Mangrove forests occur on the muddy tidal flats at the river mouths and along the coast of southern and eastern Thailand. They cover large areas along the western and the eastern peninsula coast, in the Chao Phraya delta and along the south-eastern coast. They are two-storeyed, with an upper layer up to 20 m high.
The most important mangrove tree growing in the upper storey is Rhizophora apiculata and, to a lesser extent, Rhizophora mucronata (both are locally named kongkang), ngon kai (Heritiera littoralis) and Xylocarpus moluccensis.
Common species of the lower layer are thua khao (Bruguiera cylindrica), thua dam (Bruguiera parviflora), prasak nu (Bruguiera sexangula) and prong (Ceriops decandra and Ceriops tagal). Prasak (Bruguiera gymnorrhiza) is a common emergent of up to 40 m in height and 2 m in girth.
Other species are ta bun khao (Xylocarpus obovata, syn Carapa obovata), ta bun dam (Xylocarpus moluccensis syn Carapa moluccensis), samae (Avicennia officinalis and Avicennia marina), lam phu (Sonneratia caseolaris), lam phaen (Sonneratia griffithii), fat (Lumnitzera sp.), tatum (Excoecaria agallocha), tin pet (Cerbera spp.), ngon gai and lumpho thale (Intsia retusa).
Further inland, where mud has accumulated, dryer soils are overgrown with ferns and herbs and can give way to evergreen forest. On the edge of creeks the chak palm Nypa fruticans is common. A major part of the mangroves are under management for charcoal production. Species most used are Rhizophora apiculata, Rhizophora mucronata, Avicennia marina and Xylocarpus spp.
FAO, UNEP. 1981. Tropical Forest Resourcess Assesment Project, Forest Resources of Tropical Asia. FAO, UNEP, 475 pp.
Year |
Area |
Source |
Trend |
Methodology/Comments |
1960 |
360 000 |
Aksornkoae, S. 1996. Scientific mangrove management in Thailand. In: Aksornkoae, S., Puangchit, L. and Thaiutsa, B.1997. Tropical Forestry in the 21st Century. Vol. 10: Mangrove Ecosystems. p. 118-126. FORTROP'96 International Conference, 25-28 November 1996, Bangkok, Thailand. KUFF / NRCT / RFD. |
Secondary reference, no primary source provided. | |
1960 |
372 448 |
Royal Forestry Department, Land Development Department and National Research Institute, 1995. The Ninth National Seminar on Mangrove Ecology, Natural Research Council of Thailand. Royal Forestry Department, Land Development Department&National Research Institute |
Original data. | |
1961 |
368 100 |
Sukwong et al. 1976. Status Report on the floristic and forestry aspects of mangrove in Thailand. Paper presented at the Seminar /Workshop on Mangrove Ecology, 10-15 January 1976, Phuket, Thailand. 8p. |
Cited in: FAO. 1982. Management and utilization of mangroves in Asia and the Pacific. FAO environment paper 3. 160 pp. Based on aerial photos. | |
1961 |
367 900 |
Klankamsorn, B and Charuppat, T. 1982. Study on changes of mangrove forest areas in Thailand by using LANDSAT imageries. Forest Management Division. Royal Forest Department, Bangkok, Thailand (In Thai) |
Cited in: FAO. 1992. Mangrove for charcoal. A vanishing Sustanaible Woodfuel Resource System (The case of Yesarn, Upper Gulf of Thailand). FAO Regional Wood Energy Development Programme in Asia. Bangkok, Thailand. By Sanit Aksornkoae Choob Khemnark Mellink, W.H.H. Bangkok, Thailand, 45 pp. | |
1973 |
312 732 |
Vibulsresth, S., Ketruangrote, C. and Sriplung, N. 1976. Distribution of mangrove forest as revealed by earth resources technology satellite (ERTS-1) imagery. Paper presented at the Seminar/Workshop on Mangrove Ecology, 10-15 January 1976, Phuket, Thailand |
X |
LANDSAT Imagery 1973. Cited in FAO. 1982. Management and utilization of mangroves in Asia and the Pacific. FAO environment paper 3. 160 pp. From the text: “The apparent discrepancies between 1961 data and 1973 data are due to a different interpretation and classification rather than to changes in the mangrove area between 1961 and 1973” |
1977 |
386 100 |
Anon. 1977. Summary of Proceedings of the International workshop on mangrove and estuarine area development for the Indo-Pacific region. 14-19 Nov 1977, Manila, Philippines. |
Aerial photography. The “Year”is the publication year. | |
1977 |
163 349 |
National Research Council of Thailand. 1977. Report of Thailand National Task Force. Nat Res Council Thailand. Bangkok |
Cited in: Snedaker, S.C. 1984. The mangroves of Asia and Oceania: status and research planning. In: Proceedings of the Asian Mangrove Symposium., eds. Soepadmo,E; Rao,AN; McIntosh,DJ. p. 5-15 Percetakan Ardyas Sdn Bhd., Kuala Lumpur. 25-29 August 1980, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. This figure is considered an under-estimate. | |
1979 |
175 864 |
Royal Forestry Department. 1979. Personal communication. |
Cited in: FAO. 1982. Management and utilization of mangroves in Asia and the Pacific. FAO environment paper 3. FAO, Rome, 160 pp. The “year” is the publication year. | |
1979 |
287 308 |
Klankamsorn, B and Charuppat T. 1982. Study on change of mangrove forest areas in Thailand by using LANDSAT imageries. Forest Management Division. |
X |
Cited in: FAO. 1985. Mangrove management in Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia. FAO Environment Paper (FAO), no. 4. FAO, Rome, 62 pp. Based on remote sensing |
1980 |
316 000 |
FAO, UNEP. 1981. Tropical Forest Resourcess Assesment Project, Forest Resources of Tropical Asia. FAO, UNEP, 475 pp |
Estimation based on: FAO. 1975. Prefeasibility Study for Wood Based Panel Industries in Thailand. By Jaaka Poyry Co. - DP/RAS/74/007-1/FO Helsinki; Christensen, B. 1979. Mangrove forest resources and their management in Asia and the Far East. FAO- Bangkok. | |
1982 |
287 200 |
Royal Forest Department of Thailand. 1998. Forestry Statistics of Thailand 1998. |
Based on RFD, 1982. The "Year" is the publication year. | |
1982 |
268 693 |
Klankamsorn B. and Charuppat T. 1982. Study on change of mangrove forest areas in Thailand by using LANDSAT imageries. Forest Management Division. |
X |
Cited in: Fisher, P and Spalding, M.D. 1993. Protected areas with mangrove habitat. Draft Report World Conservation Centre, Cambridge, UK. 60pp. |
1983 |
288 000 |
Wacharakitty, S. 1983. Mangrove Ecosystem in General. In: ESCAP/UNESCO/NRCT Regional Remote Sensing Training Course of Mangrove Ecosystem. p. 22-33. Bangkok, Nov. 28-Dec. 16 1983 |
Cited in: FAO. 1988. Manual on mapping and inventory of mangroves. Benessalah, D., ed. FAO Rome, 123 pp. The "Year" is the publication year. | |
1983 |
163 400 |
Saenger, P., Hegerl E.J. and J.D.S., Davie. 1983. Global status of mangrove ecosystems. Commission on Ecology Papers No.3. IUCN. Gland, Switzerland. 88 pp. |
Secondary reference, no primary source provided. The "Year" is the publication year. The figure could refer to National Research Council of Thailand, 1977 (see above). | |
1984 |
307 715 |
de la Cruz, A. A. 1984. A realistic approach to the use and management of mangrove areas in Southeast Asia. In: Teas, H.J., ed. 1984. Physiology and management of mangroves. Dr. W. Junk Publishers, The Hague. The Netherlands. |
Average of six values obtained from Dr. Sanit Aksornkoae and from literature. No specific reference is mentioned. The “Year” is the publication year. | |
1986 |
196 429 |
Klankamsorn, B. and Charuppat T. 1987. In: Kongsangchai, J., 1988. Conservation and management of mangrove forests in Thailand. Forest Management Division, Royal Forest Department, Bangkok, Thailand |
Cited in: FAO. 1992. Mangrove for charcoal. A vanishing Sustanaible Woodfuel Resource System (The case of Yesarn, Upper Gulf of Thailand). FAO Regional Wood Energy Development Programme in Asia. Bangkok,Thailand. By Sanit Aksornkoae Choob Khemnark Mellink, W.H.H. Bangkok, Thailand, 45 pp. | |
1986 |
196 436 |
Royal Forest Department of Thailand. 1989. Forestry Statistics of Thailand 1989. Forest Statistics sub-division - Planning Division - Royal Forest Department |
Secondary reference. | |
1986 |
309 700 |
Baker, I., Kaeoniam, P. 1986. Manual of Coastal Development Planning and Management for Thailand. Supported by Unesco MAB and COMAR. Prepared at TISTR |
Remote sensing | |
1987 |
264 100 |
Spalding, M.D., Blasco, F. and Field, C.D., eds. 1997. World Mangrove Atlas. The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japan. 178 pp. |
Map analysis. Scale 1:500 000. | |
1987 |
226 545 |
Natural Resource Council Thailand. nd. |
LANDSAT 5 | |
1989 |
142 000 |
FAO. 1989. Project Advisory Committee Meeting. FAO/RWEDP, Bangkok, Thailand |
Cited in: FAO. 1992. Mangrove for charcoal. A vanishing Sustanaible Woodfuel Resource System (The case of Yesarn, Upper Gulf of Thailand). FAO Regional Wood Energy Development Programme in Asia. Bangkok, Thailand. By Sanit Aksornkoae Choob Khemnark Mellink, W.H.H. Bangkok, Thailand, 45 pp. | |
1989 |
180 559 |
Royal Forest Department of Thailand. 1989. Forestry Statistics of Thailand 1989. Forest Statistics sub-divisoin - Planning Division - Royal Forest Department |
The figure is calculated by applying a fixed deforestation rate to the results of previous inventories. | |
1991 |
173 821 |
Royal Forest Department. 1990. Forestry Statistics of Thailand 1990. Bangkok, Thailand |
The figure is calculated by applying a fixed deforestation rate to the results of previous inventories. | |
1992 |
176 155 |
Havanond, S., Maxwell, G.S., Piriyayotha, S. and Trakoonsiripanich, C. 1996. Strategies in mangrove restoration: balancing natural biodiversity and pragmatic ecological repair in waterlogged environments. In: Aksornkoae, S., Puangchit, L. and Thaiutsa, B. (1997). Tropical Forestry in the 21st Century. Vol. 10: Mangrove Ecosystems. p.36-56 FORTROP'96 International Conference, 25-28 November 1996, Bangkok, Thailand. KUFF / NRCT / RFD. |
Data from NRCT. | |
1993 |
168 676 |
Aksornkoae, S. 1996. Scientific mangrove management in Thailand. In: Aksornkoae, S., Puangchit, L. and Thaiutsa, B.1997. Tropical Forestry in the 21st Century. Vol. 10: Mangrove Ecosystems. p.118-126 FORTROP'96 International Conference, 25-28 November 1996, Bangkok, Thailand. KUFF / NRCT / RFD. |
Secondary reference, no primary source provided. (Probably RFD Statistics, see below) | |
1993 |
168 682 |
Royal Forest Department of Thailand. 1989. Forestry Statistics of Thailand 1989. Forest Statistics sub-divisoin - Planning Division - Royal Forest Department. |
The figure is calculated by applying a fixed deforestation rate to the results of previous inventories. | |
1995 |
200 000 |
Kelleher, G., Bleakley, C. and Wells, S. 1995. A global representative system of marine protected areas. Vol.II-III-IV Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, IBRD, The World Bank, IUCN. IBRD |
Secondary reference, no primary source provided. The "Year" is the publication year. Rough estimate. | |
1996 |
232 500 |
WRI, UNEP, UNDP, The World Bank. 1996. World Resources 1996-1997. New York and Oxford University Press 365 pp. |
Secondary reference, no primary source provided. The "Year" is the publication year. | |
1996 |
167 582 |
Charuppat and Charuppat. 1997. |
Cited in: Lewis,R.R III,Erftemeijer, P.L.A., Sayaka, P. Kethkaew. 2001. Mangrove Rehabilitation after Shrimp Aquaculture: A Case Study in Progress at the Don Sak National Forest Reserve, Surat Thani, Southern Thailand. In: Thematic Review on Coastal Wetland Habitats and Shrimp Aquaculture Draft. 19th March 2001 ANNEX 1: case studies. Case Study 14 | |
1996 |
167 582 |
Charuppat, T. 1998. Mangrove Forest Situation of Thailand in the Past 35 Years (1961-1996). Royal Forest Department. Unpublished (Thai). |
Results of using Landsat-5 ™ Geocoded at the scale of 1:50 000 | |
1996 |
167 559 |
Royal Forest Department of Thailand. 1999. Forest cover monitoring of Thailand in 1998 (data sheets by province) Unpublished data sheets. |
Remote sensing. | |
2000 |
194 600 |
World Resources Institute. 2000. World resources 2000-2001: people and ecosystem—the fraying web of life. Washington, DC., UNDP. 400 pp. |
Secondary reference, no primary source provided. The "Year" is the publication year. | |
2000 |
244 085 |
Tuma, S. 2002. Personal communication |
X |
Based on remote sensing, information provided by Natural Resource Council Thailand. The apparent increase in the mangrove area compared to other estimates is due to a more accurate interpretation, the use of larger scale permitted the estimation of the area of mangrove forest at the south of Bangkok coast, never included in the previous reports. Also there is a huge amount of new mudflat areas along the north coast of Thai's gulf. |
