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6.2.1    Forest environmental services

Forest accounts include three environmental services that do not correspond directly to an economic activity or product as defined in SNA: carbon storage, biodiversity preservation and protective services for water, soil and other ecosystem functions. Other services may be included where relevant.

Carbon storage is compiled in almost all forest accounts because it can be fairly easily estimated and there is reasonable consensus about valuation. Carbon storage is measured using standard conversions of biomass to carbon content. Table 6.5 shows a standard table for carbon content of total woody biomass. This table, like that for standing timber, may be further disaggregated by tree species and other forest characteristics. Additional tables may be constructed for forest ecosystems that include carbon contained in forest soils and other biomass in forests such as ground vegetation and leaf litter.

The natural changes to carbon storage are usually calculated by modelling based on stocks of timber, age and species of tree and other biological parameters. Because of climatic variations, actual change in carbon may vary from one year to the next, so Eurostat has recommended that averages over several years be used. In the Eurostat pilot programme, five countries reported on their experience with carbon accounting using time intervals from opening to closing stock that ranged from four years (Sweden) to nine years (Finland) (Eurostat, 2002b). Countries reported that carbon estimates for standing timber are fairly reliable, but estimates for carbon in other woody biomass (small branches, stumps, etc.) were not as accurate. Given the importance of climate change, it is likely that scientific information and methods for estimation will improve in the future. This will be especially important for developing countries where there has been less research into parameters for forest carbon storage other than standing timber.

 

Table 6.5:        Carbon balance accounts for woody biomass, Finland (million tons of carbon)

 

Forestland

 

Available for wood supply

Not available for wood supply

Total tree biomass

 

Conifers

Broad-leaved

Total

Conifers

Broad-leaved

Total

Above ground

Below ground

Total

 Opening stocks

    511

     134

     645

       20

         2

   22

         667

         199

     866

 Natural growth

       95

       33

     129

         3

         1

     4

         132

 

     132

 Fellings

     -73

      -23

      -96

 

 

     0

          -96

 

      -96

 Changes in land
 classification

        -3

        -1

        -3

         3

         1

     3

             0

 

         0

 Other changes

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

           11

       11

 Closing stocks

    530

     144

     674

       25

         4

   29

         703

         210

     913

Note: date not given in source document

Definitions of entries in the table are the same as those in the accounts for standing timber.

Source: Adapted from UN et al., 2003, Table 8.20, p. 357

In addition to carbon storage, forests are widely believed to provide other important ecological services:

There is a great deal of debate about the nature and value of these services and very few forest accounts include environmental services other than carbon storage. The impact of land use change on soil and water can only be verified at relatively small scales (tens of kilometres) (FAO, 2002). At larger scales it may be difficult to distinguish the impact of land use change from other processes because of the complexity of the processes at the watershed level and the time lags between change and its impact. The extent of watershed protection services can vary enormously due to site-specific characteristics such as catchment size, topology and the state of land use (Chomitz and Kumari, 1998; FAO, 2002).

The links between forest services to agriculture, hydroelectric power, domestic water supply, etc. are difficult to measure in physical terms and services can vary enormously by site making it difficult to extrapolate from case studies. A recent joint study by the World Bank and WWF International examined the water supply of the world’s 105 largest cities, measured by population (Dudley and Stolton, 2003). The study identified the conditions under which forests may increase or decrease water supply and downstream soil erosion. With respect to regulating water quantity, the role of forests is mixed. However, there was consistent, strong evidence to support the claim that forests make a major contribution to maintaining water quality. Many urban areas rely on watershed protection for at least part of their water supply, especially water quality.

In the Eurostat pilot programme, several countries compiled physical accounts that identify the land area providing protection services, as shown in Table 6.6.

Table 6.6:        Wooded land providing environmental protective services in France, 1990‑1999 (1000 hectares)

 

Opening area 1990

Changes

Closing area 1999

 Soil protection

          3272

131

         3403

 Protection of water resources

             800

0

           800

 Avalanche protection

             191

141

           332

 Coastline protection

               95

6

           102

 Other or multiple objectives

          1338

104

         1442

 Total

              Na

Na

Na

 % of total wooded land

              Na

Na

Na

Na: Not applied

Source: Eurostat, 2002b, Table 26, p.38

It is not possible to measure biodiversity conservation services directly, so indicators are derived based on species counts and protection status of wooded land, as shown in Tables 6.7 and 6.8. The species categories are usually further disaggregated, and a table is compiled for a reference year and one for the most recent year.

Table 6.7:       Indicator of biodiversity: forest-occurring species at risk or endangered in Sweden, 2000

 

Total number of known species

Number of endangered species

 

CR

EN

VU

CR+EN+VU

% of total

 Vascular plants

 (trees and flowers)

2200

 

 

 

48

2.2

 Non-vascular plants

 (mosses, lichens, etc.)

7400

61

121

204

386

5.2

 Vertebrates

 (mammals, birds, etc.)

503

4

5

23

32

6.4

 Invertebrates

 (insects, etc.)

30000

46

125

297

468

1.6

Note: The IUCN categories of species facing a high risk of extinction in the wild in the near future are defined as CR= critically endangered, EN= endangered, VU = vulnerable.

Source: Adapted from Eurostat 2002b, Table 16, p. 29

 

Table 6.8:        Protection status of wooded land in Sweden, 1993-1998 (1000 hectares)

 

IUCN Category

Total legally protected area

Other protected areas

% of total wooded land

 

I and II

III and IV

 

 Opening area (1993)

33

382

 

415

303

3.1

 Afforestation

 

 

 

 

 

 

 Deforestation

 

 

 

 

 

 

 Natural colonization

 

 

 

 

 

 

 Natural regression

 

 

 

 

 

 

 Other changes

 

 

 

 

 

 

 Changes in land
 classification

6

220

 

226

-183

0.2

 Closing area (1998)

39

602

 

641

120

3.3

Note: IUCN categories are:

I.      Strict nature reserve, wilderness area
II.      National park
III.     Natural monument
IV.    Habitat/species management area

Source:  Based on Eurostat 2002b, Table 14, p. 27

6.3 Supply and use table for forest products

The most detailed account for flows of goods and services is provided by the supply and use table (SUT). SUT shows the origin of different forest products, the processing of raw forest products into other products such as sawnwood and firewood, and the use of each product by every sector of the economy as well as final users (households, government, capital formation and exports). National accounts provide monetary SUTs for forest products. The forest accounts of SEEA provide the corresponding physical SUTs and, in principle, extend SUTs for non-timber forest products as well. The two tables are linked to each other and the rest of the economy through the use of a common classification for industries and commodities. From these tables, commodity balances for forest products may be constructed, as well as an input‑output (IO) table or SAM in which the production of forest products is represented in physical terms.

Table 6.9 shows the framework for the supply and use of nine different wood products, including two waste products, NTFP and forest services in physical units. Wood products are measured in thousands of cubic metres, NTFP in tons and forest services in various physical units, as described in the previous section. The supply table shows the main forest products and the industries that provide them. Standing timber is provided only by the forestry and logging industry; all other products can be supplied by a number of industries, or imported. Total supply equals domestic output plus imports.

The use table shows the use of forest products as intermediate inputs to industry and use by final users, households, government, exports and capital formation. The intermediate use of wood products is concentrated in several related industries: forestry, manufacture of wood products, pulp, paper, printing and recycling. Final consumption is generally restricted to three products: firewood, manufactured wood and wood products such as furniture or construction timber, and paper. Any product except standing timber may be exported. Only standing timber and certain manufactured wood products are treated as capital goods.

In principle, these detailed supply and use tables may be extended to include other, non-timber forest products. In practice, however, such extensive tables are often created only for wood products because of limited data about the use and transformation of non-timber forest goods and services. The forestry SUT for France shown in Table 6.9 includes only wood and wood products.


Table 6.9:    Physical supply and use table for wood products, France, 1999
(timber, logs and wood in 1000 cubic metres; pulp, paper and waste in 1000 tons)

 SUPPLY

Output by industry 

 

 

 

Forestry & logging

Wood products

Pulp

Paper

Printing

Recycling

Other

Total ind. supply

Imports

Total supply

 Standing timber

95920

 

 

 

 

 

 

       95920

 

   95920

 Sawn logs

23162

 

 

 

 

 

 

       23162

      1451

   24613

 Firewood

31200

 

 

 

 

 

 

       31200

           27

   31227

 Pulpwood

11869

 

 

 

 

 

 

       11869

         699

   12568

 Wood and wood products

 

    13017

 

 

 

 

 

       13017

      3490

   16507

 Paper pulp

 

 

2591

 

 

 

 

         2591

      2212

     4803

 Paper

 

 

 

9602

 

 

 

         9602

      5612

   15214

 Wood waste as product

 

      8152

 

 

 

 

 

         8152

         686

     8838

 Paper waste as product

 

 

 

 

5066

 

 

         5066

      1238

     6304

 Non-timber forest
 products

 

 

 

 

 

 

X

X

 

X

 Forest Services

 

 

 

 

 

 

X

X

 

X

 

 USE

Intermediate consumption by industries

Final users

Total use

 

Forestry & logging

Wood products

Pulp

Paper

Printing

Recycling

Other

Total int.

Consump-tion

Capital formation

Exports

 Standing timber

     66232

 

 

 

 

 

 

66232

 

29688

 

    95920

 Sawn logs

 

    23337

 

 

 

 

 

23337

 

 

      1276

    24613

 Firewood

 

 

 

 

 

 

  2423

2423

28429

 

         375

    31227

 Pulpwood

 

 

   10944

 

 

 

 

10944

 

 

      1624

    12568

 Wood and wood products

 

      7736

 

 

 

 

  6076

13812

 

 

      2695

    16507

 Pulp

 

 

 

     4372

 

 

 

4372

 

 

         431

      4803

 Paper

 

 

 

 

 

 

  4465

4465

 

 

      4167

      8632

 Wood waste as product

 

      2265

     2162

 

 

 

  3431

7858

 

 

         980

      8838

 Paper waste as product

 

 

 

     5276

 

 

 

5276

 

 

      1028

      6304

 Non-timber forest
 products

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 Forest Services

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Source: Eurostat 2002a, Table 61, p. 65


 

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