2. ENGINEERING PERSPECTIVE

SUMMARY

The overall objective of the study is to assist the Government of Egypt to improve the planning and design of its future Integrated Irrigation Improvement and Management Project (IIIMP); a key feature will be increased stakeholder involvement. Water management improvements have been included as a single venture that will be addressed in an integrated manner (see Box B.2.1 for the IIIMP Profile). The main result of the study is a set of recommendations that are to be inserted into the overall logical framework of the project. It is foreseen that they will be complementary to the technical, institutional, economic, environmental and social criteria applied by the project feasibility study. The Drainage Integrated Analytical Framework (DrainFrame) is a planning and decision-making tool that enables systematic mapping to be carried out on the functions of natural resource systems (goods and services) and the values people attribute to them (Abdel-Dayem, 2004). The study adopts the DrainFrame systematic analysis as a participatory planning and design tool that allows for the establishment of a dialogue with stakeholders at different stages to reach an agreement in achieving optimum interventions, tradeoffs and mitigation measures.

Following the applied DrainFrame approach, the study composed the following activities: gaining knowledge and reconnaissance; mapping of participatory resources and landscape; investigating stakeholders; appraisal of irrigation and drainage systems, and problem/opportunity analysis.

After becoming acquainted with the project, a landscape mapping exercise was carried out from an engineering perspective. Three main landscapes were identified: irrigation system, drainage system and agricultural land. Following the identification of the concerned landscapes, an appraisal of irrigation and drainage systems was conducted. This included mapping system components and layouts, understanding design criteria and operation of interventions, identifying the relevant functions of these systems, identifying the concerned stakeholders and clarifying the importance and values attributed by the concerned stakeholders to these functions.

The centrepiece of the activities from an engineering/technical perspective was the problem/ opportunity analysis that identified the existing problems related to water management and elaborated on the underlying causes of those problems. In this context, the work focussed on the quantification of the anticipated changes resulting from technical interventions and the set of criteria at delivery onfarm and drainage levels, e.g. equity of water distribution, water availability/sufficiency, agricultural practices, project management, agricultural productivity, farm income, etc. The quantitative indications of the changes brought about by the technical interventions were largely evaluated during the fieldwork exercise carried out in the project area, namely, field observations and interviewing of stakeholders.

The main conclusion of this working paper is that clearly previous and current irrigation and drainage projects have similar objectives. However, they have proceeded independently of each other over the years resulting in frequent disruptions to the irrigated agriculture sector and rural communities. Obviously, this will legitimatize the need for integration of irrigation and drainage improvement. Hence, this will provide an opportunity to both conceptually and practically integrate frameworks to positively affect the entire process of improvement. Nevertheless, further improvement is required to move to the operational stage; DrainFrame could be among these frameworks.

OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The development goal of the study is to help improve the project planning and design of the Integrated Irrigation Improvement and Management Project (IIIMP), leading to better choice of physical interventions, ownership and the achievement of the broader support of stakeholders. The goal includes envisaging sustainable and cost-effective development and addressing the critical risks associated with implementation of the project.

The purpose of the present study is to complement the ongoing IIIMP feasibility study from the viewpoint of an interdependent discipline having multi-perspectives. In this way an opportunity is provided to insert recommendations for improved project interventions and increase the level of integration throughout the project cycle. To achieve this objective, the DrainFrame systematic analysis was carried out on the Mahmoudia canal command area in Behaira governorate. This area was chosen because it is the most appropriate command area for study based on an established set of criteria that takes into account the technical, economic, socio-economic and environmental features of the selected command area.

STUDY AREA

The Mahmoudia canal command area is located near the northern edge of the west delta in Behaira governorate. The canal runs for a distance of 77 km from the Rosetta branch of the Nile down to the Mediterranean Sea at Alexandria. It serves a total command area of about 305 000 feddans through 70 branch (distribution) canals.

The Mahmoudia canal receives water from three different sources. The main source is the El- Atf pumping station on the Nile that lifts an average of about 6 million m³/day (about 80 percent of the total annual supply to the canal). The canal is also fed from two subsidiary sources, namely Edku pumping station, which lifts an average of about 0.6 million m³/day from Edku drain, which passes below the Mahmoudia canal at km 8.850 and excess flow of an average of 2.3 million m³/day from El- Khandak El-Sharki canal at km 15.270.

In addition to providing irrigation water, the Mahmoudia canal is a navigable canal and is the main source of the municipal and industrial water supply for Alexandria and many other towns and villages. The maximum water demand from the Mahmoudia canal is estimated at 15.56 million m³/day, which occurs during the month of June and is distributed as:

The drainage system of the command area discharges into Maryut lake and the Mediterranean Sea via five main drains: Abu Qeir, Muheit Edku, Atf, Shereshra and Omum. The main drainage pumping stations are Tabia, Berseeq, Halq El-Gamal and Deshoudi. Only 3 000 feddans, out of the total command area, are not covered by subsurface drainage projects. According to the Egyptian Public Authority for Drainage (EPADP), subsurface drainage in this area will be implemented during the fiscal year 2004/2005.

Box B.2.1 IIIMP profile

Source:

- Project Concept Document, World Bank, June 2003
- IIIMP Inception Report, SOGREAH, March 2004

LANDSCAPES

Taking an engineering perspective, the main landscapes in the hydrological system associated with the Mahmoudia canal are: irrigation system, drainage system and agricultural land, which can be subdivided into sub-landscapes as shown in Table B.2.1.

Table B.2.1 Landscape types - Engineering perspective

LANDSCAPE FUNCTIONS, STAKEHOLDERS AND VALUES

Irrigation system

Function: Processing and regulation functions: Conveyance of water supply to irrigated lands.

Operation of the existing irrigation system is based on rotational water deliveries to individual branch canals. The main feeder canals flow continuously and the off-taking branch canal head regulators are opened according to a rotation schedule that consists of a three-turn rotation with 5 days on/10 days off in winter and a two-turn rotation with 5 days on/5 days off in summer.

As part of the main system that is fed from Aswan and as a feeder canal, the Mahmoudia canal operates essentially under a system of upstream control. Essentially it receives a seasonally varied supply of water determined centrally by the Irrigation Sector in accordance with the expected cropping pattern. Control of discharges in the feeder canals occur at the main head regulators and at cross regulators located at the boundaries between irrigation directorates. The regulators are mostly equipped with lifting gates. Discharge control depends on rating curves either for the gates or for the downstream channel; these ratings are confirmed by periodic current metering. The operation method emphasizes regulation to achieve specified levels downstream of the regulators (as a proxy for discharge), rather than to maintain particular upstream water levels, which may vary considerably depending both on the season and on which branch canals are being fed from the upstream reach at any particular time under the rotation schedule.

Branch canal head regulators are generally equipped with lifting gates, and regulation of flow is achieved by adjusting gates to maintain downstream target water levels, which vary seasonally and serve as an indirect and rather approximate means of controlling discharges. In practice, this is largely determined by accumulated experience. In the absence of explicit measurement of discharge, District Engineers, and to some extent the gate operators who have day-to-day control of the regulator gates, exercise a certain amount of flexibility and discretion in allocating water supplies. Sometimes, gate openings and rotation schedules may be adjusted in response to representations and complaints from farmers, or to observed conditions, e.g. the occurrence of escape flows at canal tails. In effect, the District Engineers responsible for arranging water deliveries to individual branch canals try to distribute the water allocated to them to achieve the greatest possible degree of user satisfaction.

On the branch canals, low-level tertiary canals called mesqas are run by farmers and provide water to the fields through quaternary channels called marwas. The area served by a mesqa is in the range of 50 to 200 feddans, while the marwa typically serves around 10 to 20 feddans.

A key feature of the Egyptian irrigation system is that the canals deliver water about 0.5 to 1.0 m below ground level, requiring farmers to lift the water onto their land. Lifting takes place at the head of the marwas, either from the mesqas or, in many cases, directly from the branch canals themselves, many are illegal. In the past, lifting was mainly carried out by animal-driven water wheels (sakias), which were licensed by the Irrigation Districts. The sakia was a fixed installation whose sump was connected to thsakia the canal or mesqa by an intake pipe of specifified diameter. The farmers' capacity to abstract water from the delivery system was thus restricted by both the number and location of the lifting points and the discharge. In particular, the need to share the use of the sakia with several other farmers in the same sakia "ring" and the limited discharge, combined with the restrictions of the rotation system, meant that farmers were considerably constrained in terms of when and for how long they could irrigate. Over the last 20 or 30 years, sakias have been progressively replaced by mobile diesel-driven pumps. Unlike the sakias, which were almost always collectively owned by the members of the sakia ring, most pumps are privately owned by individual farmers. However, a significant number of farmers do not own pumps, and rent them from others. At a particular lifting point, different farmers may take turns to irrigate using different pumps. Farmers with fragmented holdings may use a single pump that is moved between their different plots.

The widespread introduction of diesel-driven pumps has largely removed the various constraints imposed by the sakia-based system and the greater discharge provided by these pumps means that farmers can complete their irrigation in less time. In some cases, two or more pumps may operate simultaneously at a former sakia site and many farmers whose fields are adjacent to canals or mesqas have established additional lifting points. Even where lifting takes place at former sakia sites, the pump suction is often placed directly into the canal or mesqa rather than in the old sakia sump because the sakia inlet pipe would not be large enough to supply the pump discharge. In some cases, farmers have replaced the original mesqa offtakes with pipes of larger diameter. Many of these changes, particularly direct irrigation from canals and enlargement of mesqa offtakes are, strictly speaking, illegal.

A particular result of the removal of the time constraint is that farmers can concentrate their irrigation during the daytime, taking advantage of the considerable natural storage capacity of the canals and mesqas. These have themselves been enhanced by the progressive widening of cross sections resulting from bank degradation and over-excavation during maintenance.

Stakeholders: Approximately 1.4 million inhabitants (farmers) depend on irrigated agriculture as their first livelihood.

Values: Increased economic use of irrigation water.

Drainage system

Function: Carrying function:

• Removal of excess drainage water

• Leaching salt from soil

Processing function

• Improved soil conditions and workability

The drainage system in the Mahmoudia canal command area is comprised of open and tile drains. The drainage water is collected from the fields by subsurface drains, flows into secondary open drains and reaches the Mediterranean Sea through open drains. Drainage water is either pumped back into the irrigation canals for reuse or into the Mediterranean Sea.

On the right bank of the Mahmoudia canal, secondary drains discharge into the Moheet Edku, which forms the northeast boundary of the command area bordering Lake Edku. The Moheet Edku drain in turn discharges into the Edku drain and then via Edku pumping station into Abu Qeir bay. Drainage water from the upper part of the Moheet Edku catchment is lifted by Beseeq and Halq El- Gamal pumping stations.

On the left bank of the Mahmoudia canal, secondary drains discharge into either Umum drain or, to the south, the Shereshra drain, which together form the southwest boundary of the command area. The Shereshra drain is pumped into the Umum drain, while water from the upper reach of the Umum drain is lifted by the Abu Hummus pumping station. The Umum drain discharges into the Sea through the El-Max pumping station west of Alexandria.

Subsurface drainage has already been installed over most of the command area apart from a very small area (3 000 feddan) where installation of subsurface drainage is being implemented under the current National Drainage Programme and expected to be completed in the fiscal year 2004/2005.

Horizontal pipe drainage, i.e. closed field drains, has been chosen as a more appropriate technology than vertical drainage due to the hydrological characteristics and soil types in the area. The clay content is generally high and the soils have a low to medium hydraulic conductivity and low permeability. Groundwater in the underlying semi-confined aquifer is brackish to saline under a certain degree of artesian pressure. Thus, the choice was for horizontal pipe drains with buried manhole covers for the lateral connections, preventing, as far as possible, farmers interference with the system.

Stakeholders: Approximately 1.4 million inhabitants (farmers) depend on irrigated agriculture as their first livelihood.

Values: Increased agricultural productivity because of improved soil conditions and workability.

Irrigated agricultural lands

Function: Production function: Agricultural productivity

The soil of the lands served by Mahmoudia canal is predominantly alluvial-clayey soil, black to brown, compact with a mass structure and a saturation capacity ranging between 50-80 percent. As expected with this type of soil, the rate of soil permeability is fairly low and the hydraulic conductivity is less than 0.1 cm/ hour in the soils' surface. The southwestern part of the area is characterized by soil heterogeneity, where more permeable soils layer at depths varying between 0.5-2 m. The soil salinity generally degrades from normal to very high from upstream to downstream while the groundwater table ranges from 70 to 120 cm.

The majority of farmers in the command area cultivate 5 feddans or less. Farm holdings between 5-10 feddans represent a small percentage while there are fewer farm holdings larger than 10 feddans.

There is a variety of holding types within the land tenure system in the studied area, including owner operator, cash rent, share rent and a mix of these types. Overall, the command area is dominated by owned holdings while cash rent and share rent are in the minority.

The intensity of cropping in the area is almost 200 percent, meaning that approximately all the land is cultivated both winter and summer. Berseem (long clover), beseem (short clover), wheat and broad beans are the main crops cultivated in winter besides the winter vegetables and some perennial crops. Cotton, rice and maize are the main crops in the summer season besides watermelon seeds, summer vegetables and some perennial crops.

Farmers practice irrigation, traditionally they receive information and advice from agricultural extension officers in the area. They have a limited awareness of cultivation techniques, e.g. long furrows; dry planting berseem, planting rice using machines, etc. Investigations revealed that farmers are aware of laser levelling and its benefits and are willing to apply it. However, it is not commonly practised because of the high cost and small field sizes.

Crop yields in the area are generally high. The average cotton yield is 2.4 tonnes/ha, while the average rice yield is 6.5 tonnes/ha. The average wheat yield is 4.3 tonnes/ha, while the average yield of broad beans is 2.4 tonnes/ha.

Stakeholders: Approximately 1.4 million inhabitants (farmers) depend on irrigated agriculture as their first livelihood.

Values: Increased farm incomes through increased agricultural productivity.

PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES

Irrigation system

Equity of water distribution at the branch canals

The essentially unplanned evolution of diesel-driven pumps at the mesqa level, combined with other factors such as changes in cropping patterns (especially the increased area of rice) and physical deterioration of the system, has led to problems in water distribution, in particular, the inequity between head and tail areas along branch canals. The ability of head-end farmers to abstract water preferentially at the start of the rotation "on" period, means that at times of peak demand tail-end farmers may initially receive little or no water, in this way their irrigations are restricted in terms of timing if not quantity. As an insurance against the uncertainties of the rotation system, head-end farmers may also carry out "topup" irrigation at the end of the "on" period, again reducing water availability to tail-end farmers.

Similarly, there may be inequity between head and tail-end farmers along a mesqa (especially long mesqas), although tail-end problems on mesqas are often simply a reflection of low water levels in the branch canal meaning there is insufficient depth of flow at the head of the mesqa to convey the required discharge to the end.

The introduction of continuous flow under the IIP (See Box B.2.2 for the IIP profile) may present an important single intervention that will improve equity between head and tail areas at the branch canal level. This intervention will help overcome the inequity problem and provide new opportunities. Its main advantages are:

• continuous flow should lead to reduced losses and more equitable distribution. Under the old system farmers (particularly head-end farmers) tended to over-irrigate because of the rigidities and uncertainties of the rotation system,;

• reduces operating discharges (in principle by half where continuous flow replaces a previous two-turn rotation schedule) alleviates conveyance capacity constraints in the canals (where these exist) and enhances the night storage capacity of the delivery system as a proportion of daily supply volumes;

• similarly, the reduction in peak discharges reduces the required overall capacity of farmers' pumps;

• the availability of water on a continuous basis at the head of the mesqa will enable farmers tmesqa to increase crop yields by optimizing their irrigation schedules according to crop water needs; and

• the improved availability of supply will allow farmers to diversify their cropping patterns by growing more water-sensitive but higher value crops, such as vegetables.

Box B.2.2 IIP Profile

Source: IIP Inception Review Report, December 1998

The introduction of continuous flow at the branch canal level has been associated with the construction of automatic (float-operated) downstream level control gates (see photo), together with modular discharge control gates (distributors) at head regulators. Downstream level control gates provide an automatic means of achieving reliable and safe canal regulation under conditions of varying demand. This can be applied either to systems where the demand itself is nonetheless externally controlled (e.g. by scheduled opening and closing of outlets with regulated discharges) or to systems where the outlets operate freely on demand, although in this case the satisfaction of demand is subject to adequate availability of water at the head of the system and to design capacity constraints within the distribution system.

Float-operated downstream level control gate (photo: J. Hoevenaars)

Conventionally, the downstream control system would respond first to the need of tail reaches and would favour tail reaches if there were water shortages, i.e. if the supply at the head of the canal is less than demand, outlets on the tail reaches will be satisfied at the expense of those on the head reaches. This supposes that the outlet discharge is in some way dependent on the water level in the canal, which is generally the case where the outlets operate by gravity. However, in the particular context of the delivery system in the command area, where the "outlets" are pumped, and their discharge is largely independent of the canal water level, the conventional situation does not necessarily apply. Hence, head reaches will still generally be favoured and can prejudice the merit of the concept of equity thought to be introduced by the introduction of continuous flow.

While the particular features of the Egyptian irrigation system allow for a considerable degree of operational autonomy and flexibility at the mesqa level and, while the improved system will have elements of on-demand operation at the branch canal level, it is clearly not possible to operate the main canal system on an on-demand basis, for the following reasons:

• the main system is managed on the basis of upstream control, with scheduled deliveries that are planned according to predicted demands and taking into account the considerable travel time from Aswan to the delta; and

• the irrigation system in the old lands will be required to operate in an environment of increasingly tight water availability where, particularly in rice areas and in the peak summer months, the supply may be inadequate to meet potential demand.

It is thus expected that the system will continue to be managed by the Irrigation Sector on a topdown basis. Each directorate or district receives a centrally determined allocation that must be distributed equitably between the different delivery points, which is the lowest point in the system at which water distribution is managed directly by the Irrigation Sector. Below the delivery point, water distribution depends on the actions of the farmers. With the existing system, the delivery point is effectively at the head of the branch canal, the service provider would undertake to provide a certain volume of water at this point, according to an agreed upon seasonal schedule; the downstream users would be responsible for sharing this water between them. Without this, there is no way of ensuring equity and no mechanism for matching demand to supply. Here, a water user organization at the branch canal level can play a significant role in ensuring equity and can match demand to supply.

Mixing a supply-oriented system with an on-demand downstream control system, such as with the Mahmoudia canal, can only work effectively if the supply is not limited, unlike the Mahmoudia case, or there is sufficient storage in the system to act as a buffer between supply and demand. With this system and, unless farmers are charged at a higher level for each cubic metre of water used, there will be a tendency to over-irrigate. The fact that farmers must pay for the diesel and operating costs of the mesqa pump station should inhibit water application. This depends on the relative cost of pumping each cubic metre and the production benefits derived from the crop. It is clear that if the pumping costs are low, relative to crop income, there will be a tendency to over-irrigate.

Raised mesqa (photo: M. Salman)

In conclusion, it is important to recognize that improvement, through the introduction of continuous flow at the branch canal level, will not necessarily guarantee equitable distribution. Rather, it provides the physical conditions under which this is more likely to occur and easier to achieve. If any problem of inequitable distribution does occur, this can only be corrected by institutional measures (involving inter-mesqa coordination).

Water availability/sufficiency

Water availability can be expressed in terms of the dependency of farmers on canal water/drainage water for their irrigation, while water sufficiency can be expressed in terms of adequacy to meet demand. Preliminary investigations have shown that drainage water was often used by farmers in the command area, especially in the summer season. The dependency on drainage water for irrigation has decreased with the implementation of IIP. This may directly be attributed to the physical improvements at mesqa level that have largely eliminated losses from canals (raised mesqa/low pressure pipeline mesqa, see photos). After the improvement, the dependency on canal water for irrigation increased from 75 percent to 95 percent in the summer season and from 84 percent to 96 percent in the winter season (M&E Programme for IIP, 2004).

This increase in the dependency on canal water for irrigation did not seem to go along with the potential increase in the sufficiency of irrigation water. It has been reported that, even after the physical improvement, farmers still suffer from water shortages. Farmers attributed this to the increased areas cultivated with rice and cotton. However, it is evident that the areas cultivated with crops with high water consumption are larger in the improved mesqas than in the unimproved. Figure B.2.1 shows the cropping pattern changes in the command area after the improvement.

Low-pressure pipeline mesqa with open stand (photo: M. Salman)

The real issue for the present irrigation improvement project is whether or not continuous flow, as well as improved mesqas, will lead to increased demand from farmers and thus exacerbate rather than alleviate problems of inequity and insufficiency of water. Before the physical improvement brought about by the IIP, farmers (particularly head-end farmers) were likely to over-irrigate because of the rigidities and uncertainties of the irrigation system. The situation does not seem to have changed, and farmers (particularly head-end farmers) over-irrigate, even after the introduction of the IIP. The preliminary findings of the current Monitoring and Evaluation Programme carried out for the IIP, have shown that more than 50 percent of the sample farmers confirmed that farmers at the head-end of branch canals were using more water than they needed in both seasons (WMRI, 2003b).

Figure B.2.1 Changes in cropping pattern

Source: M&E Programme for IIP, 2004

Night irrigation may also be a sign of water shortage and inequity of distribution. The preliminary findings of the Monitoring and Evaluation Programme for the IIP have shown that 92 percent of the sample farmers were night irrigating in the summer season, the total number of which exceeds 25 percent over the summer season (WMRI, 2003b). However, the survey did not significantly clarify what is meant by night irrigation, i.e. irrigating over-night or perhaps only early night. Further investigations are required as this clarification may strongly affect other issues related to tail-end escape losses at mesqa levelmesqa level.

Agricultural practices

In the command area, irrigation is commonly practised in basins. Although crops such as cotton, maize and beans are grown on ridges, these ridges are still within basins. The IIP has included an on-farm irrigation management demonstration programme that aims to promote measures to improve farmers' irrigation practices and water use efficiency, including land levelling, selective soil amendments and planting techniques.

The preliminary findings of the Monitoring and Evaluation Programme for the IIP has shown that in spite of the broad perception of farmers that laser levelling is useful (80 percent of farmers surveyed are aware of land levelling using laser equipment and its benefits), yet its practice is limited (less than 3 percent). The main reason is that farmers perceive the cost as high, it is also difficult to arrange a time between crops for its application. In addition, the fields are too small and it is difficult to coordinate laser levelling with neighbouring farmers (WMRI, 2003b).

On the other hand, farmers' knowledge of modern cultivation techniques seems to be limited. According to the Monitoring and Evaluation Programme for the IIP, more than 90 percent of surveyed farmers in the command area do not know of the use of long furrows for irrigation and less than one percent of farmers use machines to plant rice. Generally, most farmers in the command area still use traditional agricultural techniques, in spite of the implementation of the IIP on-farm demonstrations (WMRI, 2003b).

The above argument raises a question as to whether the on-farm irrigation management component of the IIP, through the field demonstration programme, has been effective or its impact limited. The answer to this question is crucial and needs further investigation since the new project (IIIMP) seems to be considering the same measure (field demonstration programme) aimed at increasing the productivity of land and water.

Box B.2.3

Source: Project Concept Document, World Bank, June 2003

Farm incomes

One of the main objectives of the current Irrigation Improvement Project, as well as the proposed Integrated Irrigation Improvement and Management Project, is to increase farm incomes through improved agricultural production by means of physical interventions associated with a series of institutional arrangements. This increase was attributed by the IIP as a direct result of crop yield increase and savings in pumping costs.

Crop yields are a function of the timely delivery of irrigation water and disposal of drainage water. Disruption in either irrigation or drainage facilities would reduce crop yields dramatically and thus farm income. In other words, the reliability of the irrigation system directly influences incremental production in the project area.

In principle, the introduction of continuous flow, and the IIP's improvement of the delivery system at the tertiary level (mesqa) is meant to increase the flexibility and reliability of water delivery, and create an opportunity to enhance yield. However, the full realization of these benefits depends on complementary actions by farmers, e.g. optimizing irrigation schedules to increase yields, modifying cropping patterns to introduce more water-sensitive higher-value crops.

The IIP's Staff Appraisal Report (SAR) (1994) predicted increases in crop yields of around 10 percent for winter crops, 33 percent for rice and cotton, and 30 percent for maize. Nonetheless, it seems to be difficult to assess the overall effect IIP had on the achievement of greater yield. The preliminary results of the current Monitoring and Evaluation Programme for the IIP have shown that, when comparing improved with unimproved areas, yields for all summer crops in the command area are higher (4.9-19.4 percent). On the other hand, winter crops have shown uncertainty in yield increase, i.e. yield increased for some varieties and decreased with others (WMRI, 2003b). Comparison between crop yields in improved and unimproved areas is shown in Table B.2.2. However, this assessment relies on the results of the first year of the Monitoring and Evaluation Programme and is not enough on which to form a definitive statement. Further investigations are required.

Table B.2.2 Yield comparison in Mahoudia command area

* 1 Cotton Qintar = 157.5 kg; 1 Maize Ardeb = 140 kg; 1 Wheat Ardeb = 150 kg

Source: M&E Programme, 2004

The other factor, that was believed to have had a direct impact on increasing farm incomes, is the saving in pumping costs. This is mainly attributed to the introduction of single-point lifting at the tertiary level (mesqa).

The term single-point lifting is used to refer to the concept of consolidating farmers' pumping into a smaller number of sites by moving the lifting point one step up the system hierarchy, from the head of the quaternary canal (marwa) to the head of the tertiary canal (mesqa). Generally, the rationale for single-point lifting may have been in response to the changeover from sakias to pumps, which has occurred over the last 30 years, and the problems this has caused. However, there are two facets to this that have been characterized by the IIP Inception Review Report (1998), which are: "the view from above", and "the view from below". The "view from below" is of utmost importance as it may be referred to as "the view of farmers". The rationale for single-point lifting emphasizes the collective benefits to farmers, particularly in terms of reduced pumping costs. Savings in pumping costs, per unit of water, were estimated by the Staff Appraisal Report at 34 percent. Though farmers have shown appreciation and interest in improvement of single-point lifting, so far there is no available quantitative data on which to assess the impact of this type of intervention on pumping cost.

The overall impact of the Irrigation Improvement Project on net farm income has been assessed by the project Monitoring and Evaluation Programme. When making comparisons between the crop budgets in the improved and unimproved areas, it was noted there were variations in the prices of the inputs and outputs. These variations significantly impacted costs, revenues and hence net returns per feddan.

Three general conclusions have been drawn by the evaluation programme: In most cases the net returns on the crops in the unimproved areas are lower than those in the improved; cotton seems to achieve the highest return, above available costs, among both summer and winter crops; and in some cases yield in the improved area is lower than in the unimproved. Thus it can be stated that the variations in the net returns in the improved and unimproved areas are not necessarily impacts that can be linked to the Irrigation Improvement Project. Therefore, further investigations are required to provide a conclusive statement.

The net income per feddan is a key factor on which to assess all project benefits in economic terms, i.e. Economic Rate of Return. This rate was estimated by the IIP's Staff Appraisal Report in 1998 at 25 percent and was reduced to 16.4 percent in the Mid-Term Review Report in 2000. It was claimed that this reduction was mainly the result of the delay in project implementation, the fall in the world traded commodity prices, particularly for cereal crops, and the cost increases for materials for civil works on the local market. The German KfW, after a recent appraisal for the IIP2, reduced the rate to 8.5 percent. This is because of the lower yield increases that prejudiced the rationale behind the proposed IIIMP, though at the same time providing the opportunity to its integrated approach for gains in other sectors such as fishery, municipal use, etc.

Project management

In principle, the overall logic of the IIP's concept suggested that the implementation of delivery system improvements, to allow for conversion to continuous flow, should precede that of mesqa improvements. This would be attributed to the following main reasons:

• the new mesqas are designed on the basis of continuous flow in the delivery system, therefore, cannot properly supply farmers' peak requirements under a rotational delivery regime;

• the introduction of continuous flow was one of the main "selling points" used to convince farmers to accept the project, and may be decisive in offsetting any doubts they may have about the benefits of mesqa improvements. If continuous flow was not available before, or at least at the same time as the commissioning of the new mesqas, farmers' confidence in the project may be negatively affected; and

• under a fully participatory approach, it could be argued that the time frame for implementation of mesqa improvements needs to be flexible, whereas delivery improvements could be implemented quite quickly.

There are difficulties associated with the introduction of continuous flow before mesqa improvement. These are:

• a difficulty with the construction of the intakes for mesqa pumping stations. With the changeover to continuous flow there would no longer be automatic, regular "off" periods during which the construction of the intakes could take place;

• the concern is that there is a likelihood of increased losses from low-level mesqas. As the project concept relies on eliminating losses at mesqa level through the introduction of single-point lifting and the improvement of the mesqa itself. Without this improvement, separate measures would need to be implemented to identify and deal with the sources of mesqa losses on a caseby- case basis, e.g. raising banks, repairing broken buried collectors where they pass under the mesqa, closing mesqa tails; and

• the concern is that once the changeover to continuous flow has been made, farmers will lose the incentive to cooperate with implementing mesqa improvements.

Reluctance on the part of the irrigation authorities to introduce continuous flow before completion of improved mesqas has been shown. Thus, the parallel approach for implementation with combined contracts, i.e. delivery and mesqa, was adopted.

It was apparent from field observations that the implementation of improvements has gone ahead of those for continuous flow. Only recently has continuous flow been introduced into some parts of the command area studied. Cases, where there was a delay in implementing the interface between the canal and the mesqa, have been observed. In these cases, the improved layout, the intakes and the mesqas sumps were constructed while the pumping units were not. This may jeopardize farmers' confidence and affect their participation in the improvement. There is a need for better coordination between the two parts of the work.

Drainage system

Variation of flow in open drains

The distribution losses from the old irrigation system in the command area (canals and mesqas) were mainly the result of canal/mesqa tail-end escape flow and various types of leakage along canals and mesqas. These losses are generally a function of opportunity, time and water availability and generally end up in the open drains. Measures have been taken under the Irrigation Improvement Project, to eliminate the causes of these losses. As a result, water in open drains will be minimized to a level that may create a negative effect (qualitative and quantitative) on the planned official reuse programme, (carried out by the Egyptian Government to maximize overall water use efficiency) and on unofficial reuse (carried out by individual farmers to overcome constraints to water delivery).

According to the preliminary findings of the Monitoring and Evaluation Programme for the IIP and because of the increase in water availability along improved mesqas, unofficial reuse of drainage water has decreased (WMRI, 2003b). This may create a concern that the positive effect of irrigation efficiency gains at the level of the mesqa may be counterbalanced by the loss of the "multiplier effect" of the unofficial water reuse at that level. Thus, the question remains as to what has the IIP brought about in terms of water use efficiency?

The major effect of elimination would be on the official reuse programme. In order to maintain the sustainability of such a programme, there should be other water sources or actions (planned or unplanned) to counterbalance what could be considered "deficit" to the reuse plan, e.g. the elimination of unofficial reuse, the more seepage from unlined canals resulting from the implementation of continuous flow, etc. The key factors here are the quality and quantity of water in the drains, which must be determined prior to and after improvement. The current evaluation programme has not yet provided such a level of comparison because of the lack of sufficient data for the period prior to the improvement. The present evaluation programme for drain performance's preliminary findings on quantity may be summarized as follows:

• water levels in most sample drains followed a typical seasonal trend by which the levels tended to be higher during the summer season than during the winter (statement based on the measurements of the 2002 summer season and 2002/2003 winter season);

• daily variations in the sample drains were between 5 and 2 cm and were probably the result of day time irrigation activities; and

• correlations between the variations in water level in the sample drains and water levels in the sample canals could only be established where drains entirely serve the command area (correlation between the water levels in Nasr-Allah drain and Nasiri-Habib canal).

Whether the IIP has resulted in a decrease in the amount of water running into the open drains and its deterioration in quality is a question that needs to be answered and further investigated.

Growth conditions

In contrast with the Irrigation Improvement Project, the National Drainage Programme (NDP) has a fairly long Monitoring and Evaluation Programme, which was established in the 1980s and strengthened in the early 1990s. This programme identified two types of monitoring and evaluation activities: effect monitoring (indicators: groundwater table and soil salinity) and impact monitoring (indicators: crop yield and farm income).

The effect of drainage on growth conditions is mainly evaluated on how it affects the groundwater table and soil salinity.

Regarding the groundwater table, it was generally stated by the Monitoring and Evaluation Project of the National Drainage Programme, that the performance of a drainage system is considered good if five days after irrigation its calculated average water table depth has fallen to a level of 0.80 m below ground surface. This is an optimum groundwater table that will support most crops. The five-year monitoring (1995-2000) has shown that after the installation of drainage the groundwater levels were satisfactory and under control at a depth below 0.80 m.

The monitoring programme made observations on 15 sample areas at different locations. Three were located within the Mahmoudia command area: Awad, Safr and Hares. Three different cases were recognized: new areas that were considered saline, where subsurface drainage was provided for the first time; non-saline where subsurface drainage was provided for the first time; and rehabilitation areas where a new system will replace an old. The three areas included in the monitoring programme are located within the Mahmoudia command area, are representative for the first two cases but not for the last. In spite of the fact that the monitoring programme has covered the rehabilitation case, and its findings were positive regarding the effectiveness of the drainage system in lowering the groundwater table, this was not evaluated in the studied command area, and there should be further investigations into this specific case. It should be mentioned that the available data only covers the period until 2000. The question is also raised as to whether the monitoring programme has been updated or not and whether the abovementioned conclusions are still valid beyond the year 2000. Observations and interviews with farmers during the mission confirmed that monitoring and evaluation should be based on measurements.

Soil salinity and leaching of salts is another important indicator of drainage on growth conditions. The results of the MEP have indicated that after four years in the new non-saline areas, saline soils have decreased from about 40 percent to only 6 percent. The same process was observed in the new saline areas, where the affected saline lands have decreased from nearly 100 percent to 70 percent within two years (MEP Final Report, 2001). However, no further data were found for the period after 2000, though the MEP reported that a decrease in salinity levels is expected, i.e. average soil salinity in Awad and Safr has shown a steady decrease in salinity over successive years. Leaching of salts from saline soils is a process that requires time and good drainage for its promotion, it is important that there is sufficient available irrigation water of adequate quality. Obviously, the gains achieved in water inequity and supply shortages at mesqa level, through a mix of technical and institutional interventions introduced by the IIP, would havmesqa have a positive effect on the process of salt leaching and thus soil and growth conditions.

Crop yield and farm income

Many factors, other than drainage, influence crop yield and farm, e.g. water availability, water quality, on-farm management, agricultural inputs, etc. Successful evaluation of the impact of drainage on both crop yield and farm income is only achieved with site-specific and long-term monitoring. The monitoring and evaluation project of the National Drainage Programme has collected data covering the period 1995-2000 as well as additional historic data on all its sample areas covering the period 1990-1995. The results were positive for the increase in crop yields and farm income.

It was stated that the yields of the five monitored crops (two winter crops: wheat and broad beans; three summer crops: maize, cotton and rice) increased after drainage. However, the response to drainage varies according to the type of crop, (saline or non-saline area) and drainage process (new or rehabilitated area). Wheat is relatively tolerant to salinity and the increase in its yield after drainage was considerably high in both saline and non-saline areas (non-saline areas: 17 percent, saline areas: 13 percent). On the other hand, the response of maize, a more sensitive crop to salinity, was higher in non-saline areas than in saline areas (non-saline areas: 35 percent, saline areas: 8 percent). The response of cotton and broad beans to drainage was difficult to evaluate because of site-specific events during the monitoring period. These included liberalization of cotton growing in the country; broad beans were not grown in all sample areas, and the broad bean yield was influenced by new varieties.

Contrasting with all other crops monitored, the response of rice, which is sensitive to salt especially at an early stage, after drainage was higher in the saline than in the non-saline areas (nonsaline areas: 6 percent, saline areas: 19 percent). The effect of drainage on rice yields mainly resulted from a decrease in soil salinity that occurred after drainage. Finally, the response after drainage of all monitored crops was low in rehabilitated areas (less than 5 percent).

According to the MEP, farm income has generally shown the same trend as that of yield performance in response to drainage. Annual farm income increased from around LE 1 400 to LE 2 000 per feddan in the non-saline new areas, and LE 1 700 in the saline new areas. Farm income in the rehabilitation areas increased from LE 1 100 to LE 1 400. According to the MEP, this lower farm income in the rehabilitation areas may be the result of slightly higher productivity levels in the newly drained areas. In recent years, and during the period of monitoring, farm-gate prices for cotton and rice and production costs have fluctuated disproportionably. This has considerably influenced net returns to farmers and made the yield/feddan the preferred method of assessing the impact of drainage.

Despite the fact that drainage brought an increase in both crop yields and farm income, confirmed by all farmers interviewed during the mission period, no quantitative survey/comparison was carried out during the mission. No quantitative data has been found on yields and farm incomes so that no further analysis can be made to confirm this information.

Conclusions

The above discussion has highlighted the problems/opportunities associated with water management in the studied command area. These conclusions have been drawn through the application of the systematic analysis of the DrainFrame approach from an engineering perspective, while focusing on components and interventions within the usual boundary of the command area. The problem/opportunity analysis carried out is considered conventional, as it occurs within the usual boundary of the command area. The added value brought about by the adoption of the DrainFrame approach is that the perception of irrigation and drainage "integration" has, to some extent, been given value in the working paper. It has been clearly stated that previous and current irrigation and drainage projects, which have similar ultimate objectives, have proceeded independently of each other over the years. This has consequently led to frequent disruptions to the irrigated agriculture sector and rural communities. This fact obviously legitimizes the need for an integrated view of irrigation and drainage improvement and hence provides the opportunity for both conceptual and practical integrated frameworks in their becoming an asset to the improvement process. There is further need for improvement so as to move to the operational stage, DrainFrame could be among these frameworks.

REFERENCES

Abdel-Dayem, S. 2004. Towards an integrated approach for agricultural drainage - DrainFrame. GRID Magazine. Issue 22, August 2004.

Abdel-Dayem, S., Hoevenaars, J., Mollinga, P., Scheumann, W., Slootweg, R. & van Steenbergen, F. 2004. Reclaiming drainage: Toward an integrated approach. Agriculture and Rural Development Report 1. World Bank, Washington, D.C.

Arab Republic of Egypt. 1994. Irrigation improvement project - staff appraisal report. Cairo, Egypt.

Arab Republic of Egypt. 1998. Irrigation Improvement Project - Inception Review Report. Mot MacDonald Limited Cambridge, UK & Egypt Sabbour Associates Cairo.

Arab Republic of Egypt. 2000. Irrigation Improvement Project Mid-term Review Report. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. Washington, D.C. and KfW, Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau, Germany.

Arab Republic of Egypt. 2001. National Drainage Programme Monitoring and Evaluation Project-Final Report. ARCADIS Euroconsult.

Arab Republic of Egypt. 2003. EGYPT-Integrated Irrigation Improvement and Management Project. Project Concept Document. World Bank. Washington, D.C..

Arab Republic of Egypt. 2004. Integrated Irrigation Improvement Management Project-Preparation Study-Inception Report. SOGREAH, Cairo office, Cairo, Egypt.

Kielen, N.C. 2002. Drainage water re-use and disposal: A case study from the Nile Delta, Egypt. In: Tanji & Kielen (Eds) Agricultural drainage water management in arid and semi-arid areas. Irrigation and Drainage Paper 61, FAO, Rome, Italy.

van Achthoven, T., Merabet, Z., Karim, S., Shalaby & van Steenbergen, F. 2003. Toward an integrated perspective on agricultural drainage in Egypt: Balancing productivity and environmental pressure. Country Case Study Report. World Bank.Washington, D.C.

WMRI. 2003a. Monitoring and Evaluating Programme for the Irrigation Improvement Project-Canal and Drain Monitoring. Report No. 1. Irrigation Improvement Sector, Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation. Cairo, Egypt.

WMRI. 2003b. Monitoring and Evaluating Programme for the Irrigation Improvement Project-Farmer Survey Study. Report No. 2. Irrigation Improvement Sector, Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation. Cairo, Egypt.

3. WATER QUALITY AND REUSE

SUMMARY

Impact of Integrated Irrigation Improvement and Management Project (IIIMP) on water quality

IIIMP will affect water quality, both positively and negatively. On the positive side the water saved will have no extra salinity load compared to the water generated by drain water reuse.

The negative impact will result from less available water to dilute the drainage water from field drains at the tail-end of the command areas, which will raise pollution levels. Soil salinity should not pose too much of a problem as farmers already know how to deal with this situation. In addition to which, the authorities such as the Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation, and stakeholder organizations may help provide effective management; some water boards have already achieved notable success.

Sewage in the drains has caused some concern. Coliform levels are already at very high levels and there is an urgent need for better management. This will probably entail construction of sewage treatment works for more towns and cities. It will not be possible to remove all coliforms; this is impractical and prohibitively expensive. Sufficient control should be introduced so that high coliform levels are avoided and the system improved to better handle sewage disposal in a modern and safe manner. With such an approach, the agricultural and fishing sectors will need advice on how to retain the useable nutrients (nitrates) that sewage brings. There will be a need to pay attention to how sewage affected water is applied to crops.

Substantially increased industrial effluents may create a sizeable negative impact. These pollutants can build up largely undetected and can profoundly affect local ecosystems, food chains and local crops produced for human consumption.

This leads to the conclusion that the introduction of IIIMP provides an opportunity to deal with health and environmental concerns at the same time as upgrading the agricultural and fishing sectors.

Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM)

IIIMP should include Operation and Maintenance (O&M) planning that takes in and covers all water users in the area. This is local IWRM planning. There may be a need to find a mechanism so that IWRM can be covered by an appropriate stakeholder representative body. This would be over and above the requirement of providing for stakeholder involvement in improved irrigation management.

Capacity building

Capacity building needs to be introduced to develop stakeholder associations. In this way stakeholders' participation can be increased along with their knowledge of the relative procedures to follow. This process should be developed steadily over time to facilitate acceptance throughout the regions where improved management is introduced. This recommendation particularly applies to the mechanisms already initiated, specifically water user associations, water boards and integrated water management districts.

How to best use IIIMP saved water

The impact of IIIMP will be to increase the reliability of the available water supplied. Farmers will respond to this by immediately using the water to grow other crops. They may introduce triple-cropping, or plant crops that require more water and render a higher income, such as rice. The Government of Egypt will need to decide whether to leave the choice of cropping patterns to farmers and farmer associations, or to apply recommendations, or even regulations on what farmers should grow. It may be appropriate for water user associations at mesqa level to decide on this in the light of recommendations received from local water boards and the integrated water management districts.

Introduction of controlled drainage to rice growing areas

If more rice is to be grown, then the IIIMP should include a controlled drainage initiative, which is particularly suitable for farmers involved in cooperatives that are farming in rice-growing areas where there is a high water-demand. Controlled drainage has been shown to achieve water savings in terms of reduced demand from farmers. It has also resulted in a slight increase in yield.

If farmer groups are encouraged to take up controlled drainage, as part of their responsibility, then it will be relevant for them to take on other similar responsibilities such as a maintenance strategy for their field drainage systems.

Balance between formal and informal reuse

In planning the introduction of IIIMP, it is important to take into account the balance between official and unofficial reuse. Unofficial reuse allows farmers a certain amount of flexibility. This is a serious consideration, as unofficial practices by individual farmers do not fit in with the concept of integrated management in which the total supply required by a farmer is planned and assured. If individuals do not comply, then the calculations of water distribution and water availability will be affected if unofficial reuse remains significant.

Further water savings

IIIMP may investigate other means of achieving water saving such as the development of a broad guideline on deficit irrigation say at 10, 15 and 20 percent. The amount of over-irrigation should be reduced, as this will negate all water-saving benefits achieved by the current Irrigation Improvement Project (IIP).

INTRODUCTION

Drainage water reuse is carried out in the Nile Delta to increase the amount of water available for use, particularly for irrigation. Reuse is centrally organized by the MWRI and involves the pumping of water from main drains into main canals taking advantage of situations where the two types of channel cross each other at a few strategic points in the delta region. Of the strategic water budget of 55.5 billion cubic metres (BCM) reaching Egypt via the River Nile, most is used for irrigation along the Nile valley and the Nile Delta, leaving approximately 14 BCM flowing out to sea (see Figure B.3.1). The present aim of the Government of Egypt is to reuse up to 8 BCM

The data in Figure B.3.1 (MWRI, 2002) show that the drainage outflow from the Nile was reduced to 11.5 BCM (up to 1989 because of chronic drought) and again to 12.0 BCM (in 1994). Since then outflows have risen. In 1998/99 it was 15.3 BCM, reducing to 14.1 BCM in 1999/00.

The comparative amount of reuse taking place is shown in the lower columns of Figure B.3.1, which represent the water lifted by pump stations from main drains and added to distributary canals. This is so called "official" reuse. There has been a steady increase in the amount of reuse since 1989, when reuse projects started to be introduced, such as the Salam canal in the eastern delta and Edku drain reuse in the western delta. Reuse rose from 2.6 BCM in 1988/89 to 5.0 BCM and 4.7 BCM most recently in 1998/1999 and 1999/2000 respectively.

Figure B.3.1 Annual variation of volume of drain water removed and reused in the Nile Delta

In addition to the "official" reuse of drainage water, there is significant "unofficial" irrigation carried out by individual farmers throughout the region. As a result of their various water shortages, they simply place their pump into a nearby field drain and pump drainage water directly onto their field. This "unofficial" drainage water reuse is estimated to be between 2.8 and 4 BCM. There is no control of the amount of unofficial reuse by farmers, and if it were to increase significantly it would threaten the flows in the main drains used for official reuse. The danger is that the amount of water available for reuse and needed for major projects such as the Salam canal Land Development Project could be reduced.

A third type of reuse is ongoing within the basin, which takes the form of return flows to the river, or to groundwater, from water diverted for irrigation in the Nile valley. The water passes through the agricultural system and reaches either the groundwater or the drainage water and, therefore, ultimately flows back into the river downstream. This inherent reuse is not usually considered in the water budget calculations.

The introduction of the drainage water reuse programme has allowed Egypt to improve water provision. It is clear that other measures will be needed to prepare for the country's medium-term needs.

The programmes that are presently underway, or have been completed are:

• National Drainage Programme, to install field drainage throughout all the irrigated areas of the Nile Delta;

• Drainage Water Reuse Programme, to install drainage water reuse facilities particularly in the Nile Delta;

• National Programme to improve O&M of pumping stations and associated structures; and

• Improved Irrigation Programme, to provide water savings by enabling farmers to receive a more reliable supply to avoid over-irrigation. The follow-up to this project is the main focus of the present working paper and the IPTRID report series it accompanies.

Other measures that could be introduced in future include:

• water harvesting and conservation; and

• reducing water supply to irrigated crops (deficit irrigation) so that they receive a percentage reduction in their crop water supply.

MAPPING OF DRAIN WATER REUSE SYSTEM IN STUDY AREA-MAHMOUDIA CANAL

Water for the Mahmoudia canal is drawn from the Rosetta branch of the River Nile at the Atf pump station. This is the last abstraction from the Nile before it flows into the Mediterranean Sea and the quality of the water is still good. The Mahmoudia canal provides water for irrigation in the western delta, before going on to provide water to the city of Alexandria. In order to provide extra supply, drainage water reuse is practised at the point where the Edku main drain crosses the canal. There is no hydraulic connection (as the canal water passes underneath the drain by means of a large siphon structure) and so the drainage water is lifted into the canal by means of the Edku pumping station. This diverts a certain amount of the drain flow to provide a fixed proportion into the canal, so that there is sufficient dilution for salinity levels to remain within guidelines.

Figure B.3.2 Distribution of salinity levels in drainage water, Nile Delta

Source: DRI internal data, 2000

This situation is representative of how official reuse is practised throughout the Nile Delta region. The key characteristics are that the Edku drain is the main conveyance channel in this area for the removal of effluents. Most are discharged into Lake Edku at the end of the drain. However, with extensive ultraviolet from solar radiation and high ambient temperatures there is considerable decomposition and self-purification of the polluted waters as they flow along the drain. The city effluents from Damanhur enter Edku drain (via Zarqhun pumping station) above the point where drainage water is lifted into the Mahmoudia canal; the concern is that effluents from other urban settlements are getting into the canal. In addition to the implications for villages and settlements in the region, pollution levels in the Mahmoudia canal affect the city of Alexandria as it receives water from the Mahmoudia canal both directly and through the drinking water canal that draws from the Mahmoudia canal.

Figure B.3.3 Pumping stations in the Nile Delta

Note: Figure B.3.3 shows where pumping stations have been placed for the reuse of drainage water, and where normal pumping stations dispose of drainage water. This distribution strongly reflects the outcome of drainage water being relatively good quality water in the upper delta (as shown in Figure B.3.2) and the increasingly significant impact of saline groundwater in the lower delta, which contributes to drainage flow making drainage water too saline for reuse.

Source: DRI internal data, 2000

ANALYSIS OF DRAINAGE WATER REUSE SYSTEM AT BRANCH CANAL LEVEL

Salinity impact

In the most recent year of data (2002-2003), the average EC levels (yellow) (See Figure B.3.4) in the Nile waters abstracted into the Mahmoudia canal (point MS) was 0.59 dS/m. The average quality of water (purple) added from Edku drain (point ER) was 0.96 dS/m, so this would slightly increase the salinity of the canal water. The analysis shows that by the time the small additional input from the Khandik canal is made to Mahmoudia (point MA) the salinity (turquoise) drops to 0.53 dS/m. Therefore the impact of drainage water reuse on salinity of the canal water is seen to be nullified. Salinity levels in the Mahmoudia canal are acceptable and the recycling of drainage water does not have a detrimental effect on water quality (salinity).

On the other hand, the water left in Edku drain continues towards Lake Edku and by the time (point ED) it has received the discharges from three further collector drains, its salinity (pink) has risen to 2.05 dS/m.

Figure B.3.4 Schematic diagram depicts the regional situation of the Mahmoudia canal and Edku drain

There is a consistent increase in salinity along the length of the drain as it flows towards Lake Edku and receives saline waters from collector drains. It is interesting to note that the other main drain (Barsiq drain) discharging into Lake Edku does so at point "B" (dark blue) at almost double the salinity (5.0 dS/m). See Figures B.3.5 and B.3.6.

Sewage impact

See Figures B.3.7 and B.3.8 for an analysis of the impact of sewage for 2002-2003, which is a more pervasive problem than salinity. If the water of Mahmoudia canal was only used for irrigation the relatively high level of sewage pollution would be acceptable. Since the canal also brings water to the villages and settlements throughout the region, the levels are serious and unacceptable. The water drawn into the Mahmoudia canal from the Nile (MS) generally has a coliform level of about 25 000 MPN/100 ml throughout the year, peaking at about 75 000 MPN/100ml. This is already very high and is ten times higher than the standard of 2 500 MPN/100 ml set by Law 48 (Law 48/1982 Article 61.

Figure B.3.5 Salinity variations during the year in the Mahmoudia canal system

Figure B.3.6 Variation in salinity throughout the year along the Edku drain system

Figure B.3.7 Comparison of coliform levels in Mahmoudia canal and Edku drain

Figure B.3.8 Comparison of coliform levels between Edku drain and Barsiq drain

Table B.3.6 defines the standards for the discharge of liquid effluent into freshwater bodies or groundwater reservoirs). This water comes directly from the Nile Rosetta branch and the high coliform count reflects the high sewage pollution that the river receives in the latter stages of its flow through the delta. The coliform levels in the Edku drain system is much higher and reaches 275 000 MPN/100 ml (average 125 000 MPN/100 ml) at the disposal point (ED) into Lake Edku.

The concern here is that the coliform level in the Mahmoudia canal, after mixing (point MA), is similar to that in the drains throughout most of the year. With a peak level of 250 000 MPN/100 ml, its average over the year is 75 000 MPN/100 ml. Coliform levels in the Mahmoudia canal appear similar to the Edku drain outlet at Lake Edku (ED), surprisingly they are much higher than the Edku drain at the reuse station ER. The Edku drain receives water from Damanhur city, but its coliform levels are low during the summer season. This is probably the result of dilution because of much irrigation activity at this time. It seems most likely that the Mahmoudia canal is picking up sewage pollution from another source; most probably adjacent villages.

The discrepancy may be explained by problems arising from the analytical technique used, which is a problem the Drainage Research Institute and the National Water Quality and Availability Management (NAWQAM) laboratory should investigate. It would take a consistent and large error to explain the discrepancy, since the levels are consistently high over several months and measurements made at other places do not seem to be affected by the same error.

The coliform levels show a consistent pattern throughout the main drain system. Of the two drain outfalls into Lake Edku, Edku drain (at point ED) is consistently lower than Barsiq drain (at point B). Both show understandably high levels of coliform concentration, especially during the December to April (winter) period when there is considerably less ultraviolet light and daily temperatures are lower. Midway down the length of Edku drain, at its crossing point with the Mahmoudia canal, there are lower levels of coliform concentration, which in turn shows that the drainage water is more diluted probably due to lowered water demand in the area..

Clearly, there is some complex process occurring here with respect to sewage disposal, which needs to be investigated by the responsible body. The data clearly show that whatever the processes are, there are very high levels of coliforms throughout the year, and that this has a strong bearing on strategies for local drainage water reuse.

Industrial pollution

The same data source (DRI lab analysis records of field samples) for heavy metals and other pollutants show that there is no problem with water quality, other than high ammonia loading and it complies with the environmental guidelines.

The high ammonia levels reflect the level of impact sewage disposal into the irrigation and drainage channels is having (as discussed in the previous section). All readings are in excess of Law 48 guidelines for ammonia levels, both for Edku drain, and significantly, for Mahmoudia canal. This confirms the coliform data that shows a chronic ongoing problem with sewage disposal.

VIEWPOINT OF STAKEHOLDERS

Local stakeholders

Irrigation farmers and associations conducting irrigated agriculture based on provision of water from Mahmoudia canal.

Irrigated agriculture is the main activity for most of the rural population. The Mahmoudia canal area is at the end of the Nile Delta system and is susceptible to water shortage resulting from over-allocation upstream. Farmers have accepted drainage water reuse as a means for providing a more ample supply. Reintroduced salinity is not a concern as this has not reached levels where there is an impact. Added to which, local farmers have considerable experience in dealing with soil salinity.

The rural farming communities are concerned about sewage in the system, since they are in contact with these polluted waters for their domestic and household needs.

Most farmers are, however, happy to use water containing reused drainage water, or even direct drainage water (as informal drainage water reuse) since they value the nutrients introduced by sewage elements. They are concerned, however, about industrial toxins since they have no way of identifying whether they are present or not.

Value: Drain water is valued as a source to upgrade the irrigation water supply.

Fishing community using water at the lower end of the system to sustain valuable fishing operations, on fish farms on non-fertile land and in Lake (Edku)

The fishing sector is content to utilize drainage water directly, as this provides a nutrient rich water supply that is beneficial to fish crops. This supply, however, is susceptible to many different forms of pollution and sudden pollution can have an immediate effect such as fish-kill, directly impacting on the sector. Chronic pollution can have an unseen detrimental impact if fish ingest sediments contaminated by heavy metals and low trace toxins, which are then introduced into the human food supply thus posing a long-term danger. The fishing sector sees control of toxic pollutants as a major requirement for their future. There is a need to investigate whether fishing communities and fish farms are subject to regulations on food safety requirements for the fish they produce.

Value: Drain water is highly valued as the major input to their industry.

Industrial sector located between agricultural area and lake/coastal region.

Several factories have been developed in the area as part of the urban spread of the city of Alexandria. Those who build factories find inexpensive land where they become established as they are not displacing agriculture. They are more assured of water in that location than further down the system in Alexandria, where water shortage is chronic. The factories' financial impact is to provide significant alternative income to the local population, which has resulted in the development of new towns to house workers. Factory owners appear to have expressed little concern about preventing effluents from polluting local drains. The lake is seen to be a suitable place for the disposal of unwanted by-products at the lowest cost.

Value: The drains are an inexpensive means of disposing industrial effluent.

Small towns and villages

Local communities in the northern Nile Delta cannot use groundwater for their domestic requirements since it is naturally highly saline (as seen in Figure B.3.2). Therefore they rely on canal water. Towns and villages are generally equipped with water purification plants that can remove most sediments and pollutants, though not all; only the standard pollutants. Furthermore, farms and isolated households still draw canal water and let it stand for purification; they are particularly susceptible to water-borne disease and toxic pollutants. Communities would appreciate higher standards of water quality in canals and better standards of water purification.

Other stakeholders

MWRI is responsible for the provision of water and drainage and regards the provision of drainage water reuse in the canal system as an essential part of the national water plan. Significantly, it is responsible for monitoring and enforcing Egypt's Environmental Protection Law 48.

Damanhour governorate is responsible for the supervision of urban and rural services and the welfare of the local population, but it has not been possible to ascertain whether they perceive the reuse of drainage water as positive or negative.

Ministry of Health

Ministry of Environment

The local population

There is a need to investigate whether the local population is concerned about the safety of food produced by local agricultural and fishing sectors that use water supplies containing a significant pollution load, especially sewage.

PROBLEMS RELATING TO WATER REUSE AND WATER QUALITY

Salinity

Drainage water reuse is limited by its salinity and safe mixing ratios, which are maintained in the receiving canal. This is not of immediate concern in the investigated areas supplied by the Mahmoudia canal, since the salinity levels are within safe limits (Ayers and Westcot, 1985). There is a need to investigate whether IIIMP will increase the salinity of drainage water as a result of the reduced flow of excess irrigation water in the drains (see section on Sewage impact, above). It is interesting to note that the salinity of Edku drain, which serves the area in which the IIP has been piloted, has shown no trend in increased salinity.

Pathogens

There is a build-up of pathogens in the drainage water as a result of sewage input from local towns and villages. This is indicated by the high total coliform concentrations found in the Mahmoudia canal and is high priority for action. The impact of Edku drain on coliform levels in the Mahmoudia canal is negligible, because coliform levels there are already very high. If they were at a more acceptable level, then the impact of Edku reuse would have been significant. There is a need to urgently investigate the cause of the high coliform levels in the Mahmoudia canal, which may have been caused by sewage pollution from upstream towns and villages, or to coliform levels in the Nile itself. If the latter, this could be explained by the impact of towns and cities along the banks of the Nile. Retournay (1994) found coliform levels of about 250 000 MPN/100 ml in the Nile at Kanater (just downstream of greater Cairo). If this is the case, why is there not a more significant bacteria die-off, as they are subjected to high temperatures and natural ultraviolet radiation?

Industrial toxins

There may be toxic materials in the drainage water as a result of industrial discharge of untreated effluent into drains. This is particularly the case for industries located in the main cities of Cairo and Alexandria. Recent urban development has resulted in the growth of the city and the construction of new industrial units in formerly agricultural areas, especially in the peri-urban areas.

Garbage disposal

Rural communities are considerably concerned about the widespread disposal of garbage into the water channels (canals and especially drains). In addition to introducing considerable loading, requiring breakdown by oxygen in water that is already in relatively short supply, the non-biodegradable components of garbage cause blocking and choking of the channels.

Drainage functionality

There is evidence that the existing drainage system cannot cope with the higher levels of irrigation water passing through the fields and accumulating in the drains. It has been observed that farmers take the opportunity of the reliable and full supply, currently available to them in IIP improved mesqas, to take more water for their crops than they otherwise might have done. Furthermore, there is a trend amongst farmers to move towards increased cultivation of rice which, since it has high water consumption, has increased the amount of irrigation farmers need to apply. The principle of IIP used in the IIIMP is not to supply more water but to ensure the more equitable distribution of the same amount in mesqas between head-end and tail-end farmers. This improved reliability encourages tail-end farmers to cultivate rice.

OPPORTUNITIES FOR TECHNICAL INTERVENTIONS

IIIMP provides the opportunity to introduce new approaches and more importantly to deal with inherent weaknesses in the old system. For instance, there is the opportunity to introduce a modern pollution control strategy that builds on Law 48, and introduces the notion of widespread compliance. This requires motivation on the part of the local population and that government should set up sufficiently well-resourced inspection teams that can provide widespread coverage. This would enable water use to be planned and managed in an integrated manner that takes into account onsite and offsite impacts, and enables benefits to be optimized against installation and maintenance costs.

One of the first practical objectives for water user associations would be the introduction of integrated water resources management. It would mean that farmers worked together to agree on cropping patterns that would be sustainable under the present infrastructure for irrigation supply and drainage.

Controlled drainage might be introduced especially in areas where irrigation efficiency is low, where irrigator cooperation is either possible or has already been introduced; where farmers are growing water intensive crops such as rice. It has been observed that after the introduction of IIP many farmers introduced rice crops. This makes controlled drainage an important technical intervention that could save water at the top-end of irrigation command areas (like IIP) and may improve yields. Controlled drainage would help to achieve the improved efficiencies foreseen for the IIP and IIMP, which could help conserve water through improving the efficiency of irrigation operations and augmenting the moisture available to plants. The participatory planning followed by some water boards in Beheira governorate is providing relevant lessons. Trained members have selected controlled drainage as the preferred option for farmers’ watering strategies. The participatory management, which is stipulated by IIIMP, provides an opportunity to introduce controlled drainage.

CURRENT STATUS OF IIIMP CONCERNING WATER QUALITY AND REUSE AND KEY RELEVANT INTERVENTIONS

Reuse is regarded as external to the aims and objectives of IIIMP. However, it is vitally important that it is included in deliberations and planning at a fundamental level. Currently the Drainage Water Reuse Programme is considered a separate programme, as are the National Drainage Programme, the Irrigation Improvement Programme and the Pump Stations Rehabilitation Programme. The day-to-day operation and management of reuse, along with the O&M of drainage, needs to be taken up at the farmer community level, and should be part of the responsibility of the farmer committees at each mesqa, and the mesqa watemesqa water boards that bring together representatives from the mesqas along a given distributary canal.

PRINCIPAL PROBLEMS FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF REUSE/QUALITY FOR SELECTED WATER MANAGEMENT INTERVENTIONS

The impact of the IIIMP on water quality will result in reducing the amount of water removed from the end of each mesqa in the form of tail-end overflows and management losses. Thus the present levels of dilution will be lost and salinity and concentration of other pollutants will inevitably increase.

The equitable distribution of water envisaged by IIP and IIIMP implies that top-end farmers will receive less water, but sufficient for their crops, and tail-end farmers will receive more. This will lead to different drainage and leaching fractions in each irrigated area and to changes in drainage duties and farmers' required leaching regimes. The result is that more water will go to tail-end farmers in order for them to produce more crops or to diversify into water-intensive crops such as rice, which will increase local farmers' profitability.

In addition, IIIMP focuses on supplying farmers with the same amount of water to their fields as previously required for each particular crop. Thus the leaching component and the amount of water removed from the farmers' fields through drainage and the amount of salt removed from each field should be the same. The only reason that this situation may be altered will be if farmers change their cropping patterns to crops requiring more water.

The overall effect of IIIMP is beneficial to water quality since it should result in water saving at the top-end of the command area. This saved water has been prevented from picking up salinity and is available for use at a better location than recycled drain water since it is located at the head of the irrigation system.

WATER QUALITY REUSE CONDITIONS AT FIELD, COMMAND AND LANDSCAPE LEVELS

IIIMP does not seem to allow for the fact that water quality may be affected because of settlements and local industries. Although the impact of sewage disposal into the water system is disconcerting for water users lower down the system, it may normally be oxidized and processed naturally as the water flows down the channel, especially if there is strong sunshine to provide ultraviolet radiation in water containing significant pathogen concentrations. Disposing of untreated wastewater or solid waste into canals and drains is an issue that needs to be solved, and not left to be taken care of by already overburdened natural systems. Human and health factors should be a main concern.

Environmental management plans should be included in IIIMP implementation. Since there will be reduced local interest in reusing drainage water, as local farmers may be less likely to complain or intervene if industrial effluent is disposed of in the drains. Even with reduced interest from farmers in drainage water, integrated management should take into account other functions such as health, the environment, fisheries, tourism and include the effect of disposal of municipal and industrial waste into the drains. This should form part of the establishment of the principle of participatory planning and management where values attributed by all users should be taken into consideration

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY IMPACTS ON PHYSICAL FUNCTIONS AND STAKEHOLDER VALUES

Although IIIMP will achieve water savings, it is likely that the savings will be used immediately by farmers, for example to enable an extra (third) crop to be grown (triple-cropping). This will most likely be achieved by farmers introducing new varieties of crops with shorter growth cycles. It is therefore unlikely that the results of IIMP would be manifested in water savings that can be used to initiate development of agriculture in other areas. The most likely outcome is that it will be used on the same land to achieve extra production; this important result may help sway farmers in its favour. Since, instead of achieving water savings they will achieve extra income through extra crop production, i.e. the growth in agricultural development is through intensification rather than expansion.

OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVED REUSE AND WATER QUALITY PLANNING AND ITS EFFECTIVENESS

IWRM should be introduced as a practical objective for water user associations anIWRM and controlled drainage should be introduced, especially where irrigation efficiency is low; where irrigator cooperation is possible or has been introduced; where farmers are growing water intensive crops such as rice. When IIP was introduced, it was observed that many farmers planted rice crops, making controlled drainage an important technical intervention that could save water at the top-end of irrigation command areas (like IIP) and improve yields.

EFFECTIVE ENVIRONMENTAL MITIGATION MEASURES AND MANAGEMENT CONDITIONS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PLAN

It will be vital to ensure that industrial pollution is controlled through effective pollution management, for example, better monitoring, enforcement, compliance and disposal. Perhaps IIIMP should consider introducing modern pollution management, based on the approach widely used in Western Europe. Since this could be difficult to achieve, it may be more realistic to initially introduce the levels of pollution management achieved in Saudi Arabia or Israel where water shortage focuses attention on protecting water resources from pollution. There is no one easy answer, as problems are localized and require specific measures as everywhere is different. Within the Nile Delta command areas there are different soils, crops, local industries and local opportunities for appropriate disposal of waste.

ENABLING ENVIRONMENT FOR INTRODUCTION OF PROPOSED MANAGEMENT INTERVENTIONS

There have been some outstanding initiatives made by new water boards in controlling pollution and managing solid wastes within the Mahmoudia region, which should be capitalized on by IIMP. Before progress can be made, a key requirement will be to continue the development of understanding of the importance of environmental protection. This can be maintained through the introduction of capacity building in its broadest sense, covering the wide range of existing pollution sources. Capacity building would need to extend from awareness-building among local stakeholders, through to creation of a dedicated cadre of inspectors and legal experts to support enforcement of compliance with environmental regulations. A key group to target awareness building will be companies and entrepreneurs that are responsible for rural industrial sites.

DISCUSSION

Impact of IIIMP on water quality

The impact of water quantity on water quality should be viewed in light of the changes made to drainage water quality and the opportunities provided by the project to positively improve water quality in canals and drains through integrated water management. IIIMP would make it possible to introduce a modern water quality strategy, including the means for effective monitoring, policy formulation and it would ensure compliance. Environmental laws and regulations have already been sufficiently well achieved through the Egyptian Ministry of Environment and the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency. Law 48 has been in place for 20 years and has gradually become more effective. Though, until compliance is improved, the law cannot work properly as people and organizations fail to make sufficient allowance in their operating budget to pay for environmental preservation measures such as safe disposal or onsite treatment. There is no financial incentive to shift from the cheap and disastrous practice of placing untreated effluent into nearby drains. From an individual's viewpoint this is inexpensive and effective; however, it is disastrous for the country and the surrounding community. Small quantities of effluent go on to pollute large volumes in the bodies receiving the water. It does not matter how many laws are passed, none will be effective until better compliance is achieved.

The United Kingdom provides examples of the way in which environmental laws work. These are the Environmental Protection Act (1990) and the Environment Act (1995), which provide for an integrated approach to pollution management to water (also land and air). Compliance with this law is made effective through regular monitoring of all waterways. Special reports are made of pollution incidents, these are followed up by environmental inspectors and the individual or organization causing the pollution is taken to court. Sufficiently punitive fines are passed so that potential polluters are discouraged. The adverse publicity created about the polluter ensures that society is highly aware of and supportive of environmental protection. It is interesting to note that the objective of the abovementioned Acts is the preservation of the local environment, health and welfare. All these are important to communities in Egypt and so far seem to be taken for granted.

The legal framework, to ensure water quality control, is being updated in the United Kingdom and in other European countries, so that it will comply with the new European Community Water Framework Directive. This focuses on the standards expected in all water bodies, as well as for rivers and drains discharging at the coast. It is particularly aimed at ensuring river flows that leave one country and enter another achieve a reasonably high standard of water quality.

The point of focusing on European standards is to emphasize the importance of effective compliance. Perhaps the insistence on high standards may not be inappropriate in Egypt since such a great change would be practically impossible to implement; although the process of ensuring compliance with environmental laws would be a major step towards improvement. Introduction of higher standards would be better deferred until the population and community have accepted the principle of adhering to legal water quality requirements.

The IIIMP provides an opportunity to introduce greater awareness of water quality issues and to bring about a greater desire for the improvement of environmental standards. These are measures that could be included within the IIIMP.

Improved rural sanitation

Currently this is a central issue for MWRI concerning IIIMP. Sanitation for most rural households involves the use of latrines and night soil. As such, farms and settlements are not producers of the sewage that appears in the drains and canals. Sewage content is indicated by the measurement of the presence of coliform bacteria: faecal coliform concentration indicates human sewage and total coliforms indicate animal as well as human sewage.

Most animal defecation is spread on the land and is concentrated on farms, for example where there is dairy production. Where defecation is washed away into local drains there is a potentially significant contribution to coliform levels in water courses.

It is important that the MWRI identify whether the problem levels of sewage pollution, for instance in the Mahmoudia canal, are the result of shortcomings in preset rural sanitation facilities, or whether they are linked more definitely to upstream towns and cities. The latter is a likely scenario, since most households in towns and cities have, or aspire to have, flush-through toilets. Without sufficient sewage treatment works (STWs) to process the loading, large volumes of untreated sewage pass into the national irrigation and drainage network, as there is nowhere else for it to go.

Investigation of the length and duration of sewage plumes downstream of effluent discharge points in both the River Nile and the main canals of the irrigation network that it supports, would quickly confirm whether or not this was the root cause. This study would need to be carried out prior to investment in rural health and sanitation programmes.

Agrochemical pollution

This is not expected to be a serious problem in Egypt since farmers are not encouraged to apply excessive amounts of fertilizers and pesticides. Farmers are more likely to apply minimum amounts of agrochemicals and to apply pesticides only when needed. Examination of the main indicators of agrochemical pollution (nitrates for fertilizer pollution and selected metal species for pesticide pollution) are not in excessive quantities in the Mahmoudia canal or Edku drain (DRI, 2004).

Industrial pollution

Although industry is widespread throughout the Nile Delta, it is surprising that there is not a higher level of industrial pollution in the Mahmoudia canal and the Edku drain. Indicators for industrial pollution were all within EEAA standards and compliant with Law 48.

Garbage disposal

Garbage disposal is a widespread problem in both rural and urban areas. Again the problem is because there are limited facilities for waste disposal and drains and irrigation canals seem to receive much of it, especially in areas close to habitation. Although most garbage is paper and plastic having little toxic impact, the breakdown of degradable constituents in the waste significantly adds to local BOD loading. There is scope within IIIMP to use community development programmes to foster a local desire for a garbage disposal strategy.

Salinity

Salinity levels in the Mahmoudia canal are within standards, showing that the present principle of adding drainage water is working well. The need to introduce cyclic mixing seems to be unfounded.

Mapping drain water reuse

The schematic map of the study area (Figure B.3.4) shows suitable points for reuse. These would be main drain crosses, or passes near a canal, locations where mixing points and reuse pumping stations have been installed.

The impact of IIIMP is not expected to increase the amount of salt taken into the drainage network. It is possible that the reduced amount of drainage water from the irrigation areas may increase the level of salinity. This has not yet been seen in the Mahmoudia canal presumably because the improvements in water use efficiency, resulting from the present IIP, have still to be achieved and the new salinity equilibrium established.

Therefore, salinity monitoring needs to be continued to address a possible rise in salinity levels caused by the wider implementation of the IIIMP and its effect on decreasing water waste. Figure B.3.2 indicates where the inflow of saline groundwater will significantly affect an increase in the salinity of drain water.

The quantity of drain water, and the water reused for irrigation within the area, should be studied to quantify the amount of drain water reused both prior to and after IIIMP.

Pollution control

Although pollution caused by urban and domestic wastewater is not a significant problem for IIIMP and the Irrigation Improvement Project, it chronically and profoundly affects local communities. Since IIIMP is a community development programme, it is appropriate that a recommendation be made for the Programme to include and prioritize water quality improvements that will benefit the population at large, including:

Introduction of modern technology for pollution control

This would include automatic monitoring and telemetry systems to facilitate the identification of the principal pollutants and the processes used to capture pollutants such as point-source pollutants before they leave the premises. Measures to clean up polluted water sources, such as constructed wetlands, are generally regarded as impractical because of the requisite size of the facility and its prohibitive cost.

Identification of hot-spots

The Drainage Research Institute (DRI) has recently developed procedures (IDW9, Wageningen, 2003) to identify the scale and location of effluents. This procedure has already been conducted along the length of the Salam canal. Several source points were successfully identified by calculating data from in-line pumping stations. The technique should be suitable in other areas of Egypt, and could be used on pollution parameters other than salinity.

Another approach to the identification of hot-spots may be to encourage local communities to take greater interest in their local water environment; to pro-actively watch out for the development of hot-spots, and to be on guard for acute pollution incidents such as spillage or dumping of chemicals.

Another technology that has potential is in-line wastewater reuse plants (GRID, 2004).

Stakeholder roles

An important role that may be filled by IIIMP would be to encourage greater involvement of stakeholders at all levels in planning meetings and in deliberations about local/regional water management. This would raise the perceived level of responsibility and assist in the establishment of better compliance of all members in the community through increased awareness and concern about environmental protection.

Compliance with Egyptian legal requirements for Environmental Protection (Law 48)

Water quality parameters

Examination of detailed data records held by DRI for the Mahmoudia canal/Edku drain area show that water quality parameters generally comply with the legal requirements, including salinity, industrial and agrochemical pollution standards. As stated above in this report, sewage pollution indicators were the only parameters in this region that were consistently in excess, especially coliform concentrations.

Coliform concentrations

Authorities' early action should check that procedures to measure coliform concentrations are correctly followed by field staff. If incorrectly followed, the procedure can lead to misleading results as it relies on counting the bacteria colonies that develop in growth media at the time the sample is introduced. If the sample is stored for transportation the bacteria concentration can change as the limiting factors are removed.

Bacteria concentrations are non-conservative and follow a logarithmic progression. It is therefore relatively easy for bacteria concentrations to increase from an acceptable level to being grossly excessive. This reflects the ability of this particular parameter to change dynamically as the affected water flows down the channel.

As bacteria concentrations can increase so can they decrease. The widespread practice of disposing of sewage effluent into drains and the River Nile reflect the presumption that bacteria (and the associated pathogens) will die off as a result of ultraviolet radiation in direct sunlight, temperature change and from the ongoing natural oxidation processes in the river. In the past, it may have been reasonable to dispose of sewage in this manner, as rivers have a large capacity to break down sewage. There are limits that are dictated by population density and river flow conditions, though the practice is widespread around the world, and the decision as to whether to introduce sewage treatment works is economic. The cost of installing STWs for environmental protection is expensive, needing to be balanced with the Government's desire for high environmental standards and making an investment for which there is no tangible return. This balance changes if the water is being reused for economic purposes downstream. In this case, pollution levels need to be maintained at a level acceptable for the purpose. If the use involves food industries, for example, the standards must be higher than if reuse were for agricultural.

The situation in the Nile Delta is complex as there are many water channels and places where sewage effluent is discharged. Downstream use is mostly agricultural; however, people living in agricultural areas are at increasing risk.

If the decision is made to control coliform concentrations, then this could be accomplished through the construction of many STWs throughout the towns and cities of the Nile Delta. Or, there should be a managed separation of streams of sewage effluent from the clean water passing through the delta to downstream users. In actuality, a mixture of both approaches will be needed.

The impact of a rural water sanitation programme will be minimal, other than to warn the rural population to avoid the dangers. They themselves are not significant polluters. The real need is for an urban sanitation programme if reuse standards are to be realistically improved.

Management tools - environmental law enforcement

Egyptian authorities have been very effective in developing an extensive regular monitoring network at the national level. There is a widely deployed workforce that is able to identify pollution sources at the local level. Regrettably, the next step in evolving this capability into an effective facility for the management of water quality has not yet been achieved. Available control originates with the complaints that are introduced at the parliamentary level by regional representatives, rather than following a process within the MWRI.

The primary reason for this failure may be lack of political will to drive through the expected standards. This is a problem in countries throughout the world; although Malaysia and South Africa have shown recent progress.

Secondly, the ability to enforce environmental standards is constrained by insufficient capacity within government agencies to deal with the plethora of environmental problems at the same time as development of the infrastructure and the economy.

A third problem is the lack of environmental inspectors and legal teams to follow-up on pollution incidents with prosecution. In order for the Egyptian Environmental Law to be effective, sufficient staff capacity is required, ranging from dedicated field inspectors through to lawyers who would be available to the MWRI. Without this compliance, the law cannot be widely and fairly enforced, its application will be ineffective.

The implementation of the IIIMP gives MWRI the opportunity to discuss this limitation with stakeholders and representatives of the general population, and to act to upgrade its capability for law enforcement. This will require significant investment in both time and financially to sufficiently strengthen the capacity to deal with the problem. One way to avoid the large initial cost would be to take one major environmental factor at a time. The water sector would be an excellent starting point, especially as the expertise to support the environmental inspectors (water quality) is in place in the form of NAWQAM laboratories and the expertise of the Egyptian National Water Research Centre.

Integrated water management

The water savings planned by IIIMP will be achieved by integrated water management at a number of levels. IIIMP provides the opportunity for reorganization and modernization of existing institutional bodies that will enable water savings to be made and water quality to be improved, and the efficiency of operations updated. This would represent a major step forward for Egypt as a whole.

At the highest level, the challenge will be to maintain canal supply flows in the face of demand from farmers, rather than planned distribution. Although the crop base and seasonality of flow are not likely to change with the introduction of IIIMP, there may be small changes as farmers take advantage of the improved water availability and dependability to improve their cropping strategies. The complication is the lack of "in-line" storage that would enable management to cope directly with perturbations in water requirement. If there is no excess water (as IIIMP's main objective is the removal of wastage) and not stored water, then management will need to deal with farmers' water availability either by limiting the periods that farmers may extract water, or by utilizing other stored water (such as groundwater or artificial reservoirs).

At the lowest level, that of the irrigating farmer, the opportunity for groups of farmers to work together in organizing their water scheduling offers great advantages in engendering community cooperation and improved coordination of farming operations to increase productivity. In its pilot areas, IIP has already achieved considerable progress in improving the functioning of farmer groups and water user associations. This is in spite of the fact that farmers themselves have no opportunity to influence water quality levels and little opportunity to influence the water leaving the area.

REFERENCES

Ayers R.S. & Westcot, D.W. 1985. Water quality for agriculture. Rome, Italy. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 29 (Rev. 1).

GRID IPTRID Network Magazine. 2004.

MWRI. 2002. Adopted measures to face major challenges in the Egyptian Water Sector. Cairo, Egypt. Special report to WWC for the World Water Forum. Kyoto, Japan.

Retournay. 1994.