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APPENDIXES

APPENDIX 1

COUNTRY-BY-COUNTRY SUMMARY OF SEA TURTLE OCCURRENCE AND THREATS IN THE INDIAN OCEAN

Key: F - Feeding, N - Nesting, P - Present, X - Not present,? - Unknown.

APPENDIX 2

FISHERIES AND SEA TURTLE MORTALITY IN SOUTH ASIA

BANGLADESH

Bangladesh has a coastline of 710 km, with sandy beaches for nesting, and several offshore islands with suitable feeding and nesting habitats for sea turtles. There is some threat of incidental turtle mortality from trawl fishing vessels, driftnets, gillnets and mesh nets. The turtles either die of suffocation or the fishermen kill them to free their nets. The superstitious fishing community considers the sighting of a turtle or a turtle getting entangled in the fishing net as a bad omen. A Marine Fisheries Research Institute study reported that the number of turtle deaths in trawl fishing was not significant. However, these results may have been biased because of the United States ban on the import of shrimps from Bangladesh unless fishing vessels used TEDs (Alam, F., pers. comm. 1996, cited in Rashid and Islam, in press).

St. Martin’s Island is a major sea turtle nesting ground in Bangladesh (Islam, 2002). The main fishing season here extends from September to April and the main fishing gears are: drifting gillnets (Duba Jal), fixed gillnet (Shil Jal), gillnet (Rocket Jal) and seine net (Tana Jal). Of these, the fixed gillnet is used in the rock beds while the seine net is used along the coast for catching smaller fish species. Some fishing methods appear to exert severe impact on other aquatic resources. The seine net has been observed to damage the algal beds on the sandy shore. Juvenile sea turtles, young jellyfish, cuttlefish, squid, octopus and other forms of marine life are also caught in this net. Driftnets are usually used in offshore fishing boats. The width of driftnets ranged from 15 to 60 m in different areas of Bangladesh. On St. Martin’s Island, fishermen only use driftnets that are 15-20 m in width and 100-150 m in length. Driftnets are operated from top to bottom in the sea and can trap turtles and other underwater animals during fishing. The size of the hole in the driftnets used on St. Martin’s island is usually about 13-15.5 cm (5-6 inches). According to the fishermen many sea turtles are trapped in this sort of net. Threats are serious during inshore fishing. If a sea turtle gets entangled, fishermen kill it or cut its flippers to save their nets. The situation has improved, at least on St. Martin’s Island, as a result of the course held on sea turtle conservation awareness over the last several years. Rocket nets are smaller, about 5 m wide and about 150 m long. They have a very small hole and have no effect on sea turtles and other non-fished marine resources. They are operated in near-shore areas from small boats. Fixed gillnets are set under water but remain in touch with the bottom of the sea. The usual length is 80-100 m on St. Martin’s Island. The upper portion remains open and floats with signals and tags are used to indicate the presence of the nets. They are set at 16-20 m depth along the major southeastern to western shallows of the main sea turtle nesting ground on St. Martin’s Island (see Islam, 2002 for details).

During the 1996-98 survey, 27 turtles of both sexes and subadults were found dead on the beach of St. Martin’s Island. About 19 of these individuals were suspected to have died as a result of fishing operations. More than 51 dead olive ridleys were washed ashore during the 2000/2001 season (Islam, 2002). However, the major threat to marine turtles in Bangladesh is exploitation of eggs.

INDIA

Mainland India has a coastline of 6 500 km, with a total population of more than 200 million people. In addition, the Andaman and Nicobar Archipelago consists of over 345 islands, islets and rocky outcrops, with land area extending up to 8 249 km² and a coastline 1 962 km long. There are nine coastal states, numerous small Union Territories and two groups of offshore islands, including the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal and the Lakshadweep Islands in the Arabian Sea. There are a large number of major and minor fishing harbours in most states in India (Table 1) (summarized in Marine Fisheries Information Service Technical and Extension Series No. 153). There has been a significant increase in fishing effort (Tables 2-6), resulting in an increase in fish production and exports over the years (Table 7). This has led to significant turtle mortality along the entire coast (Table 8) (Rajagopalan, Vijayakumaran and Vivekanandan, in press). However, they clearly underestimate the trawling-related mortality for Orissa, where other sources (Pandav and Choudhury, 1999; Pandav, 2000; Wright and Mohanty, in press) have documented the stranding of over 100 000 olive ridley turtles since the mid-1990s. Their estimates for strandings in other states may also be underestimates (see Rajagopalan, Vijayakumaran and Vivekanandan, in press for sampling methodology) as the data for Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal indicate. For states with significant sea turtle mortality, there is a brief account below of fishing effort, major concerns and sea turtle mortality, based largely on surveys carried out by various agencies under the Government of India/United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) national sea turtle project (Sharma, in press).

Gujarat

One of the chief factors responsible for sea turtle mortality is incidental catch in fishing gear. In 1977, there were 477 fishing centres including fishing villages along the Gujarat coast. This increased to 854 in 1992 with an annual growth rate of 5.3 percent. The number of active fishers also increased from 45 570 in 1977 to 139 608 in 1992 with an annual growth rate of 14 percent. The 1995 records of the State Fisheries Department showed a total of 12 648 mechanized and 8 370 non-mechanized vessels operating along the coast of Gujarat (Anonymous, 1995). The increase in fisher population and vessels indicates an intensification of fishing activities, which is likely to be detrimental to turtles. Barring a few nesting beaches along the south Gujarat coast, which face problems caused by human habitation and coastal plantation, there are no other developmental activities, such as the building of coastal resorts and highways, and beach armouring, along the coast. Pair trawling of the coast of Gujarat between December 1983 and March 1984 was reported to have caught 70 C. mydas (Siraimeetan, 1988). During the Government of India/UNDP survey in 2000-01, 37 dead turtles were counted on the coast (Sunderraj et al., 2002).

Tamil Nadu

Bhupathy and Saravanan (2002) documented 462 dead turtles (377 olive ridleys, 74 green turtles, 4 loggerheads, 5 hawksbills, 2 leatherbacks) along the Tamil Nadu coast during the Government of India/UNDP survey. Gillnets are widely used for marine fishing along the Tamil Nadu coast. A total of 245 dead turtles were observed along the Nagapattinam coast; of the 94 fresh carcasses, 66 (70 percent) had visible injuries. The head or one of the flippers was missing in eight cases. When turtles get entangled in nets, the fishermen chop off the flippers or club the head to remove the animals from the net without major damage to the net or fisherman. This is particularly common along the Nagapattinam coast. This is in contrast to what happens on the Tuticorin-Kanniyakumari coast, where live turtles are collected and consumed or sold. The number of registered fishing vessels is low compared with actual numbers that are seen on the shore near fishing villages. For instance, according to the Fisheries Department, there were 1 278 fishing vessels registered in the Nagapattinam district. However, interviews and counting in 11 villages revealed that there were at least 2 110 vessels. Incidental catch of turtles in fishing gear has been reported as a major cause of turtle mortality along the Indian coast, including the coast of Tamil Nadu (Rajagopalan et al., 1996).

Andhra Pradesh

Andhra Pradesh has nine coastal districts with 453 fishing villages and 280 landing centres along the coast. By 1998, the fishers population was 0.87 million, with 8 642 mechanized boats, 3 269 motorized craft (boats fitted with outboard motors for gillnet operations) and 54 000 non-mechanized boats (traditional craft) in coastal Andhra Pradesh (Anonymous, 1999). Of the total marine fish catch, 32 percent comes from trawl nets, 24 percent from non-mechanized drift gillnets, 14 percent from bottom-set gillnets, 13 percent from shore seines and the rest from boat seines, driftnets, hooks and lines and other gear (Alagaraja et al., 1987). In all, 806 dead olive ridley turtles and two dead green turtles were counted along the Andhra Pradesh coast between December and April, 2001 (Tripathy, Shanker and Choudhury, 2003).

West Bengal

West Bengal has 200 km of coastline. The coastline of the Bay of Bengal extends from the Indo-Bangladesh border - situated in the deltaic region of the Sundarban in the east - up to the border with Orissa in the west. India and Bangladesh are divided by the river Hariabhanga in the extreme east of West Bengal. Major trawling takes place near different islands of Digha, Shankarpur, Sundarban and Junput. During monthly inspections of about 40 km of beach in Medinipore and 8 km of beach of sea-facing islands in the Sunderbans during 2000/01 and 2001/02, 862 carcasses of olive ridleys (58 percent female) and 1 hawksbill were counted (Roy Choudhury, 2001).

Orissa

Orissa has a long coastline, yet the marine fishing activities here are dominated by migrating fishers from West Bengal (between the Bengal-Orissa border and Dhamra) and Andhra Pradesh (from Puri to the Orissa-Andhra Pradesh border). There are 329 marine fishing villages in Orissa comprising 20 815 households and a population of 126 000. However, only about 40 percent of this population is engaged in fishing. The district where local communities are most heavily engaged in fishing is Balasore - 241 villages and 58 percent fisher families - which also has 23 of the 62 fish landing centres in the state. Puri has the least number of fishing villages (24) while Cuttack has the smallest number (95) of fisher families (Puri has 15 percent and Ganjam 18 percent). Balasore also leads (48 percent) in the number of mechanized boats in the state, followed by Cuttack (36 percent). Cuttack is ahead (29 percent) in terms of the number of traditional craft used, followed by Ganjam (26 percent), Puri (25 percent) and Balasore (20 percent). Of the traditional non-mechanized boats, catamarans constitute 51 percent while dingis make up 32 percent of the total. Over 100 000 dead turtles have been counted on the coast of Orissa, primarily a result of fishery-related mortality. Much of this is believed to have been caused by trawlers (Pandav and Choudhury, 1999; Pandav, 2000), but recent reports of gillnets with hundreds of dead, entangled turtles (Wright and Mohanty, 2002) indicate that they may also be a major cause of mortality. For a review of population trends and threats, see Shanker, Pandav and Choudhury (2004).

Lakshadweep

Marine fishing is the basic economic activity on these islands, with an estimated 6 000 fishermen and about 850 tuna fishing craft (Anonymous, 2001). The fishing season in Lakshadweep extends from October to April. However, during the monsoon, fishing is undertaken in near-shore waters, mostly in the surrounding lagoons. The gillnet, shore seine, anchor net and dragnet are commonly used for lagoon fishing but the largest catch comes from pole and line, which is used for tuna fishing in the deep sea (Table 1). The current annual fish landing is an estimated 10 000 tonnes (Anonymous, 2001), which consists mostly of tuna and other commercially viable finfish, not including turtles, which are illegally fished in the lagoons. The incidental fishing-related mortality of turtles in Lakshadweep is negligible, as fishing methods are very different from those used on the mainland coast. The only method used for tuna fishing is pole and line, which poses no threat to the turtles. During the Government of India/UNDP survey (2000-01) three dead hawksbills were encountered on the beach. Although the cause of their mortality could not be clearly ascertained, they are presumed to have died by drowning in gillnet fishing operations. The increase in the level of gillnet fishing in the lagoons is a cause for concern for the future (Tripathy, Choudhury and Shanker, 2002).

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

Bhaskar (1994) estimated the annual rate of juvenile and subadult turtles caught in shark nets just around Middle Andamans as 1 500 turtles. Recent socio-economic studies, shark fishing assessment and interviews with fishermen in the Andaman Islands indicate that 2 000-3 000 turtles of all size classes are caught annually in nets all around the Andaman Islands (Andrews, Krishnan and Biswas, 2001). The most frequent turtle entanglements were in shark nets, mostly set in passages between islands very close to turtle feeding and nesting habitats. However, a ban on shark fishing has been imposed and it is hoped this will reduce the annual rate of entanglement. Turtles entangled in old, discarded nets that drift for months in the sea have been observed in the Andamans and Great Nicobar Island (Daniels and David, 1996).

PAKISTAN

Pakistan has a coastline of 1 120 km. The western region, the Makran coast, extends from the Hub River to the Iranian border and is about 770 km long. The southeastern region, the Sindh coast, extends from southwest of Karachi to the Indian border and is about 350 km long. Most of the continental shelf of the Makran coast is rocky. It falls sharply to a great depth. The Sindh coast is characterized by a network of creeks with an area of 7 680 km². The bottom is sandy or muddy and is good for trawling and gillnet operations.

In terms of foreign exchange earnings, Pakistan’s most important fishery is the shrimp fishery. Commercial shrimp trawling began in 1958 on the recommendation of FAO (cited in Stevens, unpubl.). The shrimp trawl net used in Pakistan was designed in 1958 when shrimping was introduced for the first time in the country, and no change to the design of the net has been made since (Moazzam, 1998). Wooden trawlers about 15 m in length are used for shrimp fishing; no mechanical devices are used on these shrimp trawlers and the deployment and retrieval of nets is manual (Stevens, unpubl.). The crew consists of eight to 16 fishermen and the duration of the trawl operation is between 30 minutes and one hour, depending on the catch rate. In addition to the target species (shrimp), a variety of fish and invertebrates are caught as bycatch. The trawler fleet had increased to 1 070 trawlers in 1985. In 1998, the total number of mechanized fishing boats was 3 380, comprising 1 562 trawlers and 1 810 gillnetters. In addition, there were 8 194 mechanized cum sail-driven boats with outboard motors. The number of trawlers decreased from 1 926 in 1993 to 1 562 in 1998, while the number of gillnetters increased from 1 154 to 1 810 during the same period. The number of mechanized cum sail-driven boats increased from 6 524 to 8 194, while the number of sail-driven boats increased from 16 105 to 19 830 over this period. The population of marine fishermen increased marginally, with Sindh having three times as many fishers as Balochistan (Handbook of Fisheries Statistics of Pakistan, Marine Fisheries Department).

The Marine Fisheries Department started a programme to analyse shrimp bycatch, which indicated a preponderance of juveniles of food fishes, small fishes and invertebrates. The study indicated that adult and juvenile turtles were not represented in the bycatch. A survey was conducted by the Marine Fisheries Department in 1997 in which 146 fishermen were interviewed to find out the frequency of turtle entrapment in shrimp trawl nets. The interviewees said that turtles were rarely caught in shrimp trawl nets, and that in almost all cases where turtles were accidentally caught, they were released immediately (Qureshi, in press).

The Sindh Wildlife Department has been monitoring green turtles and olive ridleys for over two decades at Hawkes Bay and Sandspit (Karachi coast), which is a 20 km beach (Kabraji and Firdous, 1984; Asrar, 1999). Asrar (1999) reports a dramatic decline in olive ridley nesting at this site between 1980 and 1997, from 50 to 100 nests/season to fewer than 10 nests/season in the last five years of monitoring. Though carcasses have been recorded on the coast, no quantitative data is available on mortality (Stevens, unpubl.). The decline is likely to be a result of fishery-related mortality, as in the adjacent state of Gujarat, in India (Sunderraj et al., 2002).

SRI LANKA

The island has a 1 585 km coastline and its national waters cover an area of approximately 488 675 km² under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. Sri Lanka is remarkable in that it has feeding and nesting grounds for five species of sea turtle. Sri Lanka has a total of about 3 000 fishing vessels; there may be 1 800 multiday fishing boats that fish in Sri Lanka’s exclusive economic zone (EEZ). Previous data and reports on the extent of the turtle catch in Sri Lanka are confusing because they are contradictory (see Hewavisenthi, 1990 for a review). Hoffman (cited in Frazier, 1980) estimated the annual bycatch of turtles in Jaffna in the mid-1970s to be around 1 500, and a total of 3 000-5 000 turtles island wide. Dattatri and Samarajeewa (unpubl.) found olive ridley turtle carapaces in almost every fishing community along the southern, southwestern, western and northeastern coasts. The fishermen who were interviewed throughout the island during a study confirmed that turtles were often caught and drowned in their nets. Indeed, the fishermen all believed that the mortality caused by their nets was the major cause for the decline in turtle populations around the island (Kapurusinghe, in press).

During the turtle conservation project (TCP) surveys, many fishermen stated that they often killed entangled turtles and sold their flesh or carapaces to obtain “compensation” to repair the damage caused by the turtles to their nets (Kapurusinghe, in press). The latest TCP bycatch survey shows 5 241 turtle entanglements between Kalpitiya and Kirinda during the period of November 1999 and June 2000 (Table 9) (Kapurusinghe and Cooray, 2002). Of these, 1 626 were olive ridley turtles, 1 310 were loggerheads, 908 were green turtles, 431 were leatherbacks and the remaining 148 were unidentified species. Of the 5 241 turtles entangled, 1 063 were found dead, killed or sold. The remaining 4 178 were released by the fishermen.

Major threats in Sri Lanka include the illegal exploitation of hawksbill turtles for tortoiseshell, collection of eggs for consumption and tourist hatcheries, depredation of eggs by feral predators and development-related threats (Kapurusinghe, in press).

Table 1. Fish landing centres in different states in India

Table 2. Mechanized vessels (trawlers), non-mechanized vessels (traditional craft) and motorized vessels (traditional craft and wooden gillnetters fitted with outboard and inboard motors) in 1980, 1990 and 1994

Source: Rajagopalan et al., 1996

Table 3. Changes in fishing statistics in India over different periods

Source: ^a James, 1989; ^b Devaraj and Vivekanandan, 1999; * does not include 36 500 motorized boats.

Table 4. Increase in number of fishing craft and gear from 1980 to 1998

* Percentage of motorized vessels given in parentheses.

Source: Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (CMFRI) census 1980 (Anon., 1981) and rapid census 1998

Table 5. Number of boats and gear per km of coastline in different maritime states as per 1998 rapid survey

Source: Rajagopalan, Vijayakumaran and Vivekanandan, in press

Table 6. Operational details of gillnets at selected landing centres along the Indian coast

Source: adapted from Vivekanandan, 2002 (cited in Rajagopalan, Vijayakumaran and Vivekanandan, in press)

Table 7. Fish production and exports for selected years, 1950-2000

NOTE: t - tonnes; Rs. - rupees.

Source: Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying, Ministry of Agriculture, India (cited in Rajagopalan, Vijayakumaran and Vivekanandan, in press)

Table 8. Sea turtle mortality in 1997, 1998 and 1999, excluding that along the Gahirmatha coast

Source: cited in Rajagopalan, Vijayakumaran and Vivekanandan, in press

Table 9. Results of turtle conservation project bycatch survey (key: no. - number of fishermen interviewed; Cm - green (Chelonia mydas), Lo - olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea), Cc - loggerhead (Caretta caretta), Dc - leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea), Ei - hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), Uk - unknown)

Source: Kapurusinghe and Cooray, 2002

APPENDIX 3

RELEVANT LITERATURE FOR THE WESTERN INDIAN OCEAN REGION

(extracted from Mortimer, 2002)

Regional

Frazier, J. 1982. The status of marine turtles in the central western Indian Ocean. In K. Bjorndal, ed. The biology and conservation of sea turtles, pp. 385-390. Washington, DC, Smithsonian Institution Press.

Hughes, G.R. 1982. Conservation of sea turtles in the southern Africa region. In K. Bjorndal, ed. The biology and conservation of sea turtles, pp. 397-404. Washington, DC, Smithsonian Institution Press.

IUCN/UNEP. 1996. Status of sea turtle conservation in the western Indian Ocean, ed. S.L. Humphrey & R.V. Salm. Proc. Western Indian Ocean Training Workshop and Strategic Planning Session on Sea Turtles, SodwanaBay, South Africa, November, 1995. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 165.

Comoros

Ben Mohadji, F., Eddine Zarcach, H. & Mbindo, C. 1996. The status of sea turtle conservation in the Comoros. In IUCN/UNEP. Status of sea turtle conservation in the western Indian Ocean, ed. S.L. Humphrey & R.V. Salm. Proc. Western Indian Ocean Training Workshop and Strategic Planning Session on Sea Turtles, Sodwana Bay, South Africa, November, 1995. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 165: 125-132.

Project Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Development (PNUD/FEM). Conservation action plan for marine turtles in the Federal Islamic Republic of the Comoros. 20 pp. (Unpublished)

Eritrea

Gebremariam, T., Amer, A., Gebremariam, S. & Asfaw, M. 1998. Shrimp fishery in Eritrea: exploitation and legislation. In G.M. Wamukoya & R.V. Salm, eds. Report of the Western Indian Ocean Turtle Excluder Device (TED) Training Workshop, Mombasa, Kenya, January 1997, pp. 12-13. IUCN Eastern Africa Regional Office with IUCN/SSC Marine Turtle Specialist Group. 30 pp.

Hillman, J.C. & Gebremariam, T. 1996. The status of sea turtle conservation in Eritrea. In IUCN/UNEP. Status of sea turtle conservation in the western Indian Ocean, ed. S.L. Humphrey & R.V. Salm. Proc. Western Indian Ocean Training Workshop and Strategic Planning Session on Sea Turtles, Sodwana Bay, South Africa, November 1995. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 165: 41-56.

Kenya

Kaloki, F. & Wamukoya, G.M. 1996. Local community participation in sea turtle conservation in Kenya. In IUCN/UNEP. Status of sea turtle conservation in the western Indian Ocean, ed. S.L. Humphrey & R.V. Salm. Proc. Western Indian Ocean Training Workshop and Strategic Planning Session on Sea Turtles, Sodwana Bay, South Africa, November, 1995. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 165: 27-29.

Wamukoya, G.M., Kaloki, F. & Mbindo, C. 1996. The status of sea turtle conservation in Kenya. In IUCN/UNEP. Status of sea turtle conservation in the western Indian Ocean, ed. S.L. Humphrey & R.V. Salm. Proc. Western Indian Ocean Training Workshop and Strategic Planning Session on Sea Turtles, Sodwana Bay, South Africa, November 1995. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 165: 57-72.

Wamukoya, G.M., Mbendo, J.R. & Eriya, J. 1998. Bycatch in shrimp trawls in Kenya with specific reference to sea turtles. In G.M. Wamukoya & R.V. Salm, eds. Report of the Western Indian Ocean Turtle Excluder Device (TED) Training Workshop, Mombasa, Kenya, January 1997, pp. 14-15. IUCN Eastern Africa Regional Office with IUCN/SSC Marine Turtle Specialist Group. 30 pp.

Madagascar

Frontier Madagascar. 2003. Artisanal and traditional turtle resource utilisation in south-west Madagascar, ed. R. Walker & E. Fanning. Frontier Madagascar Environmental Research Report 2. Society for Environmental Exploration, UK and Institute of Marine Sciences, Toliara, Madagascar.

Mbindo, C. 1996. The status of sea turtle conservation in Madagascar. In IUCN/UNEP. Status of sea turtle conservation in the western Indian Ocean, ed. S.L. Humphrey & R.V. Salm. Proc. Western Indian Ocean Training Workshop and Strategic Planning Session on Sea Turtles, Sodwana Bay, South Africa, November 1995. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 165: 117-120.

Metcalf, J., Rafaeliarisoa, C., Gray, A., Sondrotra, H., Cairnes, T., Andrianirina, R., Hampson, K. & Andriamizava, A. Rapport de la mission “Nosy Hara - Radama Expedition 2000”. (Unpublished)

Rakotonirina, B.P. & Cooke, A. 1994. Sea turtles of Madagascar - their status, exploitation and conservation. Oryx, 28: 51-61.

Randrianmiarana, H., Rakotonirina, B. & Maharavo, J. 1998. TED experience in Madagascar. In G.M. Wamukoya & R.V. Salm, eds. Report of the Western Indian Ocean Turtle Excluder Device (TED) Training Workshop, Mombasa, Kenya, January 1997, pp. 16-17. IUCN Eastern Africa Regional Office with IUCN/SSC Marine Turtle Specialist Group. 30 pp.

Sagar, J. The ecology and conservation of sea turtles in the Nosy Be Islands, Madagascar. Field mission report. (Unpublished)

Mauritius

Mangar, V. & Chapman, R. 1996. The status of sea turtle conservation in Mauritius. In IUCN/UNEP. Status of sea turtle conservation in the western Indian Ocean, ed. S.L. Humphrey & R.V. Salm. Proc. Western Indian Ocean Training Workshop and Strategic Planning Session on Sea Turtles, Sodwana Bay, South Africa, November 1995. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 165: 121-124.

Mangar, V. & Degambur, D. 2001. The status of marine turtles in Mauritius waters. In S. Ciccione, D. Roos & J-Y. Le Gall, eds. Knowledge and conservation of sea turtles in the southwest Indian Ocean. Proc. workshop held at Saint-Leu, Ile de la Reunion, Nov-Dec 1999. Etudes et Colloques du CEDTM No. 1: 110-111.

Mauritius Marine Conservation Society. 2002. Turtle exploitation in Mauritius. Mar. Turtle Newsl., 95: 21.

Mayotte

Ali, Mari. 2001. Evaluation of sea turtle populations and evolution in Mayotte. In S. Ciccione, D. Roos & J-Y. Le Gall, eds. Knowledge and conservation of sea turtles in the southwest Indian Ocean. Proc. workshop held at Saint-Leu, Ile de la Reunion, Nov-Dec 1999. Etudes et Colloques du CEDTM No. 1, pp. 40-41.

Fretey, J. & Fourmy, J. 1996. The status of sea turtle conservation in French Territories of the Indian Ocean: Mayotte. In IUCN/UNEP. Status of sea turtle conservation in the western Indian Ocean, ed. S.L. Humphrey & R.V. Salm. Proc. Western Indian Ocean Training Workshop and Strategic Planning Session on Sea Turtles, Sodwana Bay, South Africa, November 1995. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 165: 133-143.

Gove, D. & Magane, S. 1996. The status of sea turtle conservation in Mozambique. In IUCN/UNEP. Status of sea turtle conservation in the western Indian Ocean, ed. S.L. Humphrey & R.V. Salm. Proc. Western Indian Ocean Training Workshop and Strategic Planning Session on Sea Turtles, Sodwana Bay, South Africa, November 1995. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 165: 89-94.

Magane, S., Sousa, L. & Pacule, H. 1998. Summary of turtles and fisheries resources information for Mozambique. In G.M. Wamukoya & R.V. Salm, eds. Report of the Western Indian Ocean Turtle Excluder Device (TED) Training Workshop, Mombasa, Kenya, January 1997, pp. 18-19. IUCN Eastern Africa Regional Office with IUCN/SSC Marine Turtle Specialist Group. 30 pp.

Seychelles

Mortimer, J.A. 1998. Turtle and tortoise conservation. Project J1: Environment management plan of the Seychelles. Final Report to the Ministry of Environment, Seychelles and the Global Environment Facility (GEF). Volume 1. 82 pp.

Mortimer, J.A. & Collie, J. 1998. Status and conservation of sea turtles in the Republic of Seychelles. In S.P. Epperly & I. Braun, eds. Proc. 17th Ann. Symp. Sea Turtle Biol. Conserv. NOAA Tech. Mem. NMFS-SEFSC-415: 70-72.

Mortimer, J.A., Collie, J. & Mbindo, C. 1996. The status of sea turtle conservation in the Republic of Seychelles. In IUCN/UNEP. Status of sea turtle conservation in the western Indian Ocean, ed. S.L. Humphrey & R.V. Salm. Proc. Western Indian Ocean Training Workshop and Strategic Planning Session on Sea Turtles, Sodwana Bay, South Africa, November 1995. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 165: 103-115.

Somalia

OTP. Marine turtle conservation in the western Indian Ocean: Somalia. Ocean Training Promotion. 5 pp. (Unpublished)

South Africa

Govender, A. & Hughes, G. 2001. Estimating the population size of nesting loggerhead turtles from tagging data. In S. Ciccione, D. Roos & J-Y. Le Gall, eds. Knowledge and conservation of sea turtles in the southwest Indian Ocean. Proc. workshop held at Saint-Leu, Ile de la Reunion, Nov-Dec 1999. Etudes et Colloques du CEDTM No. 1.

Hughes, G.R. 1996. The status of sea turtle conservation in South Africa. In IUCN/UNEP. Status of sea turtle conservation in the western Indian Ocean, ed. S.L. Humphrey & R.V. Salm. Proc. Western Indian Ocean Training Workshop and Strategic Planning Session on Sea Turtles, Sodwana Bay, South Africa, November 1995. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 165: 95-101.

Sudan

Abdel Latif, E.M. 1993. Factors threatening the marine and coastal environment of the Red Sea in Sudan. Khartoum, Sudanese Environment Conservation Society (SECS). 31 pp.

Hirth, H.F. & Abdel Latif, E.M. 1980. A nesting colony of the hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) on Seil Ada Kebir Island, Suakin Archipelago, Sudan. Biol. Conserv., 17: 125-130.

United Republic of Tanzania

Frazier, J. 1974. The olive ridley sea turtle in East Africa. EANHS Bull. (November), pp. 150-156.

Frazier, J. 1976. Sea turtles in Tanzania. Tanzania Notes and Records, No. 77 and 78. Dar-es-Salaam, the Tanzania Society.

Haule, W.V., Kalikela, G. & Mahundu, I. 1998. Some information on the sea turtles of Tanzania. In G.M. Wamukoya & R.V. Salm, eds. Report of the Western Indian Ocean Turtle Excluder Device (TED) Training Workshop, Mombasa, Kenya, January 1997, pp. 21-22. IUCN Eastern Africa Regional Office with IUCN/SSC Marine Turtle Specialist Group. 30 pp.

Howell, K.M. & Mbindo, C. 1996. The status of sea turtle conservation in Tanzania. In IUCN/UNEP. Status of sea turtle conservation in the western Indian Ocean, ed. S.L. Humphrey & R.V. Salm. Proc. Western Indian Ocean Training Workshop and Strategic Planning Session on Sea Turtles, Sodwana Bay, South Africa, November 1995. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 165: 73-80.

Khatib, A.A., Khiari, S.K. & Mbindo, C. 1996. The status of sea turtle conservation in Zanzibar. In IUCN/UNEP. Status of sea turtle conservation in the western Indian Ocean, ed. S.L. Humphrey & R.V. Salm. Proc. Western Indian Ocean Training Workshop and Strategic Planning Session on Sea Turtles, Sodwana Bay, South Africa, November 1995. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 165: 81-88.