productivity is justified economically (although they may result in lower production rates for pulp). It is however important to be cautious from a technological angle because some pine provenances selected for their growth performance proved useless for this purpose. The species selection and genetic improvement of fast-growing eucalypts and conifers must take the technological properties of wood into account. Moreover it would be desirable to carry out a systematic search of fast-growing species of natural forests which could be planted in addition to exotic ones.
Tropical Africa, which occupies 45% of tropical lands contains around 18% of the closed forests (216.5 million ha) and 72% of mixed forest-grassland tree formations (486.5 million ha) of the tropical world. Undisturbed productive closed forests cover 118.5 million ha, that is, 5.4% of the total land area of the 37 countries studied. 94.2% of these forests are found in the Cameroon-Congolese block, with Zaire accounting for 67.3% by itself.
Logged-over closed forests (42.8 million ha) contain an important potential timber stocking of species of which the technological properties are known but which are not accepted by the international market, for reasons either of profitability or of fashion. Promoting the so-called secondary species provides results little by little but the inertia of the international market is high. Industrialization of producing countries is one really efficient means of production diversification. Africa which has been long considered as the only source of “mahogany” (all commercial Meliaceae), of okoumé (Aucoumea Klainodoxa) and ayous (or samba, or obeche: Triplochiton scleroxylon), already produces some 50 different commercial species but there exist more than 150 others with acceptable properties and some 100 additional useful ones. The problem is more to know whether these species will be available for harvesting before the forest areas containing them are cleared by agriculture. The present situation in this respect is particularly serious in western Africa where farmers clear 1 900 ha of productive closed forest everyday by axe and fire.
The Cameroon-Congolese block which constitutes the largest part of closed forest areas is at present relatively protected from the encroachment of the farmers, since indigenous populations are small (although surrounding pressure is rather high, particularly in south-western Cameroon, southern Congo and Zaire). At the same time they are also not being looked for by loggers, which have few means of transportation access (Cameroon railway, river axis Congo-Oubangui-Sangha, Brazzaville-Pointe Noire railway, Zaire and Ogooue rivers and Gabonese railway). It must be hoped that these forest areas will be made accessible only when they are included and managed within the framework of a regional planning of the use of land and natural resources (soil, forests, minerals, water, fauna, etc.).
In this respect tropical Africa seems to be lagging behind Asia since the concept of natural forest management, albeit often mentioned in the regulations, has not yet been implemented on a large scale, except in countries like Ghana and Kenya. A huge effort remains to be made in this field, which involves the strengthening of forestry institutions, too often deprived of staff and material means.
Establishment of plantations in the high forest zone is hindered by the problem of their cost and maintenance: they are only made possible thanks to loans from national or international development banks. Results are not always at the level of the efforts spent and this is the reason why trends are towards the use of species with medium rotation and fast growth.
Africa is also, and mainly, the continent of savannas. They contain most of its population which, from very old times, has altered natural vegetation by axe and fire and has been responsible for the almost complete disappearance of the original climax vegetation. In some areas (Ethiopia plateau, Rwanda, Burundi, southern Togo and Benin, Mossi country of central Upper Volta, Haoussa country of Nigeria, Bamileke country in Cameroon, southern Shaba and northern Zambia, southern Mozambique, lake Victoria belt, grazing lands of the Sahelian countries), the natural woody vegetation has almost disappeared or is in the process of disappearing. Populations are either short of fuelwood, which is their almost exclusive source of domestic energy or are overexploiting the woody resources left, progressing towards a shortage situation, which is likely before the year 2000, owing to rapid population growth.
At present some 6 500 ha of mixed forest-grassland tree formations are being cleared daily. Only 35% of savanna areas with more than 10% tree cover are productive within the meaning of this study, although their present productivity is quite low: 1 to 1.5 m3/ha/year of fuelwood, and probably less than 0.05 m3/ha/year of timber with 0.5 to 2 m3 generally logged in a single harvesting. A rational forest management based on a total or partial protection system, would permit a greater profit to be gained from the ecosystem potentialities. Artificial reforestation is justified also, but past failures show that nothing lasting in this field, nor in the field of management of natural forests, is possible without the agreement and participation of local populations. This requires a very large propaganda and extension effort. Change in attitudes towards trees and forests is one of the most essential tasks to which African governments and foresters have to devote themselves.
In the African tradition, forest formations have been considered as an endless reserve of land, fruits, animals and wood. Recent history shows us that these resources theoretically renewable, can also vahish if care is not taken to avoidusing them beyond critical thresholds. Unfortunately the population explosion in most countries of tropical Africa and delays in intensification of agriculture do not hold out any hope for a quick reduction of the forest destruction and processes of degradation. It must be hoped that all those who have influence on the history and the populations of Africa will bear in mind this saying of President Felix Houphouet-Boigny of Ivory Coast: “Man has gone to the moon but he does not know yet how to make a flame tree or a bird song. Let us keep our dear countries free from irreversible mistakes which would lead us in the future to long for these same birds and trees”.
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