CHAPTER 3 - FROM OBSERVATIONS TO PRODUCTS

The mature C-GTOS will require numerous steps to provide products from observations. These steps will include identifying issues of concern, their context and their associated variables and indicators, which make up the database. These data will be incorporated and harmonized into a management system based on TEMS that will require significant enhancement. Derived metadata and information products will be communicated to users, again through TEMS, GeoNetwork and other platforms. Finally, all of these steps require significant increased capacity. This section summarises these steps.

3.1 The context of issues

An important goal of C-GTOS is to ensure that land-based, wetland and freshwater conditions of the complex and important coastal region are adequately represented within the global observation system. As such, the key issues within observation systems can be divided into five categories (Christian, 2003):

• those whose effects contribute to global change;
• those whose effects contribute to large-scale regional change;
• those for which global change produces significant local response;
• those for which large-scale regional change produces significant local response, and
• those that occur so ubiquitously that the result is of global importance.

C-GTOS focuses on environmental issues most directly linking terrestrial, freshwater and wetland ecosystems determined within the context of integrating frameworks (see section 2.2). These key issues are represented herein by critical, linked systems and associated measures of change. An initial list of issues (related to states in the DPSIR framework) has been developed to include (i) human dimensions, land cover, land use and habitat alteration; (ii) sediment loss and delivery; (iii) water cycle and water quality, and (iv) effects of sea level change, storms and flooding. The human dimension is so important to the condition of the coast that additional effort is being made on the socio-economic condition of coastal populations in coordination with C-GOOS.

Addressing these issues is foreseen as occurring in two phases. First, a small and select group of priority topics will be addressed to establish proof of concept. Then a fully mature observing system will be developed to provide the ability not only to detect change associated with the key issues, but also to predict it and provide essential reporting products to assist in management and mitigation.

All of ecology operates at the interface between organisms and their environments, and hence, ecological processes begin at the fine scale. Some of these processes, such as denitrification (conversion of nitrate to gaseous nitrogen) or respiration, can have a global influence (Seitzinger and Kroeze, 1998) despite functioning at the local level (Smith et al., 1991; Jenkins and Kemp, 1984). Certain processes operate at landscape scales, and they are not simple aggregations of finer-scale ecology (e.g. energy flow through a food web), nor are they simply parts of a global pattern. Ecosystems, or landscape units, can be seen as living units with their own ecological interactions. Table 6 below illustrates how certain processes can be aggregated within a range of scales, but there can also be major distinctions between scales where ecological processes take on a whole aspect. Interactions between these major scale divisions must be understood by linking models, and not just aggregating data, as can be done within a scale range.

TABLE 6
Example of major scale divisions (expressed as hypothetical resolution of data)

It is likely, then, that some observations may need to be made at each of these scales, even if the ultimate goal is to develop a regional to global synthesis. The spectrum of spatial scales of variables is coupled with temporal scales of variation, with small-scale variables tending to change more rapidly. The Global Hierarchical Observing Strategy (GHOST) used by GTOS recognizes these scale differences and addresses how sampling can accommodate them (GTOS, 1997b). GHOST includes an array of sampling plans, from intermittent and continuous in situ sampling at discrete points in the landscape to satellite measures of large areas. Moreover, some phenomena cannot be scaled up except by coupling models.

Issues (changes in state) can be assessed by a large number of conservative and non-conservative physico-chemical, biological and socio-economic indicators and variables. The C-GTOS Panel identified variables that can either indicate the status of each issue (an indicator) or help quantify an important aspect of the issue (an environmental variable). The collection of data on these indicators or variables is not done directly by C-GTOS. Rather C-GTOS assimilates data from various sources to address these issues. Many of these sources are listed in TEMS, but not all. Sources have been identified in general, but specific ability to provide the appropriate data requires further evaluation. The purpose of this section is to describe the nature of these key issues for which observations will be made and data collected.

3.2 Human dimension, land cover/land use and critical habitat alteration

Recent assessments estimate that roughly 3.2 billion people, or more than half the current global population, live on or within 200 km of a coastline. By 2025 that number is expected to increase to 6.3 billion or 75 percent of the then global population (UNESCO, 2003b). Changing population is reflected in changing land-use patterns derived from land-cover data, including an apparent increase in urbanization and alteration to critical habitats. Once the initial state of the dynamic population is understood, key variables, which are indicators of the response of the coastal ecosystem to a wide range of human-related activities, can be recognized, and observing systems can be optimized. The impact of population growth on coastal ecosystems will be a major issue this century (Cohen et al., 1997; Nicholls and Small, 2002; Wickham et al., 2002).

The rate of change in land use and land cover in the coastal environment will significantly outpace the steady increase in population in the coastal region. Land-use and land-cover change are significant to a range of themes and issues central to the study of the coastal environment. Habitat modification is important and occurs through effects on both the quality of soil and water and changes to the biota. Alterations in the earth's surface contribute to changes in biodiversity, biogeochemical cycles, hydrological cycles and ecological balances and complexity (Jackson, Kurtz and Fisher, 2000; Seitzinger and Kroeze, 1998; Vitousek et al., 1997). Through these environmental impacts at local, regional and global levels, land-use and land-cover changes driven by human activity have profound regional environmental implications, such as alterations in surface runoff dynamics, lowering of groundwater tables, impacts on rates and types of land degradation, and reduced biodiversity.

Table 7 provides a list of indicators and variables to assess the status of, and change in, coastal human populations, land use, land cover (including important components such as impervious surfaces), and habitat quality. Some, but not all, of these variables are currently measured at sites in the TEMS network, but no concerted effort exists within GTOS to incorporate these variables into an operational observation network. In addition, there may be further issues of scale and data availability that will require further evaluation. The categorization of issues of concern throughout this chapter does not create a listing of mutually exclusive variables. Thus, tables in the following subsections provide variables and indicators that are germane to these topics.

Human dynamics in, and anthropogenic forcing upon, coastal areas constitute themes central to the implementation of both GTOS and GOOS. However, the myriad environmental variables and indicators of the influence of humans are not easily parsed between the two observing systems. Given the evolving nature of programmatic implementation in both efforts, it is suggested that a shared system of programme responsibility should be built. This system could be driven by the needs for indicator identification and ranking at both the global and regional level.

Two approaches are taken with respect to socio-economic variables. First, several variables have been listed within TEMS, but they are largely inactive, with many not yet applied to any aspect of GTOS. C-GTOS is taking the lead on socio-economic observations by including these variables in the C-GTOS observing system. Table 7 summarizes some of the important socio-economic variables listed within TEMS and identifies the need for their application to the coastal zone.

TABLE 7
Socio-economic variables and indicators included in TEMS and evaluation of stated resolutions in TEMS and resolution needs for application to coastal issues

Notes:

1. Terrestrial Ecosystems Monitoring Sites (environmental variables): http://www.fao.org/gtos/tems/variable_list.jsp
2. Terrestrial Ecosystems Monitoring Sites (socio-economic variables): http://www.fao.org/gtos/tems/socioeco_list.jsp
a. Observations required from C-GTOS.
b. Shorter lag required
c. Requires recurring measurements

Second, C-GOOS has produced a strategic design plan and is currently developing an implementation plan taking account of both global and regional programme efforts (UNESCO, 2003c). As part of the implementation effort, a draft protocol for ranking priority socio-economic indicators has been prepared and will be extended and refined during the plan development process. This protocol is linked to that developed within the strategic design plan to rank common variables to detect and predict change in coastal environmental conditions (UNESCO, 2003c). This exercise is viewed as holding equal value for both GOOS and GTOS in identifying and ranking common and critical socioeconomic indicators. It is expected that all environmental variables will, in the future, also be assessed to determine links with the IGOS Coastal Theme. Thus, this protocol is seen as the means for incorporating socio-economics into the observing systems.

3.3 Sediment loss and delivery

Human activities within watersheds have dramatically altered the delivery of sediments to the coast, with significant ecological and economic consequences. These activities have altered the amount, timing, quality and composition of transported sediments. A variety of land-use changes have contributed to increased sediment delivery to coastal ecosystems through enhanced erosion. These land uses include agriculture, silviculture, dredging, and urban development. In contrast, construction of dams and levees has decreased sediment delivery. Sediment contamination may result from the nutrients and chemicals used in agriculture and the myriad activities of modern society. While most research and policy initiatives addressing alterations to sediment loss and delivery from human activities focus on upstream sources, seaward sources may also be important. Sediments, some contaminated, accumulate in coastal beaches, wetlands and lands as a result of normal tidal delivery and storm events. Dredging and structural changes to shorelines affect this source of sediment supply. The ubiquity of these alterations makes this issue a global one, as the IGOS Coastal Theme recognizes (IGOS, 2003).

Alterations in the quantity and quality of sediment loss and delivery have numerous impacts. The geomorphology of shorelines, and indeed whole coastal regions, may depend on the amount and timing of delivery. This geomorphology is closely linked to human use of these regions, from habitation on deltas to recreational use of beaches. Considerable economic investment depends on a predictable, and often stable, shoreline. Silting of ports and waterways can threaten the safe operation of shipping. Whereas dredging operations have direct economic consequences, the dumping of dredge spoils has indirect consequences, for instance, on environmental quality. The productivity of coastal ecosystems is also affected by increased sediment loss and delivery through enhanced turbidity, associated nutrient loading and the toxic effects of contaminants.

A number of indicators and variables of sediment loss and delivery are already measured by TEMS sites, while others will need to be added through C-GTOS, complementing the needs of other observing systems and assessments (see Table 8). However, many of these measurements cover a limited geographic area. Table 8 focuses on aspects of water flows to the coast (e.g. water discharge) and delivery of particulate matter carried within water bodies.

3.4 Water cycle and water quality

Human activities within watersheds have directly altered hydrology and hydrochemistry of both superficial water bodies and groundwater aquifers (Alexander et al., 2000; Howarth et al., 1996; Nixon, 1981; Smith et al., 2003). The hydrological cycle is forced by both upstream and seaward phenomena. Furthermore, climate changes have induced modification in the permanent ice cover, as well as in frequency and quantity of wet deposition. A variety of land-use changes have contributed to increased modifications in the watershed structure. Construction of dams and levees, variations in the hydraulic regime, wetland reclamation, agriculture and urban development are responsible for changes in the hydrographic networks and delivery of pollutants to coastal ecosystems. The urban development of coastal areas is also responsible for direct contamination of the near-shore system. Reclamation of coastal wetlands and mangroves and exploitation of inshore and near-shore waters for tourism, shipping, aquaculture, etc. also cause relevant losses of ecosystem functions, such as the retention of or buffering against pollutants (De Wit et al., 2001; Valiela and Cole, 2002) and loss of fish nursery habitats affecting associated productivity of off-shore commercial fisheries and coral reef biomass and resilience (Mumby et al., 2004). From the seaward side, two major phenomena are of growing interest: the ingression of saline water into the coastal groundwater reservoirs and the rise in sea level. The increased salinity of waters in the coastal areas is detrimental for human uses (agriculture, industry and drinking purposes) (King, 2004; Pilkey and Cooper, 2004). The sea level increase is expected to have direct effects mostly in the reclaimed and subsiding lands (Zhang, Douglas and Leatherman, 2004), but it can also affect coastal waters - for example, by limiting light penetration in the benthic system, by changing vegetal communities and by affecting oxygen distribution in the water column. The ubiquity of these alterations makes this a global issue. The impacts of altered quantity and quality of water delivery are numerous. Changes in the freshwater-to-saline water ratio can not only have the above-mentioned impacts, but also affect the aquatic biota and ecosystem productivity. The increased concentration of phosphorus and nitrogen is responsible for eutrophication and dystrophy of coastal waters. Persistent pollutants can accumulate in sediments and aquatic food webs. These quality changes are closely linked to human use of these regions (urban areas, fishery, aquaculture, recreation and tourism). Productivity effects can be witnessed through symptoms of eutrophication, dystrophy and fishery losses. Economic consequences of these changes can be directly monitored through fishery catch, aquaculture production, tourist numbers and related revenue. Scientists believe these changes may significantly threaten coastal productivity and critical resources or cause irreversible alterations, the effects of which cannot be predicted.

TABLE 8
Indicators and variables for sediment loss and delivery

Associated organization and source for description of the variables:

1. Terrestrial Ecosystems Monitoring Sites: http://www.fao.org/gtos/tems/variable_list.jsp
2. Coastal Module of Global Ocean Observing System: http://ioc.unesco.org/goos/
3. United States Geological Survey: http://www.nwrc.gov/set/
4. Global International Water Assessment: http://www.giwa.net/
5. Millennium Ecosystems Assessment: http://www.millenniumassessment.org/en/index.aspx
6. Organisation for Co-operation and Development: http://www.oecd.org/home/
7. Socio Economic Data and Application Center: http://sedac.ciesin.org/
8. European Environmental Agency: http://www.eea.eu.int/

TEMS provides information on water cycle processes and on some indicators of water quality (see Table 9).

However, the resolution of information and its specificity to the coastal zone requires further evaluation. Some of the identified indicators and variables are not currently found within TEMS, and will need to be added through the implementation of C-GTOS.

3.5 Effects of sea level, storms and flooding

The state of sea level is perhaps more dependent on global climate than any other issue highlighted by the Coastal GTOS Panel. It has been the focus of an international assessment of global change under the auspices of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), which recently predicted an adiabatic global sea level rise (SLR) of an average of 50 cm by 2100, with a range of 20 to 90 cm (McCarthy et al., 2001). It has also been the source of intense controversy concerning the causes, rates and methods of observation (Antonov, Levitus and Boyer, 2002; Cabanes, Cazenave and LeProvost, 2001; Miller and Douglas, 2004). The largest contribution to the observed rise in global SLR is the thermal expansion of warming oceans associated with global warming (McCarthy et al., 2001). SLR is assessed as part of the coastal components of GOOS and GCOS (UNESCO, 2003c). In addition to the melting of land-fast sea ice, causes of SLR that originate in terrestrial environments are also significant and GTOS-relevant. These include the melting of glaciers and mountain ice caps and changes in human storage and connectivity of terrestrial water (King, 2004; Miller and Douglas, 2004). These estimates could change dramatically upon consideration of significant ice melt or shifts in ocean circulation. Regionally and locally, relative sea level can differ markedly from global estimates (Church, 2001; Kerr, 2001). Sea level may decrease in areas of postglacial rebound or tectonic activity, and sea level rise may be greater in areas of subsidence.

TABLE 9
Indicators and variables of the water cycle and water quality

Associated organization and source for the description of variables:

1. Terrestrial Ecosystems Monitoring Sites: http://www.fao.org/gtos/tems/variable_list.jsp
2. Terrestrial Ecosystems Monitoring Sites (socio-economics variables): http://www.fao.org/gtos/tems/socioeco_list.jsp
3. Socio Economic Data and Application Center: http://sedac.ciesin.org/

The impacts of SLR, storms and flooding may be substantial on both natural and human-dominated ecosystems (King, 2004; Pilkey and Cooper, 2004; Zhang, Douglas and Leatherman, 2004). Increased sea level may cause the following situations:

• loss of property due to flooding;
• increased costs of maintenance of shorelines;
• wetland movement and loss, and
• decreases in water availability for human use.

These impacts come from both the long-term propensity for intrusion of seawater into the terrestrial environment and the increased frequency of storm water flooding. The measurements of sea level and sea state are a commitment of C-GOOS, but the effects of SLR, terrestrial-derived sources of freshwater influx and the indirect influence of land-use change on SLR by global warming are all quite appropriate to C-GTOS, and identified variables are included in this section, as well as those for the water cycle (see section 3.4) and human dimensions (see section 3.2) issues. A limited number of variables have been identified, and most are either listed within TEMS or LOICZ, but these generally relate to sea state and land conditions (see Table 10). Variables measuring the effects of seawater on terrestrial ecosystems, including human-dominated ecosystems, are found in the other sections of this chapter - for example, habitat alteration, land-use and land-cover change.

TABLE 10
Drivers, related variables and indicators of sea level, storms and flooding.
Many variables related to resulting effects are associated with other identified issues within this chapter, and are tabled within the corresponding sections

Associated organization and source for the description of variables:

1. Terrestrial Ecosystems Monitoring Sites: http://www.fao.org/gtos/tems/variable_list.jsp

2. Terrestrial Ecosystems Monitoring Sites (socio-economics variables): http://www.fao.org/gtos/tems/socioeco_list.jsp

3. United States Geological Survey: http://www.nwrc.gov/set/

4. Committee on Earth Observation Satellites: http://www.ceos.org/

5. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations http://www.fao.org/figis/servlet/static?dom=root&xml=glossary/index.xml

3.6 Context for changes in state

The issues of concern described above will be foci for C-GTOS. The number of issues addressed and the depth and breadth of their assessment will increase as C-GTOS develops and matures. The issues are placed into the observation system context in Table 11. One can consider that each issue represents an environmental state or condition, and the observing system goals are to assess changes in these states and conditions. As can be seen, all of the issues within coastal ecosystems relate to more than one category of context of observation systems. Some are involved in feedback loops in which global or regional changes effect change within the coastal zone, and the resultant changes affect global or regional conditions.

TABLE 11
Relationships between changes in states of interest to C-GTOS and scale

Interactions may be complex and encompass multiple issues, as well as scales. For example, global phenomena (e.g. atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration changes and climate) may affect the coastal states with respect to land use, land cover, habitat integrity, water cycle and sea level. All states are considered affected by regional forcing, and all are considered local. However, the local changes are ubiquitous (Bijlsma et al., 1996, Marsh, 1999). Conversely, local but ubiquitous and regional changes may affect larger-scale phenomena. For example, widespread changes in sediment loss and delivery or land use may in turn affect the availability and quality of habitat for waterfowl whose migrations are trans- or intercontinental (Michener et al., 1997; Thompson and Patterson, 2000) and local wetland sustainability (Christian et al., 2000). The state changes that directly affect global processes are seen only as human activities and alterations to the water cycle.

3.7 Data and information management

With the identification of critical indicators comes the need for data acquisition, data management and the integration and analysis capabilities to interpret indicators and develop useful information products for science and decision-making. GTOS has developed an operational system in TEMS that could be extended and refined as part of a distributed network of databases and web portals for related metadata and data. Other information management infrastructures (such as readily accessible data archives) are necessary parts of a mature observing system and are detailed in the GTOS Data and Information Management Plan (GTOS, 1998b).

A draft framework specific to C-GTOS data and information needs is summarized below as a first step towards the development of a complete document. It is based on the GTOS Data and Information Management Plan (GTOS, 1998b), updated to include recommendations in preparations by the Committee on Data for Science and Technology in the Priority Assessment on Scientific Data and Information (ICSU, in preparation). It is divided into a number of basic elements, not totally independent, but intended to provide a convenient structure for presentation and discussion.

3.7.1 User requirements

C-GTOS aims to supply data and information products to address both science and policy needs in each user community. The importance of identifying the needs of the different types of users for each of these issues has been already emphasised and will be a continuing process as C-GTOS develops. There will be new users and new issues, and experience shows that users' requirements will change with time. The definition of user needs must drive data collection and information production.

Policy and actions

• C-GTOS datasets should be collected, developed and managed to meet the known, inferred and predicted needs of the user communities.

• A user needs analysis should precede any major programme of data collection to clearly identify data and information requirements and the core dataset requirements.

3.7.2 Custodianship and quality control

A custodian is the body responsible for the development, maintenance and quality of a dataset, and for arranging access to it while reducing redundancy of data collection and maintenance. Most important, a custodian should have the scientific and technical knowledge and expertise to be in the best position to assess and ensure data quality and to indicate the appropriate uses and limitations of the data. C-GTOS will ensure that there is sufficient documentation associated with any data and information to allow the user community to make a quality assessment; a dataset judged to be of acceptable quality for one user group may be unacceptable for another.

Policy and actions

• As part of the end-to-end information management framework, all C-GTOS datasets will have a designated data custodian.

• Detailed minimum requirements for a GTOS dataset custodian in the form of a pro forma custodianship agreement will be developed.

• Procedures will be established for assigning, managing and reviewing custodians.

• All C-GTOS datasets will be provided with adequate metadata, enabling potential users to assess to judge if the data or information is of acceptable quality.

• Registration procedures will be established for datasets and information products.

3.7.3 Metadata

Metadata are "data about data", describing such things as the general content, intellectual property, geographic nature and quality of the data. They constitute documentation covering all aspects of the end-to-end data management process. Metadatabase systems are systems specifically designed to manage metadata, i.e. to provide facilities for discovery, exploration and exploitation. Such systems may be used within a single institution to organize and maintain its own data holdings. They are also used on a broader level and can then provide a mechanism through which data producers can ensure that potential users are made aware of existing data, their nature and how they might be obtained.

Metadata is an integral component of the desired high-quality data and information products C-GTOS plans to deliver to users. Metadata will facilitate data distribution and access, enable quality assessments to be made and allow for archiving. To assess the metadatabase system needs, the relatively new science of informatics and its appropriate technologies must be applied.

Policy and actions

• All C-GTOS data and information must have metadata in accordance with GeoNetwork and ISO guidelines (ISO, 2003).
• Metadata requirements must be identified at the directory level and guidelines produced.
• Metadata harmonization methods will be built.
• Minimum generic metadata requirements at the dataset level for different data types will be identified.

• Appropriate informatics techniques will be applied, and new approaches developed.

3.7.4 Equitable, free and open access

Existing organizations and institutions that enter into partnership with C-GTOS can be regarded as a loosely coupled distribution system through which data and information can be made available to the user community. At the first level, users must be able to find out what data are available through metadatabases or data catalogues, e.g. TEMS, Global Change Master Directory, and GeoNetwork. The next level involves finding out more detail about potentially useful datasets by examining the associated metadata. Finally, if a dataset appears to be suitable for the intended use, then a simple order-and-delivery process should be available. Ideally, C-GTOS aims to provide data and information in an unrestricted fashion and free of charge while acknowledging situations when a data provider may restrict access to respect individual and national privacy, security and confidentiality.

Policy and actions

• C-GTOS data and information should be made available in a timely and unrestricted fashion at zero (or minimum) cost.

• C-GTOS data and information should be easily accessible in a variety of forms to meet the requirements of the user community.

• Pro forma agreements are needed as a starting point for any necessary bilateral negotiations.

• Guidelines for metadata requirements will be developed to enable user browsing and ordering.

3.7.5 Interoperability

The ability to use data and information collected over long time periods and to integrate data from disparate sources to create new datasets is dependent upon the interoperability of data, software and hardware. By promoting data harmonization and commonly accepted international standards, C-GTOS will seek to bring together various types, levels and sources of data in such a way that they can be made compatible and comparable.

Policy and actions

• C-GTOS datasets should be harmonized, to the extent possible, to allow integration of national and regional datasets into a usable global information resource.

• An inventory will be developed and maintained of all of the principal international standards, organizations and international scientific bodies active in harmonizing environmental data relevant to the scope of C-GTOS.

• Priority areas will be identified where lack of harmonization is hindering the potential usefulness of C-GTOS data.

• International expert meetings will be facilitated and sponsored to develop harmonization techniques in key sectors relevant to C-GTOS.

3.7.6 Archiving

The preservation of data and information to enable use over the long term is intrinsic to the concept of C-GTOS. Archiving is also an essential element of the end-to-end data management framework, and custodians will be expected to have archival procedures in place. C-GTOS could designate specific custodians as "archive facilities" and ensure that every data holder is associated with one such facility to which copies of all material to be archived should be forwarded. Even if it is possible to archive all data and information, it might be neither practical nor economically feasible. Again, informatics approaches are needed to aid decision-making. Thus C-GTOS should consider the cost of archiving, which includes the preservation of data integrity and the upgrading of databases as the software and hardware technologies advance.

Policy and actions

• All C-GTOS data and information must be securely archived, along with all relevant metadata.
• An appropriate number of custodians will be designated C-GTOS data archive facilities.
• Guidelines will be developed for archival requirements for C-GTOS products.
• All data holders will have archival procedures in place that are consistent with GTOS guidelines.

3.8 Capacity building

Challenges exist for C-GTOS. The challenge faced by much of the terrestrial ecosystem monitoring community, and C-GTOS in particular, is at least partly due to the following factors:

• The community is very diverse and fragmented in terms of disciplines and research priorities. (in some ways this contrasts with C-GOOS, where many researchers and management programmes are devoted specifically to coastal waters).

• Inadequate national resources and political commitment are available for long-term research, especially in developing countries.

• Most regional and international collaboration experience is limited (this is contrary to the atmospheric and ocean communities, where such collaboration is longstanding and reasonably effective).

These challenges must be faced by the terrestrial ecosystem monitoring community and TEMS before data starts being more freely exchanged, assembled and assimilated in large-scale datasets. Even so, these are only the initial challenges. Integration and analysis of data to generate useful products for decision-makers presents an even greater challenge. All of these challenges can be met through the building of capacity in one form or another.

This plan does not outline a definitive capacity-building plan. The principles for capacity building for observing systems have been discussed elsewhere (GTOS, 1998a; UNESCO, 2003c), as have details. We identify here issues that are considered of special importance to C-GTOS, recognizing that considerable effort is needed to ensure successful maturation and sustainability of the observing system. The mechanisms for this effort require future consideration.

First, there is a need to intensify the harmonization, standardization, and quality of long-term coastal data by developing and disseminating methodologies and supporting education and training efforts. These efforts must be sustained and reinforced, especially in developing countries.

Second, it is important to increase the visibility of terrestrial ecosystem research in the context of the coastal zone by underscoring the central tie between socio-economic factors and ecological changes. Most efforts in coastal observations have been from the oceanographic and marine science community. This is because a significant portion of this community identifies itself with coastal and estuarine waters. Coastal wetland scientists and managers often have a history in marine science. The oceanographic community has provided a political constituency to advance C-GOOS. No comparable community exists for terrestrial science. The terrestrial and freshwater coastal zone is not perceived as unique from other terrestrial and freshwater environments. This cultural difference needs to be addressed, and special effort is needed to develop a labour force and intellectual base for the non-marine environments of the coastal zone.

Finally, there is a need to foster more cooperation between national and international ecosystem monitoring networks and stations through concrete activities such as C-GTOS. This cooperation can be achieved through greater recognition of the relevant transboundary (nutrient discharges, bird migration and mangroves as well as fish nurseries) and global issues (carbon flux, coastal erosion). An opportunity to promote this cooperation is presented through the implementation of C-GTOS as described here.