This chapter describes the bio-physical context of the forest resources of Nepal to assist in understanding the dynamics of change of these resources over space and time. It provides information on geology, topography, climate, bio-geographical zones, flora and fauna, agriculture, livestock and demography that influence condition of forests in Nepal.
Nepal is a kingdom and lies between the arid Tibetan highland to the north and the Indian foothills of the Himalayas to the south. The country is located between 260 22' and 300 27' North latitude and 800 04' and 880 12' East longitude and covers an area of 147,490 km2 (LRMP, 1986). The country is about 800 km long and 160 km wide. Large variations in altitude (60 m to 8,848 m), temperature, moisture, rainfall and geology enrich Nepal with a high level of bio-diversity (75 vegetation types and 35 forest types). The holy birthplace of Lord Buddha, Mt. Everest (Sagarmatha: 8,848 m), and the famous temple of Lord Pashupatinath are some of the glories of Nepal.
Most geological formations run east to west and can be categorized into five physiographic zones. The High Himalayan zone belongs to the Precambrian era and it consists of gneiss, schist, limestone and sediments. The High Mountain zone belongs to the Precambrian era and consists of metamorphic rocks such as gneiss and schist. This zone also possesses granite and pegmatite. The Middle Mountain zone is mostly of late Precambrian to Devonian era and consists of phyllite, quartzite, gneiss, granite and schist. The Siwalik zone belongs to the middle Palaeocene and early quaternary period and mainly consists of shale, sandstone, and conglomerate. Finally, the Terai zone is composed of fine alluvial materials.
Fine particles of stony soil exit in cracks of larger rocks in the High Himalayan region while shallow and stony soils are seen in the high mountains. Soils in the Middle Mountains are moderately to highly acidic, medium- to light-textured coarse grained sand and gravel. Soils of the Siwalik region are predominantly fine to coarse loam. The Terai soils are alluvial and coarse textured.
Elevation is the main factor that defines the boundaries of the five physiographic zones (High Himalayas. High Mountains, Middle Mountains, Siwalik and Terai) of Nepal (Appendix, Table 1) that run as horizontal bands stretching from east to west across Nepal’s 800-km length. More than 40 percent of the area of Nepal is above 3,000 m and is mostly unsuitable for agriculture or production forestry (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Distribution of area by altitude
Fig. 2. Share of river systems in total runoff
Nepal has nine major river systems with a watershed area of about 194,471km2. The total water storage capacity of all the river systems is about 202, 000 million m3 and the annual run-off contributed by them within Nepal (Appendix, Table 2) is about 170 billion m3 (HMG, 1992). The Koshi, Naryani and Karnali river systems together contribute about 74% of the total runoff (Fig. 2).
Researchers have developed several ecological boundaries for various purposes. Turril (1954) divided Nepal into two broad zones (eastern and western Himalayas). Stern (1960) developed a three–zone system based mainly on the three main river systems (Karnali, Gandaki and Koshi).
a. Western, from the western boundary to 830 East longitude.
b. Central, from 830 East to 860 30' East longitude.
c. Eastern, from 86030' E to the eastern boundary.
Stainton (1972) developed phyto-geographic boundaries, categorizing the country into six regions based on climate, vegetation and floristic composition. He divided the Nepalese forest into 35 broad forest types. Dobremez et al (1972) identified 4 domains, 6 levels and 118 ecosystems in Nepal. They also developed a six-category bio-climatic (altitudinal) classification of vegetation (Appendix, Table 3) that corresponds to the five physiographic zones (High Himalayas. High Mountains, Middle Mountains, Siwalik and Terai).
Fig. 3. Percentage area in the five physiographic zones
Table 4 of the Appendix provides a profile of these five physiographic zones in respect to their geology, elevation, climate, rainfall, moisture regime, vegetation, soils, crops, people and industry. Fig. 3 presents the proportion of the geographical area in each of these zones (Appendix, Table 5). The Terai zone is the southernmost zone and a flat, fertile and intensively cultivated area. The Siwalik zone is very rugged and regularly affected by floods and landslides. The middle mountain zone is rugged but heavily cultivated and supports a large part of the population. The high mountain zone lies below the snow line. The high Himalayan zone is the northern most zone, extending over the highest Himalayan peaks.
Many different dynasties, including the Gopalas, Mahishpals, Kirantas, Mallas and Ranas have ruled Nepal. Since 1951, the hereditary monarch rules this independent and sovereign state though a democratically constituted assembly. Since 1990, the elected representatives from different political parties can contest the elections (multiparty democratic system). The national governance is through three main branches (Legislature, Judiciary, and Executive) provided in the constitution (Fig. 4) of Nepal.
Fig. 4: Authority under His Majesty the King of Nepal
Nepalese Parliament has two houses (House of representatives and National Assembly). The House of Representatives has 205 members elected by the people for five-year terms. The National Assembly comprises of 60 members (10 members nominated by His Majesty the King, 35 members (with at least 3 women members) elected by the House of Representatives, and the rest of the 15 members elected by members of local bodies).
His Majesty the King appoints the leader of the party having a majority in the House of Representatives as prime minister and also constitutes the council of ministers on the basis of his recommendations.
The Supreme Court, the highest judicial body, is headed by a chief justice. In addition to the Chief Justice, it can have a maximum of 14 other judges. Under the Supreme Court there are 16 appellate courts and 75 district courts. All the courts are independent.
The country is spatially divided into four levels for administrative and development purposes (regions, zones, districts and villages/municipalities). At the highest level, the country is divided into five development regions (eastern, central, western, mid-western, and far-western) that run from north to south. The five physiographic zones that run east to west are represented in each of these development regions. These regions are effective for the planning and implementation of development. The next level consists of 14 administrative zones, but these zones are not concerned with development activities. The development regions and administrative zones are comprised of 75 districts, covering the entire country. At the lowest level are 3,913 village development committees.
The current constitution promotes decentralization as the method of program delivery by involving people in planning and asking them to manage their own development. Nepal enacted new laws in 1991 and established 3,913 village development committees (VDCs), 58 municipalities, and 75 district development committees (DDCs) as local bodies to improve implementation of such decentralized development.
Large number of non-government organizations (NGOs) are working on environmental and natural resource concerns and programs, including forestry. These NGOs work at different levels (local, national, regional and international) but need increased capacity to deal with natural resource issues. The government has liberalized the rules for local NGOs to work in partnership with international NGOs. The Social Service National Coordination Council co-ordinates the activities of national and international NGOs.
The government’s policy is to utilize the comparative abilities of NGOs and to utilize them as partners in development. More than 15,000 NGOs participate in economic and social development activities to improve the efficiency of these programs under recognition from Social Service National Coordination Council established in 1977 and the Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare created in 1981. About 6,000 NGOs are formally affiliated with the Social Welfare Council but only about 6.5% (386) of them have environmental protection as one of their main objective.
This chapter presented the bio-physical, political, and institutional context that governs the condition, development and sustainability of forest resources of Nepal. The terrain is fragile and rugged with large untapped natural resources, including forests and water. The existing institutions are weak and need increased capacity to utilize natural resources in a sustainable manner for the maximum welfare of the people.
