AGROFORESTRY RESEARCH

Forests and food security: perceptions of the next generation

Jessica Thompson ([email protected])

Forests play a vital role in the livelihoods of millions of people worldwide. About 1.6 billion people rely on the forests for food, medicine, building materials, and fuelwood (FAO 2001). Forests also provide income used to purchase food, contribute to the cleanliness and edibility of food and act as a safety net during times of seasonal food shortages.

While forests will never be the prime food source in agricultural areas, their critical supportive role is undeniable. Yet knowledge of the benefits and utilization of forest food appears to be declining (Falconer 1990). Whether or not the forests will continue to be utilized as a source of food in the future lies in the hands of the world’s children. How do they perceive the link between forests and food security? Are there differences in the perceptions of children living in rural and urban areas?

In an attempt to answer these questions, a study was conducted among rural and urban students in five schools in varying proximities to the forest in Chiang Mai province, northern Thailand. The study is based on the hypothesis that students living near the forests would perceive it as more important to the Thai way of life, than those living farther from it. The study aims to provide insight on the future utilization of forest benefits, and the success of environmental education programs in schools.

The participating schools

Chiang Mai has three main types of primary forest, defined according to elevation - dry dipterocarp (< 50 m), mixed deciduous (50 -600 m), and hill evergreen (> 1000 meters) (FAO 2001). These forests provide various products for the local people including bamboo shoots, mushrooms and wildlife.

(1) Mae Hae Tai school in Chiang Mai, northern Thailand, was one of the schools studied.

(2) Students in the Chiang Mai school answering the individual questionnaires.

Of the five schools selected, Chiang Mai and Mae Chaem are located outside the forest. Although Mae Hae Tai is located within the forest, the actual forest cover is 16 percent, while 55 percent is considered forest fallow. Mae Malor has a forest cover of 80 percent and Om Meng has a forest cover of 40 percent (Table 1).

Structure of the study

The perceptions of 146 students on forest-food security links were assessed through individual (surveys/questionnaires) and group (discussions) activities. Individual assessments were used to determine the perceptions of students on the importance of 10 different food sources, including forests, at both the household and national level. They ranked the following food sources according to their perceived importance - agricultural fields, family gardens, forests, grocery stores, lakes/rivers, livestock, local markets, orchards, restaurants and street vendors. The results are presented in Table 2 and Table 3.

In Mae Malor and Mae Hae Tai, an additional food source, a "food car" or mobile food shop, was added to the list. The mobile food shop periodically comes to the villages throughout the year, when roads are accessible. Forests also contribute cooking fuels relevant to attaining food security. The students were asked which of the following energy sources were considered important for cooking - agricultural residues, charcoal, dung, electricity, fuelwood, gas and kerosene. The results are presented in Figures 2 and 3.

Group assessments were used to determine the percentage of the nation’s food that the students perceived as coming from each of the food sources. They were also used to verify previous answers.

Perceptions of forests as a food source

Initial discussions with the children provided interesting insights into their perception of the relationship between forests and food security. Students from the three rural schools - Om Meng, Mae Malor and Mae Hae Tai - ranked the forests as third when discussing food sources. Students from Chiang Mai and Mae Chaem, however, required leading questions in order to consider forests as a food source.

Individual assessment. On the basis of averaged individual rankings of the given food sources (Tables 2 and 3), the results indicated that:

• Rural students perceive forests to be of importance at both a household and a national level, although they indicate a higher importance at a household level.

• Urban students in general do not perceive forests to be of great importance to food security at either household or national level.

• Rural students seemed to realize that food from forests was not as important at the national level as it was at a household level.

(1) Mae Malor students working on the group activity.

(2) Mae Hae Tai student answering the survey.

Table 1. Profile of the participating schools.

Results of the individual assessments indicated a trend between the distance of the school from the forest, and the children’s perception of the importance of forests as a food source. The results imply that rural students perceived forests as a more important food source than the urban students. There also seemed to be an awareness among the rural students that forests were not as important for the majority of Thai people as for rural communities, whereas urban students did not even seem to recognize the importance of forests as a source of food for rural communities.

Group assessment. The results of the group assessment appear to correspond with the results of the individual assessment in that forests are generally viewed as an important food source, with rural students perceiving that a higher percentage of food comes from the forest than the urban students do.

To address the problem of unclear food source definitions, the group data was analyzed again, after combining related food sources into four separate categories: markets - local market, grocery store, food car, crops/livestock - agricultural fields, family gardens, orchards, lakes/rivers, livestock, prepared foods - restaurants, street vendors and forests. The results of the analysis are presented in Figure 1.

The significance placed on crops and livestock, especially in the urban areas, raises doubts about the students’ understanding of the question. While this food source category would be very important in the rural areas, one would expect students from the urban schools to regard markets as a much more important food source category, based on their own lifestyles. Perhaps the students considered where food was grown or gathered (primary food sources), rather than where food comes from directly (secondary food sources).

Table 2. Class food source rankings for the urban schools.

Table 3. Class food source rankings for the rural schools.

Perceptions on forests as an energy source

Perceptions of the importance of fuelwood for cooking at the household and national levels followed similar trends. All the students perceived that fuelwood from the forests contributed more significantly at the household level, rather than at the national level. It was also interesting to note that urban students perceived a high significance of fuelwood to their homes.

On a national level, the majority of the students perceived charcoal as an important energy source for cooking. The majority of the students acknowledged charcoal’s importance with closer proximity to the forest. However, the gap in perceptions was not as wide between urban and rural students as for other considerations. This could be attributed to one-third and two-thirds of the Chiang Mai students who perceived that fuelwood and charcoal, respectively, are important energy sources for cooking.

Conclusions

From research findings, the students perceived the forest as an important food source in different aspects. It is thus necessary that students, regardless of where they live, understand how forests contribute to food security. Although the forest as an energy source was well-understood, the majority of the urban students did not perceive its importance as a food source to rural livelihoods.

These students are the country’s future businessmen, government workers, researchers and policymakers. At this young age, it is important that children understand the benefits of forests and their critical role in rural development and food security. The results and insights from this study will be useful in properly promoting environmental education programs in schools, especially urban schools, to better capture the potentials of forests in the future and promote sustainable forest management in all ages.

References:

(1) Falconer, J. 1990. "Hungry season" food from the forests. Unasylva, 41 (160): 14-19.

(2) FAO. National forest cover definitions. Forestry Department. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome. Online. http://www.fao.org/forestry/index.jsp.

(3) FAO. 2001. How forests can reduce poverty. Forest Department Policy Brief. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome.

Fig 1. The relative importance of different wood sources

Fig 2. The perceived importance of wood as a fuel source

Fig 3. The perceived importance of charcoal as a fuel source

Piper sp.: a potential crop in agroforestry farms

Vishal Gupta ([email protected] or [email protected])

Increasing conflicts about the use of limited land resources call for the introduction of low-input, high-output cash crops that could boost the earnings of farmers and simultaneously address conservation needs. Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and medicinal plants are examples of crops that have the potential to achieve this objective.

The 1988 National Forest Policy of India focuses on the role of tribal people in the optimum protection, regeneration, collection and utilization of non-timber forest resources. Likewise, the Planning Commission of India has also stipulated the role of medicinal plants in reducing poverty. To facilitate coordination at the national and state levels, the National Medicinal Plants Board was established in 2000. It identified 31 species of medicinal plants that are in demand as ingredients of herbal products and medicines. One of these is Piper sp., known for its medicinal, scientific and commercial uses.

Nearly 95 Piper species, both wild and cultivated, have been reported as thriving in India, with some 65 species occurring in the northeastern region alone. Piper betle, P. longum and P. nigrum are the commercially known species that have well-defined markets. From the state of Arunachal Pradesh alone, some 20 wild species are reported to have economic value. However, taxonomic difficulties constrain further investigation of additional wild species. P. longum, P. mullesua, P. barberi and P. nigrum are reported to be endangered.

Description

Piper sp. belongs to the Piperaceae family. It occurs in various different growth forms including shrubs, vines or. even small trees, most of which bear some form of essential oil.

Piper sp. vines on Alibizia trees in a tea plantation - integrating cash crops with medicinal plants

Uses

A number of Piper species are used as spices and ingredients for Indian medicines such as Unani, Ayurveda and Siddha. They also have traditional uses in many local tribes. The leaves of P. betle are chewed with lime, catechu, areca nut and other flavoring agents. It is also used as a Hindu medicine and in religious ceremonies. The fruits of P. nigrum are used as peppers, in Ayurvedic formulations against malaria and fever and its leaf extracts have antibacterial properties. The commercial Pippali and Piplamool, used in medicinal formulations against chronic coughs, influenza, spleen enlargements, piles, fever and other common illness, are the fruiting spikes and roots of P. longrum. P. mullesua and P. peepuloides also show promise for use as spices and medicines.

Piper sp. are well adapted to different growth sites, up to altitudes of 1 200 m in India. The shrub and vine forms are most common. P. longrum and P. nigrum are examples of vines, while P. mullesua and P. peepuloides are prominent commercial shrubs. Vine forms can be found on most forest trees, except those that shed bark. As vines, they can climb up to 20 m, preferring a thinly shaded humid habitat with loose soil, rich in humus.

Piper sp. can be propagated from stem cuttings and propagules with four to six nodes. An interesting feature of the female plant is its ability to produce good fruits even without pollen (apomixis). Cuttings from the fertile female branches are more profitable as they tend to bear flowers in the ensuing season. The cuttings can be grown on a large scale in a field nursery or planted directly on the farm. These clonal methods allow the selection and planting of high-yielding plants of high quality.

It can also be propagated through suckers and seeds. These methods of seedling production are relatively easy to learn, and can help generate rural employment and augment household income.

Because of its shade-tolerant characteristics, Piper sp. can be planted as undergrowth of valuable trees. It is grown in vine form underneath plantations of Aquilaria agallocha, Emblica officinalis, Gmelina arborea, Terminalia arjuna, T. chebula, Oroxylum indicum and Bixa orellana in northern India. Local tradition prevents trees with Piper sp. from being cut down, thus also helping to maintain diversity. Piper sp. requires regular irrigation and application of manure, otherwise mulching is necessary, especially during the summer. If properly irrigated, the plant produces spikes that bear fruits even during the off season. Harvesting of spikes that are fully grown but still unripe can be done within eight to 10 months of planting. The yield of the plant is usually high until the third year, after which its production declines and thus, needs to be replanted.

Conclusion

The various species of Piper assume a special role in agroforestry because of their wide distribution, shade tolerance, fast and easy propagation by vegetative means, multiple uses, short rotation and simple cultivation techniques. More importantly, Piper sp. can be raised as a combination crop, either as an intercrop or an undergrowth, thereby enhancing the economic output per unit area of the agroforestry farm. The tropical and subtropical conditions of northeastern and southern India are ideal for their luxuriant growth and have great potential for large-scale cultivation.

A comprehensive survey of the species is necessary, as many wild species are yet to be identified. Further scientific farming would also help source raw materials and increase supply. Moreover, the lack of proper marketing avenues, appropriate infrastructure, processing and manufacturing technologies and equipment needs to be addressed, especially in northeastern India.

A fruiting spike of Piper nigrum.

Farmers need to be made aware of the potential, scope and economic benefits of the various Piper species, including market dynamics and demand/supply analysis.

The national and state medicinal plant boards and the state forest departments are working at addressing these gaps. Simultaneously, a proper market information system needs to be developed to keep the farmers abreast with the latest market trends. Likewise, suitable financial and marketing mechanisms should also be in place to support the farmers.

Reference: L. Watson and M. J. Dallwitz (1992 onwards). The families of flowering plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval. Version: 14th December 2000. http://biodiversity.uno.edu/delta/.

The author can be contacted at Seppa Forest Division, Seppa-790 102, Arunachal Pradesh, India.

Agroforestry thrives in the Thar desert of India

J.C.Tewari ([email protected]), A.K. Sharma, L.N. Harsh and M.A. Khan

Covering an area of some 288 000 km², the Thar desert in India is dominated by unbroken stretches of sand (58%) and rugged, inaccessible terrain. The region is characterized by low precipitation (100 - 450 mm/year), high summer temperatures (45 - 49 ^oC), high wind speeds (20 - 30 km/hr), high evapotranspiration rate (1 500 - 2 000 mm/year) and sandy to rocky-gravely, saline soils (Dhir 1997). The vegetation capable of surviving these harsh conditions consists of drought-resistant grasses, herbaceous flora and sparsely distributed trees.

Agriculture in the Thar region is predominantly rainfed. Trees enable the cultivation of arable crops underneath, especially during the monsoon season.

Although the average population density is 101 persons/km², settlements are sparsely distributed, as are the dhanies. Dhanies are unique settlements characteristic of the Thar region in which agricultural families live near their farms, away from the villages, during the cropping season (Tewari et al. 1999).

Agroforestry is the traditional land use throughout the Thar desert, where arable crops are cultivated with various tree and shrub combinations. It has evolved in many forms ranging from livestock farming to mixed crop-livestock farming.

Although most tree species in the region are drought-resistant, they can still provide fuel, fodder, fruits and other products, when arable crops are unproductive. Aside from contributing to the livelihood of the people of Thar, the trees and other woody taxa moderate the climate of farms in an otherwise difficult environment. Agroforestry is the main economic activity of the people in the region.

Rainfall appears to be the primary factor in the evolution of agroforestry systems in the area. The total annual rainfall varies, from 450 mm in the east to less than 100 mm in the west, thereby supporting different types of agroforestry systems. The most productive traditional agroforestry systems, mostly Prosopis cineraria-Acacia nilotica-based, are located in the northeast Thar region.

A survey was conducted to explore the structure and production aspects of the traditional agroforestry systems applied by the people of Data-Ramgarh, a village located in District Sikar (Rajasthan) (Table 1). The area has a mean annual precipitation of more than 400 mm.

System structure

Cropland forms the nucleus of this productive and self-contained traditional agroforestry system. It is supported by scattered multipurpose tree species (MPTS) (Table 2). This traditional agroforestry system provides a spectrum of woody perennials, arable crops, grasses and livestock combinations.

A major component of the system is the village’s common property resource (CPR), basically grazing land, which accounts for more than 10 percent of the total village area. During the monsoon season, the CPR contains a mix of perennial and annual herbaceous flora like the nutritious grasses Cenchrus ciliaris, C. setigerous and C. biflorous, with a biomass turnover of some 1.2 t/ha (Table 3). The main crops cultivated during the monsoon season are pearl millet (70%) moth bean (15%) and cluster bean (10%).

Production potential

The ability of the system to fulfill the local needs of the people, through the products of the diverse MPTs, is probably the most impressive and yet insufficiently recognized potential of the system. Moreover, the surplus production of crops and grain testifies to the market potential of the system. Pearl millet, moth bean and cluster bean produced 2 107.6 t, 151.7 t and 144.7 t per year, respectively.

Table 1. Land use, demographic features and livestock status of the Data-Ramgarth village.

Table 2. Distribution pattern and composition of tree species in the agricultural fields of Data-Ramgarth village.

Aside from these grains, the P. cineraria-A. nilotica system can also produce more than 9.0 t/year of surplus fodder from its mixed crop-livestock farming. Based on estimates, a household with 3.35 head of livestock would require 6.1 t of leaf, grass or fruit pod fodder per year. The system’s croplands can provide up to 6.7 t of leaf fodder per year for each household. Moreover, some 0.32 t of grass per year is available from the CPR. Crop residues yield an estimated 2.58 t/ha. Surplus fodder is stored for use during droughts or sold in other areas of the Thar desert during fodder shortages.

The system also allows for the lopping, pollarding and pruning of trees at the end of the leaf fodder and fuelwood production season (November and December).

More than 70 percent of the rural population in the Thar is still dependent on fuelwood for their cooking and heating energy needs (Tewari et al. 2003). It is estimated that the system produces some 3.7 t/ha/year of fuelwood. Although on average this amount is insufficient for each household, the remaining fuel requirements are easily filled with animal dung.

Figure 1 presents the major components and production potential of the system and village consumption. Except for fuelwood, the system produces surplus consumable products. However, the milk/meat and vegetable production from the P. cineraria pods could not be estimated.

Table 3. Composition of tree and shrub species in the village CPR.

Fig. 1. Production/Availability and consumption of different commodities of the P. ceneraria-A. nilotica-based traditional agroforestry system in Data-Ramgarth village.

Conclusion

The results of the survey indicate that the traditional P. cineraria-A. nilotica agroforestry system in the drylands of northeastern Thar satisfy the demand for fuelwood, fodder and food with minimal farming inputs. It also provides surplus products that can be sold. Its minimal inputs make this system synergistic with the fragile ecosystem of the Thar desert. The farming system appears to be well adapted to these harsh environmental conditions.

References:

(1) Dhir, R.P.1997. Characteristics and behavioral aspects of arid and semi-arid zone soils. In M.S. Yadav, Manjeet Singh, S.K. Sharma, J.C. Tewari and U. Burman, eds. Silvipastoral systems in arid and semi arid ecosystems. Johdpur, India: UNESCO, ICAR-CAZRI. Pp. 39 - 46.

(2) Narayan P., S. Kathju, Amal Kar, M.P. Singh and Praveen Kumar. 2003. Human impact on desert environment. Jodhpur, India: Arid Zone Research Association of India, Jodhpur and Scientific Publisher. 629 p.

(3) Tewari, J.C., M.D. Bohra and L.N. Harsh. 1999. Structure and production function of traditional extensive agroforestry systems and scope of intensive agroforestry. Indian Journal of Agroforestry, 1(1): 81 - 94.

(4) Tewari, J.C., D. Tripathi, P. Narayan and S.P. Singh. 2003. A study of structure, energy fluxes and emerging trends in traditional central Himalayan agroforestry systems. Forest, trees and livelihood,13:17 - 38.

(5) Tewari P., J.C. Tewari, D. Tripathi, S. Kaushis, L.N. Harsh and P. Narayan. 2003. Utilization of domestic fuel wood in a typical village of Indian hot arid zone. Journal of Tropical Forest Products, 9(1&2):1 - 14.

The authors can be contacted at Central Arid Zone Research Institute Jodhpur-342003,India.