Biological principles of managing natural fisheries are different from those used in the management of fish farms. Before the departmental restructuring exercise, the organization of fisheries research had given the false impression that the Department of Fisheries was placing much more emphasis on capture fisheries research, mainly in the fields of stock assessment and gear technology, owing to the fact that it was a fisheries research division which was responsible for its elaboration and implementation.
The University of Zambia (UNZA) and the National Council for Scientific Research (NCSR) have also carried out limnological and socio-economic research in the fisheries sector.
Although aquaculture research is said to have started in Zambia in 1943 when the first six ponds were constructed at Chilanga for the purpose of testing local species for culture, there has been since independence no steady aquaculture research programme going on without the assistance of external personnel and funding.
After independence, aquaculture experimentation started in the sixties at the Chilanga Fisheries Research Division, supported by the FAO technical assistance. Later, trials were undertaken in the eighties during the UNDP/FAO project, on the pond production of O. andersonii fingerlings and food fish. In particular, animal-cum-fish farming methods (pigs and Peking ducks) were adapted to local conditions (FAO, 1990). The Japanese Technical Assistance has worked since 1981 on the hybridization of the local cichlid species under culture and on the artificial propagation of common carp. The SIDA/FAO ALCOM Programme has recently been conducting trials on appropriate technologies for rural aquaculture development. NORAD has tested improved fish production techniques for small-scale farmers in the rural areas of the Northern Province.
The policy-oriented criteria used for determining priorities between fisheries investment projects are the main development objectives of the sector, which are:
These goals are in line with the overall target of upgrading the nutritional status of the people.
Earlier experiments have resulted in the identification of three local cichlid species for culture in Zambia: the three-spotted bream (Oreochromis andersonii), the green-headed bream (Oreochromis macrochir) and Tilapia rendalli, the red-breasted bream. This has marked the beginning of aquaculture research on modern lines. In later years, exotic fish such as Cyprinus carpio (common carp), Oreochromis niloticus, O. aureus, Ctenopharyngodon idella (grass carp) and Procambarus clarkii (Louisiana crayfish) have joined the group, although they are not yet widely distributed throughout the country. The UNDP/FAO project has emphasized the monoculture of O. andersonii, as it has been shown to have good growth and production potential. With the same species, an integrated fish-livestock system has been developed, with which fish harvests of 3,5 and 7 t/ha/year have been obtained by adding manure of chicken, ducks and pigs respectively (FAO, 1990). Tilapia rendalli has been found to be particularly useful when there are heavy plankton blooms.
High yields are being obtained at some private fish farms such as the Copperbelt Power Company's farm in Kitwe, where yields as high as 16 t/ha/year have been obtained in the best production pond.
In the pond fertilization and fish nutrition research areas, composting cribs, direct manuring, the use of inorganic fertilizers, agriculture by-products (such as brewery waste and maize bran), kitchen wastes and green plant matter) have been tried. The biological data on O. andersonii relating to feeding habits, growth and breeding have been analysed and used to determine sound fish pond management practices.
Limited trials conducted on the cultivation of common carp along with O. andersonii have indicated that such a polyculture system may be successful, if correct stocking ratios are adopted.
A survey on fish feed ingredients available in the country (especially by-products) has indicated that while some of the items can be purchased in most provinces, high protein by-products like oil cakes, soya-bean cake and cotton-seed cake may be readily obtainable in the Lusaka and Copperbelt Provinces only.
Other possible additions to the species selected for culture are Clarias gariepinus, Labeo species and Serranochromis robusta (as predator). Results have also been obtained by ALCOM from field testing trials in rural areas, and methodologies developed are ready for application country-wide.
The adaptive research project in the Northern Province has developed pond management practices for rural small-scale fish farmers and these are being applied.
Attempts have also been made on the identification of fish diseases and parasites and the transmission of such diseases.
The government has 19 fish culture stations scattered in various parts of the provinces (Table 1; Figure 1). These 19 stations can be ranked according to a number of criteria such as the local ecological and institutional conditions, the extent of specific local demands and the facilities available. Based on such an assessment, the stations which offer the best operational prospects are Solwezi, Fiyongoli, Chipata, Chilanga, Mwekera and Misamfu. Stations ranked of second priority for their development potential are Lundazi, Kaoma, Mkushi and Serenje. The third group ranking comprises Mwenda, Nyanje and Kanchele.
In the first group, the stations are adequately equipped for aquaculture research, for the production of fingerlings, broodstock and market fish and for training courses, field days and demonstrations. Breeding facilities for Peking ducks are also adequate. The second-category stations could concentrate on the production of fingerlings for stocking SWB and for farmers, on demonstrations and local replications, and on field days and extension services. Category-three stations could have a similar role with lower targets for productions and services. However, the upsurge of public interest and need to respond to it justify expansion. An evident limitation at each station is holding tanks and other facilities for live-fish storage and distribution, both for juvenile fish stock and for sales. Simple extension display rooms for informing farmers and visitors would also be helpful additions. The Mwekera station offers rather limited office and residential accommodation, and at the Chipata station the water supply becomes inadequate towards the end of a prolonged dry season.
Most equipment for aquaculture purposes has been supplied through various assistance projects. However, due to the lack of proper servicing, most of the equipment is broken down or obsolete. In spite of financial constraints, the DoF tries hard to obtain from the central and provincial administrations additional finances for purchasing equipment.
Recognizing the value of the potential contribution from aquaculture, the government has always been anxious to fulfil, within its limited budgetary and staff capabilities, its commitment to development of fisheries in general. With the current restructuring of the Aquaculture Division, recruitment of additional staff at the University level has begun, with the hope that they will be able to strengthen its research capability. The division will need much bolstering over a period of time, as the newly recruited staff will have no experience in aquaculture.
The lack of a research coordinating unit had made it difficult to identify programmes in the different parts of the country. On-going aquaculture research programmes considered important are the following:
Intermittent harvesting research aims at determining whether harvesting fish at irregular intervals other than fixed production cycles (i.e. after every 6 months), gives better total yields. This programme, carried out entirely by DoF staff with some ALCOM support, started in 1992 at the Chilanga fish farm.
Adaptive research with a greater bias towards extension is carried out at the Misamfu fish farm in Kasama. It is funded by NORAD and executed by DoF to improve the nutritional standards of the rural people in the Northern Province. Activities include duck and pig rearing, artificial seed production of common carp and tilapias, as well as testing the domestication qualities of fish species from surrounding lakes (Mweru, Bangweulu and Mweru-wa-Ntipa) and the construction of satellite seed centres.
The seed production centre at Mwekera is running a breeding and selection programme for common carp. Its aim is to increase survival rate of fry from a present 38 per cent to 80 per cent. Fish hatchery facilities are being constructed through Japanese technical assistance. Execution of the programme is by DoF and JICA personnel. The duration of the programme is June 1986 – September 1993, with provision for extension.
Integrated fish-cum-duck rearing practices for rural areas and seed production/distribution are being developed in the Mwinilunga District of the North-Western Province. These programmes are funded by AFRICARE/UNDP and designed by DoF. The wider practice of organic fertilization through manuring is considered as the cheapest way of increasing the productivity of pond water, aiming at improved benefits, increased natural food production and better yields. This activity is being undertaken at Misamfu and Mwekera fish farms.
Enhancement of fish production from small water bodies aims at improving the productivity of small dams and reservoirs through fish stocking and controlled fishing. ALCOM is carrying out trials in the Eastern Province.
The Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries (MAFF) is organized in such a way that all departments within the ministry collaborate on the formulation of activities through the Planning Unit.
DoF is the executing agency of all aquaculture programmes in MAFF. Any activities proposed by DoF and/or donors are channelled though the National Commission for Development Planning (NCDP) to see how they relate to the overall agriculture development plans in the country.
The MAFF National Agricultural Research and Extension Committee (NAREC) has the responsibility to formulate and coordinate overall research and extension policies according to national objectives. The Committee is chaired by the MAFF Permanent Secretary. NAREC, in collaboration with NCDP, also coordinates donor assistance to the agricultural sector. NAREC is supported by the Research Extension Support Group (RESG), comprising senior officers from MAFF. The Director of Fisheries is a member of NAREC.
The main development policies for the fisheries subsector are to improve the techniques for monitoring more accurately the status of the fisheries and to improve production/distribution techniques through research and data collection programmes. The strategy for achieving these objectives calls for the strengthening of DoF in order to increase its effectiveness in providing extension, research and financial services, as well as serviceable infrastructural facilities.
Research results are used by policy makers to reformulate policies and/or by the extension service for transfer to the end users.
In aquaculture development, the long term objective is to develop aquaculture as an industry in Zambia at three levels - village, small-scale commercial and large-scale commercial farms - in order to increase fish production for nutritional purposes, to generate employment in the rural sector and to substitute imports.
These objectives need to be met with supporting short-term activities as seed fish production, demonstrations for local application, training, provision of advice and basic information for promoting fish farming (Table 4). As large-scale commercial fish farms have general farm management capabilities and can obtain expert advice, the greatest need for pubic technical services is with the village farms and small-scale farmers.
Therefore, priority is given to production-oriented research concentrating on basic, simple systems, using both local and introduced species, supplementary feeding and, whenever possible, animal manure from ducks, pigs or chickens. Priority research subjects are: choice of species for monoculture and polyculture, seed production and transportation, village-level pond management and harvesting methods, causes of mortalities and improved fry survival.
The DoF fish farms are meant to provide a good model for development of aquacultural research and production facilities. These centres are meant to play a major role in generating information and solutions to problems in support of fish farmers.
The association of science, technology and farmers allows researchers and producers to work as a team in identifying priority areas. In Zambia, Field Days are organized to introduce developed technologies to farmers and to promote exchange of ideas between DoF technicians and fish farmers. Interactions with subject matter specialists, both from the public and private sectors, assist DoF in the planning of the strategies to be followed in implementing aquaculture development programmes.
As support to aquaculture development, it was necessary to determine first the basic culture technologies to be adopted at the national level and then to adapt these technologies to the specific conditions in the various provinces.
The main subjects of collaboration were:
Selection of aquaculture systems to increase fish production at both large-scale commercial and small-scale rural levels. The choice of the right fish species is regarded as of utmost importance for successful initial demonstration and later extension development at national level.
The provision of juvenile fish, particularly to new farmers; mass production of tilapia and carp juveniles needs to be solved to sustain development.
The question of fertilization and supplementary fish feeds still remains a taxing issue; emphasis is being given to fertilization through manuring, composting or the application of inorganic fertilizers.
The existence of a very strong agriculture extension system provides a good opportunity for aquaculture integration. Extension programmes have been developed by projects in their respective areas and they are now being tested on a wider scale but adequately trained staff (fisheries and agriculture) for fish farming management and extension are needed. Rearing facilities and training schemes are essential requirements for providing strong support to development.
The rearing facilities are to be used on a long term basis by DoF for continuous technological transfers from applied short term research and large-scale experiments to pilot-scale demonstrations. An effective mechanism of knowledge transfer still needs to be put in place.
From the technological point of view, the most appropriate culture system to be given priority has been the fish-livestock integrated system. It increases the profits of animal husbandry without requiring additional feed or fertilizer input. Pigs and ducks are readily available in Zambia and are known to give positive results in integrated aquaculture. The Peking duck was introduced with excellent results in comparison to the Moscovy duck previously used. The choiced species is the indigenous Oreochromis andersonii, a tilapia from the Kafue River system. Although feed ingredients are not essential for farming tilapia at the small-scale level and compost can be used as a cheap substitute, good feeds are required in large-scale production units and in animal husbandry, particulary for pigs. Regional surveys are necessary to determine the availability and cost of potential feed ingredients in the different provinces so that the cultural system may be appropriately adapted to the available resources. Field tests and demonstrations of developed technologies has by now revitalized the once waning interest in fish farming development.
Donor-assisted research programmes work very well within their life span. However, the lack of commitment by the recipient government to support similar programmes in the absence of assistance leads to eventual collapse.
Failure to implement an aquaculture coordination programme to ensure an efficient system of planning, projects coordination/collaboration, monitoring and evaluation of aquaculture activities at the national level has led to a weaker policy on aquaculture and duplication of work. The MAFF Planning Division, though supposed to be a coordinating unit for all departments, is biased towards agriculture production, mainly crops and animal husbandry.
The importance of extension and advisory services for the promotion of aquaculture development is widely recognized. Without effective means to provide guidance to the established and emerging fish farmers, especially at village farms and small- to medium-scale commercial levels, many mistakes can be made, leading to low economic returns and even losses. This adversely affects the interest in fish farming, which usually leads to a decrease in fish production.
At present, the DoF aquaculture extension services are hampered by constraints which affect their efficiency. Most staff actually responsible for extension work are trained in capture fisheries with little education in aquaculture. They are too few in number to cope with the projected expansion of aquaculture. Medium-level core personnel with sufficient training to be able to provide advice to the commercial aquaculture sector are lacking. The infrastructural support is weak: transport facilities are lacking or not readily available, preventing extension agents from reaching their customers with advice, fish seeds or other services.
Fish ponds at most government stations are in bad condition, due to lack of funds for maintenance and mismanagement. The production of seed or broodstock is insufficient and the stations serve poorly as demonstration units. The extension agents lack simple teaching and informational materials as well as more advanced manuals on appropriate culture methods.
In order to overcome some of the constraints to aquaculture development mentioned earlier, research will have to be problem-oriented and adaptive, for testing and modifying technologies as required to suit local conditions. Such research would have to be oriented towards solving local constraints to fish farming such as farm siting, water resource availability, mass production and transport of fish seed, control of pests and predators, adaptation of proven foreign technologies to Zambian conditions, utilization of local raw materials and waste products, identification of additional indigenous species and possibly testing valuable non-indigenous species. Other priority research subjects include the determination of the minimum economic size of ponds and cost effective methods of management.
Socio-economic studies on the impact of aquaculture on the nutritional, employment and economic status of rural populations need also to be considered (Table 4). To carry out such research, a hatchery and some additional ponds and laboratories would be needed. Personnel would have to be trained in aquaculture research skills.
Table 4
Improved fish farming management practices
(Source: DoF/ALCOM Workshop on Improved Fish Farming Practices and
Extension Services for Zambia, 15–18 March 1993)
| Central issue | Problems | Possible solutions |
|---|---|---|
| Mass seed production and supply | Lack of transport Lack of adequate funding Lack of water security in seed centres Lack of supportive resources in seed production centres Lack of quality and available broodstock Lack of hatcheries Little participation by farmers in seed production Non-utilization of dams for broodstock | Funding to acquire mobility Setting up low-level technology hatchery facilities Encourage farmers to participate in seed production Upgrade existing dams Use dams for broodstock conservation Make necessary resources available Review and conduct trials to introduce other selected species Choose species to culture in each province |
| Species selection | Normally one species is being promoted Species not readily available in all provinces No policy of introduction of species from one watershed to the other Lack of more information on certain species | Policy as regards species transfer and introduction to be made Find out more information about each species |
| Transportation of seed | Expensive packaging and oxygenation Lack of tankers and fibreglass containers No conditioning of fish | Encourage packing and sale of fry of less than 10 g to minimize the use of oxygen and plastic bags Acquire own tanker, encourage the use of fibreglass containers and other local containers |
| Fish diseases | Existence of diseases and parasites among fingerlings Lack of laboratory for assessment Lack of standard cures | Improve handling Open up laboratory for fish culture purposes Research to be done on diseases |
| Poor production levels in both DoF and fish farmers' ponds | Poor management practices Little knowledge about locally available feeds, their application and optimum use The benefit of fertilization is not obvious to farmers | Motivate DoF staff by retaining revenue Adequate farmer training to enhance management practices More emphasis on fish farming as a farming activity, using farming terminology in extension |
| Availability of feeds, manures and fertilizers, and the use ofintegrated aquaculture practices | Lack of sources of agriculture by- products Lack of supportive funding Lack of supportive animals Non availability of fertilizer and lime Poor traditional ownership of livestock Improper use of cribs | Recycling locally available materials Supportive funding Introduction of possible animals in certain areas Make available fertilizer and lime Proper composting Encourage use of plant material to feed fish |
| Adaptive research | Not understood and no clear policy by DoF Non participation by farmers in seed production and no own farm trials Lack of understanding of intermittent harvest handling strategies Lack of coordination with information dissemination unit | Clear understanding and policy making by DoF Collaboration with agriculture institutions More research to be conducted on intermittent harvest strategies Farming together with research to be involved in fish farming research Farmers to be encouraged to participate in seed production (end results are refined cheap production procedures, refined extension and training methodologies) Strengthen coordination |
| Gear | Lack of proper gear in fish farms Limited use of locally developed gear Lack of instruments to assess water quality for fish culture | Acquire proper gear for fish culture stations (nets) Promote locally found and developed gear Acquire pH and DO meters for each seed centre |
| Water quality | Rates of manure to apply not properly known by extension officers and farmers | Produce simple tables based on literature and trials |
| Poor fish pond siting and construction | Lack of contact between DoF personnel and farmers | Seek technical coordination with DoF extension personnel Collaboration between institutions to enhance extension is necessary |
| Fish farm security | Predation by animals and birds Poaching and trespassing | Adopt simple methods to control predation Clear publishment to be outlined |
| Poor group effort and operation among farmers | Lack of security Failure and bad reputation for cooperatives | Encourage formation of fish farmer groups; perhaps involve an independent supervisor |
FAO, 1990. Fish culture development. Zambia. Project findings and recommendations. FI:DP/ZAM/79/005. Terminal report. 49 p.
Fulconis, R., 1987. Credit for fish farming in Zambia. A report prepared for the Fish culture development project. Rome, FAO, 37 p.
Wykstrom, U.N. and K.O. Wahlstrom, 1992. Tilapia culture by farmers in Luapula Province, Zambia. ALCOM Field Doc., (9):62 p.
Jimmiel MANDIMA
University Lake Kariba Research Station
Kariba, Zimbabwe
| AFC | Agricultural Finance Corporation |
| AGRITEX | Department of Agricultural, Technical and Extension Services |
| ALCOM | Aquaculture for Local Community Development Project (SIDA/Belgium/FAO) |
| DANIDA | Danish International Development Agency |
| DNPWM | Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management |
| DRSS | Department of Research and Specialist Services |
| LKFRI | Lake Kariba Fisheries Research Institute |
| NGO | Non-Governmental Organization |
| NORAD | Norwegian Agency for International Development |
| SIDA | Swedish International Development Agency |
| SWB | Small Water Body(ies) |
| ULKRS | University of Zimbabwe Lake Kariba Research Station |
| UNDP | United Nations Development Programme |
| USD | United States Dollar |
| ZWD | Zimbabwe Dollar (in April 1993, USD 1 = ZWD 6.5) |
In Zimbabwe, activity in the aquaculture sector started in this century, when the goldfish (Carassius auratus) were kept as aquarium fish by hobbyists. This was followed by the introduction of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) from South Africa which culminated in the establishment of the lnyanga Government Trout Research Centre where seed was produced for stocking recreational streams and for table fish production. In 1956, Henderson Agricultural Research Station was built with a fisheries section intended to cater for aquaculture research and development. Its Fish Culture Research Station soon became one of the most active research centres in Africa.
In spite of this encouraging beginning for aquaculture in Zimbabwe, country-wide instability during the liberation war almost stalled further progress during the seventies. This period saw the closure of Henderson station in 1973, and a consequent reduced research and development impetus. Aquacultural activities were, however, continued at Lake Mcllwaine Fisheries Research Station, constructed in 1970–71, as well as at other stations in other parts of the country.
These developments were accompanied by a general change in the government authority responsible for aquaculture, with responsibility shifting from the Department of Research and Specialist Services (DRSS) of the Ministry of Agriculture to the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management of the Ministry of Environment and Tourism. Today, however, both ministries are involved in aquaculture and fisheries, with the former participating more through the Department of Agricultural, Technical and Extension Services (AGRITEX).
It is therefore important to understand this contextial background under which Zimbabwe's aquaculture research and development capabilities, needs and priorities are formulated and to note that much of the current status and ideas are based on a recollection of work done after independence in 1980, with only a few reference works done in the mid-to-late seventies.
A wide variety of institutions under different ministries are involved in fisheries and aquaculture activities. Overall, there are two ministries, three departments, and a host of other independent institutions directly involved in aquaculture research and development. A summary of the main institutions is given in Table 1 below.
Table 1
Summary of institutional framework for aquaculture development in Zimbabwe
| Ministry | Department | Research station |
|---|---|---|
| Lands, Agriculture and Rural Resettlement | AGRITEX DRSS | Henderson |
| Environment and Tourism | National Parks and Wildlife Management (DNPWM) | LKFRI Lake Chivero Nyanga Trout Centre Lake Sebakwe Lake Mutirikwi and Matopos |
Constitutionally, the two ministries (Environment and Tourism and Lands, Agriculture and Rural Resettlement) should collaborate in aquaculture development programmes through their respective departments.
The DNPWM's Aquatic Ecology Branch is primarily concerned with major lake and recreational fisheries as well as research and fry-production activities in support of aquaculture. For this, the department has a research station in each one of the country's eight provinces, and these should ideally serve as aquaculture research and demonstration centres.
Funding for these stations is from government, though from time to time NGOs provide financial inputs to support specific projects over a set time period. Limited budgets and manpower shortage during the last 15–20 years have rendered the research stations virtually inactive in aquaculture research.
The Department of Agricultural, Technical and Extension Services (AGRITEX) has a Fisheries Unit tasked to carry out all the extension requirements for aquaculture development and reservoir fisheries management. These duties are meant to complement the research activities carried out by the DRSS at the Henderson Station and by the DNPWM through its various provincial stations. Personnel working for the unit, starting from the most junior, include field staff, field officers, extension officers, conservation officers, regional extension officers, and the Chief Fisheries Officer. Due to lack of specialized fisheries training, most of these officers are people originally trained as animal specialists and have now undergone on-the-job training in aquaculture and fisheries-related skills.
Limited eduction and training in aquaculture take place at the University of Zimbabwe and in training colleges.
Very limited input has come from this institution, as far as an all-round training of fisheries and aquaculture graduates is concerned. The Department of Biological Sciences, however, teaches basic fisheries science in its four-week-long course in applied ecology, taught to final-year B.Sc (Hons) students. Furthermore, until the late seventies, some work was done through the Hydrobiological Research Unit, which has since ceased operations due to lack of funding (ALCOM, 1991).
The University of Zimbabwe Lake Kariba Research Station (ULKRS) also offers opportunities for enhancement in aquaculture and fisheries research. Currently, it has one doctoral senior researcher and a widely experienced professor whose speciality is aquatic ecology, as well as a research fellow with a M.Sc (Fisheries) who has registered for Ph.D (Fisheries) at the local university. All this points to a potential involvement of the university in significant fisheries and aquaculture work.
Five agricultural training colleges exist country-wide (Chibero, Gwebi, Mlezu, Esigodini and Matopos) for training of agricultural extension personnel. Since independence, the college have increased their enrolments (Balarin, 1984). On recommendation from the FAO/TCP project in 1988/89, Chibero and Gwebi agricultural colleges are to incorporate a fish-farming course in their curricula (Nugent and Campbell, 1988).
On the other hand, the Mushandike Wildlife College, which has a major thrust on terrestrial ecology, also trains fish scouts who have proved to be very useful in activities geared towards aquaculture research and development.
It is government policy that all aquaculture development plans are administered by the authorized government departments, DNPWM, AGRITEX and DRSS.
There is no national aquaculture development plan. Programmes to develop the sector have been defined on the basis of the following factors:
The realization that in Zimbabwe natural fishery resources are so limited that the future source of animal protein is aquaculture.
The per caput fish consumption level of 2.5–3 kg in 1981, well below the SADC average of 6 kg per capita, cannot be sustained from natural fisheries alone at a current population growth rate of 3 per cent, and hence supplementary production from aquaculture development is essential (Balarin, 1984).
The many small water bodies constructed for irrigation purposes and animal watering in low rainfall regions offer an excellent opportunity for fish stocking to enhance the multipurpose use of the water resources and to benefit the local communities.
The government therefore, aims at increasing fish production through both aquaculture and fisheries in order to stabilize the rural economy through diversification (especially resettlement schemes), create employment and enhance household food security.
To implement these development plans, the institutions in charge of this sector have different general programmes of action. The DNPWM, through its research stations, has infrastructure and manpower to conduct both basic and applied research aimed at fish seed production, dam stocking, selective breeding and feeding experiments. This has so far been the task of each station but, until now, very little systematic seed production and selective breeding activities have come out of these stations.
The DRSS also plays a role in research, with a bias towards Oreochromis mossambicus seed production as well as trials with various integrated aquaculture production systems.
AGRITEX plays an extension role. Through the UNDP/FAO Project ‘Support for Rural Aquaculture Extension’, an inventory of all small water bodies has been finalized and a record of their fishery activities made in order to form a basis for fish stocking. Many extension workers have undergone short training courses in aquaculture extension to augment their extension capability. Socio-economic surveys have been conducted in two project pilot zones - Murehwa and Masvingo Districts - to assess the aquaculture development environment in these rural target areas.
Since the implementation of any aquaculture programme requires a reliable water supply as well as suitable climatic conditions, these assessments had to be made prior to taking any committing steps. Balarin (1984) notes that in Zimbabwe 25 per cent of the total land area is suitable for aquaculture development. Of this, 2.2 per cent of the area, the Eastern Highlands mainly, is suitable for cold-tolerant species such as trout, while 22.1 per cent of the area (covering most of the Lowveld) is suited for intensive warmwater fish farming using indigenous tilapia species. Edaphic factors were also assessed and generally meet the criteria of good water retention capacity.
Balarin's assessments were based on secondary data from the Metereological Department and the Ministry of Agriculture. These were data collected for other purposes, particularly agriculture, and their validity in direct application to aquaculture needs is questionable. Since aquaculture has not yet developed to any extent that closely approximates the suggested suitable area, no evaluation has been undertaken to substantiate the recommendations. However, the little development that has taken place in the sector has so far been taking place within the areas suggested by J.D. Balarin.
Foreign teams also played an important role in studies of development potential. In the early eighties, a reconnaissance mission for the FAO investment Centre formulated a large-scale long-term national development policy in which they identified target areas for aquaculture development in conjunction with irrigation schemes (Soulsby, 1982). They made recommendations for development of a pond area of 2 250 hectares where hybrid tilapias would be cultured and also planned for the establishment of a 50-ha model hatchery and farm in the Lowveld. All these plans did not materialise, and no evaluation has been made.
In 1987, a feasibility study on freshwater fish farming in Zimbabwe was completed by a Chinese team under the auspices of the then Ministry of Community Development and Women's Affairs. They found that per caput water area then was 80 m2 excluding Lake Kariba and 400m2 when including it, which they regarded as a great potential for developing fish farming. Furthermore, the same mission found on-farm feed resources from agricultural by-products to be abundant in the communal areas, a situation which rendered small-scale household fish farming possible. Unfortunately, no methods were discussed on how these parameters were assessed and, to date, no evaluation has been made.
Also as part of development potential studies, species for culture were reviewed. There are nine indigenous species suitable for aquaculture in Zimbabwe which include O. mossambicus, O. macrochir, O. andersonii, T. rendalli and Clarias gariepinus (Mutsekwa, 1991). Evaluations based on the known biology of the indigenous species show that their hardiness and adaptability to simple culture techniques which do not require high inputs, render them suitable for aquaculture development aimed at increasing animal protein production.
No evaluations have been made of the specific aquaculture systems suitable for Zimbabwe. These vary according to type of aquaculture, and in Zimbabwe one can broadly define three systems: land-based pond culture, stocking of small water bodies and water-based cage culture. A variety of pond culture systems is practised, and this is currently the main aquaculture system among rural small-scale fish farmers and commercial fish farmers, with the former using earth ponds while the latter use relatively high-cost concrete or fibre glass pond and tank systems.
Extensive culture systems by way of SWB stocking is an ongoing process, but little has been done to assess the degree of monitoring and production assessment. On the whole, none of these systems has been assessed as to its economic efficacy, though it is apparent that pond systems are commonly used, hence probably the most appropriate.
Socio-economic surveys have been conducted to assess the factors that may constrain the development of aquaculture in Zimbabwe (Mandima, 1992; Govereh et al, 1992). Findings from these studies indicate that the major developmental constraints are:
lack of well-managed hatcheries to produce and provide an adequate supply of fingerlings;
poor extension infrastructure where farming systems demonstrations are conducted and field officers receive practical training;
lack of credit facilities for emergent fish farmers and expanding fish farming entrepreneurs;
lack of long-term water and land-use rights and failure by local and government authorities to grant land title deeds;
marketing bottlenecks resulting from monopolies by one or two food processing corporate companies;
lack of reliable good quality fish feed;
lack of harvesting nets for rural fish farmers.
These and many other minor constraints are regarded as the key constraints to aquaculture development (K. Nicholson, pers.comm., 1992). These assessments on socio-economic constraints to fish-farming development are probably the most elaborate ever made in Zimbabwe. They were based on detailed surveys conducted in regions where aquaculture is practised, as well as on discussions with some pioneer and large commercial fish farmers, such that the validity of the conclusions is highly regarded.
Marketing of aquaculture products on the domestic market is generally not a problem. The FAO/UNDP socio-economic survey (Govereh et al., 1992) revealed that all fish produced can always be disposed, the only problem being the failure by small producers to reach prime markets. They end up selling at narrow profit margins, either to local rural markets or to corporate food processing companies like Willards and Cairns Holdings, which have stronger negotiating powers on setting the prices.
The export market has recently been explored by the commercial sector. Keith Nicholson of Kariba Bream Farm notes that there is an excellent potential for the export of tilapia fillets to Belgium and South Africa (pers.comm., 1993). The Kariba Prawn (now Tilapia) Farm has since switched from marketing tilapia fillets in Zimbabwe to marketing them in Belgium and other European markets. Prospects for the future development of external fish marketing are very good, the only limitation now being low volume productions which cannot meet the demand.
No analysis has been conducted by the public sector, but in 1990–91 the Agriculture Finance Corporation (AFC), which is a parastatal financing institution, tasked its planning section to make a feasibility study on the economic viability of different fish production systems in Zimbabwe. The study concentrated on production of tilapias, and what clearly comes out is that viable aquaculture is essentially capital-intensive.
Taking into consideration the critical success factors of water availability, security and soil type which vary from place to place, when using a 5-ha pond-area fish farm as a model, total costs at 1991 rates varied between ZWD 280 165 and 718 206 for the low and higher level costs respectively (Gutu, 1991). This was accompanied by an annual revenue of ZWD 414 400, provided two production cycles per annum were successfully achieved.
It is obvious that the business is potentially financially viable but cognisance should be taken that the investment environment has changed rapidly since the implementation of the Economic Structural Adjustment Programme, and the onset of the disastrous drought in the 1991–92 season. These factors significantly influence the future of the industry insofar as financial viability is concerned, so the above data may now be of little use.
Small-scale rural aquaculture production is a different story altogether, since most of the fish farming done there is entirely targeted at meeting subsistence requirements for cheap animal protein. Production is extensive, labour-intensive and almost all inputs are obtained from on-farm crop and animal residues. This renders the production systems less capital-intensive; instead, such systems can be regarded as socially viable, since the rural folk manage to derive the social benefit which is given priority under such settings. No financial analysis has been done for small-scale rural fish farming practices.
More that 70 per cent of Zimbabwe's population lives in the rural areas, where agriculture is the economic backbone. Almost half of these people live in natural agricultural regions where rainfall is unreliable and where there is need to supplement water supplies during the dry seasons from reservoirs. Consequently, as many reservoirs as 12 000 have been constructed country-wide for irrigation and animal-watering purposes. The availability of these reservoirs, together with plenty of crop and animal residues (cereal brans, manures), have led the government to put its developmental thrust on dam stocking and household fish ponds in order to promote fish production in rural communities.
The commercial sector, on the other hand, is characterised by high-powered corporate companies which, under normal circumstances, have sufficient capital to finance their own aquaculture schemes. This target group normally takes care of all its requirements and is vertically integrated to produce fish seed, table fish, process it and do all the marketing. Two such corporate companies in Zimbabwe are Willards Food and Cairns Holdings (Food Division), the latter having cage-culture and land-based tilapia fish ponds as well as a concern for trout production in the Eastern Highlands. Individual entrepreneurs, however, are usually people who have their own capital to start small but require substantial support from financial institutions to expand and grow. This is not available locally, and when available the high interest rates are forbidding.
The other fish target producer group are the commercial farmers, who have farm reservoirs usually meant for watering their livestock and for irrigation. Again, these are characteristically self-sufficient, since aquaculture is practised extensively for the purpose of supplying the farm workers. Little monitoring is done, and fish farming is of no significant commercial importance.
All individual commercial fish-farming ventures require financial assistance through some credit scheme. This is apparent from the magnitude of the capital inputs needed, as discussed earlier. Such facilities are, however, still not available in Zimbabwe (Mandima, 1992) and institutions charged with spearheading aquaculture development should do something about it as a matter of urgency. Feasibility studies by financing institutions like AFC are a good sign, if only they can be sustained and followed up.
Rural fish farmers need financial support for increasing production to levels that permit the sale of surplus produce. Most of them also need capital for fencing pond areas against poachers and wandering animals. Levels of capital required are, however, low, and if adequate arrangements are made through village/ward/community farmers associations, localised financing schemes such as Savings Clubs could suffice to take care of their financial needs.
During the seventies, no record of aquaculture production was kept due to instability caused by the war, which made it logistically impossible to collect fisheries statistics. At the same time, most aquaculture production was stalled during this period, with the exception of the trout farm in the Eastern Highlands which catered for the gourmet market (Kenmuir, 1988).
After independence in 1980, other commercial entrepreneurs started investing in aquaculture. This pattern has continued to date. This has been accompanied by an increase in aquaculture production to a maximum of 800 tonnes. It is, however, noteworthy that significant aquaculture production may have been understated because of difficulties in the collection of data since extension services are limited. Furthermore, most rural fish farmers produce fish for domestic consumption and the production contribution from this auto-consumption is never accounted for.
No recent production statistics are available in Zimbabwe but, in view of the relatively large expansion of the sector, it is most likely that production is now much more than 800 tonnes. This supposition is based on the fact that reservoirs have since increased in number, from 8 000 to more than 12 000. Rural fish farming has gained impetus since the beginning of the UNDP/FAO Project ‘Support for Rural Aquaculture Extension’ (ZIM/88/021) and new commercial fish farmers have entered the industry while practising farmers have increased their production.
Feasibility studies have been a common feature since the era after independence. In the early eighties, a reconnaisance mission for the FAO Investment Centre formulated a large-scale, long-term national development policy for the aquaculture sector (Soulsby, 1982). This identified target areas for aquaculture development in conjuction with irrigation schemes. This development was to include a hatchery, a service centre and about 750 ha of demonstration ponds. In 1987, a Chinese Freshwater Fish Farming Study Team conducted another study on fish farming in Zimbabwe under the auspices of the then Ministry of Community Development and Women's Affairs.
Both studies noted that a big potential exists for aquaculture development in Zimbabwe, but no follow up was ever made to their recommendations.
In 1988, an FAO formulation mission in aquaculture recommended the implementation of two projects as 'Technical assistance for the rehabilitation of Henderson aquaculture farm and proposal for extension and training in rural aquaculture" (Nugent and Campbell, 1988). This was accepted by the government, and in 1988–89 an FAO/TCP project was run to initiate aquaculture activities and rehabilitate the Henderson fish farm. This project was implemented with the collaboration from the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (DNPWM) and that of Lands, Agriculture and Rural Resettlement (AGRITEX). From 1990 to mid-1993, the follow-up UNDP/FAO project (ZIM/88/021) developed aquaculture extension and training in collaboration with AGRITEX.
Both projects have been largely successful judging from the fact that (i) the Henderson fish farm is now operational, with fish seed production infrastructure in place as well as the engagement of three full-time fisheries specialists, one of whom is an ecologist, and (ii) rural aquaculture in the project pilot zones of Murehwa and Masvingo has developed successfully, and extension manpower has undergone adequate training through local workshops and short-term training courses outside the country. On the whole, the projects have set a good precedent for aquaculture development, and the training of local counterparts almost guarantees sustainability after the external component of the project has withdrawn.
Apart from these national projects, there is a regional programme, Aquaculture for Local Community Development (ALCOM), funded by the Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA) and Belgium and executed by FAO. The programme, which concentrates initially on the SADC region, seeks to develop, test and demonstrate strategies, methods and techniques by which rural populations can improve their living standards through aquaculture. It is scheduled to run for an initial five-year period starting in 1990. In Zimbabwe, the programme concentrates on the enhancement of small water bodies and has since made great strides towards showing that these have great potential for fish production.
The government has also spearheaded some aquaculture development efforts aimed at institution building for training and research. In the early eighties, the government allocated ZWD 600 000 to upgrade fisheries research facilities at the Lake Kariba Fisheries Research Institute. This institute has since developed into the largest public sector research station. It is, however, sad to note that its aquaculture research programmes ceased in the seventies and there is currently no significant aquaculture research going on; instead, much of the research now focuses on capture fisheries on the lake.
Another major development proposal for a warmwater fish culture research and training centre was put forward in 1981 based on an analysis of Zimbabwe's fish requirements (Kenmuir, 1990). The centre's objectives would be to (i) improve and adapt the existing fish culture methods through research, (ii) provide extension services through staff training and (iii) train potential fish farmers in proven fish culture methods (SODETEG, 1984). It was proposed to locate the centre in the Lowveld and construction was to be funded by the government and external aid expected from Japan or France, at an estimated cost of USD 5.25 million (Balarin, 1984). This project however, never materialized and, to date, no clear explanation has been given about why it failed to take off.
From an expansion point of view, the government has through AGRITEX seen the expansion of small-scale rural fish farming to unprecedented levels since 1980. Recent statistics estimate the number of small ponds to be more than 6 500 country-wide. This is indicative of a major developmental thrust on the part of the government, and such trends can largely be attributed to collaborative external projects, particularly the UNDP/FAO project.
Production from these ponds is mainly aimed at domestic consumption and most fish farmers practise intermittent harvesting, which makes it difficult to accurately estimate the total fish production. However, findings from rural fish farming surveys (Mandima, 1992) clearly show that this venture was successful in achieving the government's primary goals of stabilizing the rural economy, creating employment and enhancing household food security. In this respect, the development can be regarded as being socially successful. Fish consumption has generally increased as a result of this, and this should be taken as a success indicator.
On the other hand, the private sector has not been a mere spectator in aquaculture development, having otherwise led the way in the commercial sector. In the mid-seventies, Cairns Holdings established a trout farm in the Eastern Highlands. This has developed over the years and has all the time registered increased production, reaching close to 20 t/year in the late eighties. Their product is targeted to the prime hotel market, and it has so far been a successful venture. Variants to this development are the stocking of reservoirs and use of local rivers for recreational fishing, which also generate substantial income.
In 1980, a freshwater prawn farm was established at Lake Kariba by Cairns Holdings. Polyculture was practised using the common and silver carps. The targeted production level for prawns was 4–6 t/year, but actual production was always slightly lower. The produce was marketed in local hotels. The venture however, failed to reach expectations due to breeding problems, poor availability and high cost of the marine component, low quality feed from National Foods, outbreaks of black spot disease and predation.
Consequently, the entire freshwater prawn culture venture flopped, and in 1992 it was stopped. The farm is now transforming into a tilapia fish farm and is implementing a pilot project phase with both cage and land-based pond production systems. Under this pilot project, annual production from cages is planned to reach 45 t while that from ponds should reach 60 tonnes. The long-term target is 400–500 t/year after about five years.
Cairns Holdings also established a tilapia production unit at Mount Hampden near Harare, with the ultimate intention of producing 400 t/year. This project was a total failure due to the lack of reliable water supply, and no significant production has been forthcoming from the farm.
Other pioneer development projects include V and M Fisheries on Lake Robertson which, in the eighties, developed a tilapia farm for producing both fish seed and table fish. The venture has registered limited success and this is a result of the common constraints cited earlier, particularly that of lack of good quality feed at economically reasonable prices.
In 1983, Keith Nicholson established the Kariba Bream Farm on the shores of Lake Kariba. The farm has grown from about 10 ha of 15 earthen ponds to 15 ha of ponds, raceways, hatchery and fish processing factory. Production has been averaging 60 t/year and this has now increased to a capacity of 100 t (Nicholson, 1993, pers.comm.). Despite a variety of constraints, the entrepreneur is generally satisfied and acknowledges that the venture is profitable.
Other commercial fish farming concerns include the pond/raceway/cage tilapia farm established by Rothmans Ltd. at Mazvikadei near Banket and the Edgro farm near Harare. The former is performing well and has the potential to register significant financial profits. A new commercial multi-million dollar (ZWD 9 million) aquaculture venture is currently being established near the Zambezi River at Chirundu and it is expected to be the largest single aquaculture unit in Zimbabwe when fully operational. This project is under World Bank funding.
From this trend of developments in the commercial sector, it is apparent that fish farming is gaining economic status among local commercial investors. While failures have indeed been experienced, there is a general optimism for the future success of the industry, and this is largely based on the knowledge of factors that led to failure in the past.
The public sector
At national level, aquaculture research is conducted under the auspices of two departments falling under two ministries; the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management's Aquatic Ecology Branch of the Ministry of Environment and Tourism, and the Department of Research and Specialist Services of the Ministry of Lands, Agriculture and Rural Resettlement. Of these two, the DNPWM has been active to some extent through the last 15–20 years, while the DRSS only took off recently, after the rehabilitation of the Henderson fish farm by FAO/TCP in 1989. Again, most of the research there will be spearheaded by DNPWM, which has seconded an ecologist and fish scouts to work at Henderson. Another public institution which indirectly participates in research is the University of Zimbabwe, through its postgraduate research programmes.
The private sector
In this sector, the main participants are the stock feed producers, namely National Foods Limited and Agrifoods, which have taken the lead in fish feed research. This is done in conjunction with private aquaculture entrepreneurs like the Nyanga Trout Farm, which is the sole major producer of trout. Other parties involved include all the private commercial aquaculture enterprises which engage in various forms of applied research, mainly concerned with selective fish breeding.
No clearly defined research objectives have been set by the public sector but, based on observations and infrastructural set ups, the most probable research agenda is:
To conduct selective breeding experiments that would enhance the propagation of indigenous species such as O. mossambicus, T. rendalli, Clarias gariepinus;
to establish functional hatchery systems with the capacity to produce adequate fish seed for the aquaculture industry;
to conduct research on fish nutrition, fish feeds and pathology;
to carry out farming systems research, in particular polyculture, integrated fish farming and cage, pond, tank and raceway farming.
The public sector aims at conducting research to satisfy requirements falling within the framework of national development plans. To this end, the research agenda seeks to promote rural fish farming by availing viable fingerlings of indigenous species to the farmers, and also through recommending suitable farming systems. Integrated rural development is the scheme through which government development policy is being implemented, and aquaculture institutions also aim to try integrated fish farming systems which would fit into the existing crop and animal farming systems in communal areas.
International assistance programmes have also influenced the research focus of the public sector. For instance, the UNDP/FAO project which included a small water bodies restocking phase, stimulated and influenced the decision by the DNPWM and DRSS to intensify research on fish breeding and produce more viable fingerlings.
Research by institutions like the University of Zimbabwe are normally selected by the individual researcher as partial fulfilment of the degree's academic requirements. Consequently, there is generally no link to national development plans.
On the other hand, the private sector has taken the lead in most applied research issues, particularly the development of fish feeds, a task made easy by the existence of a well established stock feed industry. Selective fish breeding is also an area of major focus from the commercial sector. Basically, all their research is aimed at developing farming systems and technologies which enhance the realisation of better profit margins. Little, if any, consideration is given to existing national development plans. Since the private sector engages in fish farming purely for business purposes, increased productivity and development of cost-effective technologies are the ultimate objectives of its applied research.
Regardless of the impressive outline of guideline objectives, very little reported research has taken place at any of the eight public research stations. All that has been happening is the production of fry for supply to fish farmers and reservoir stocking, and most of these fish are essentially wild since no systematic breeding is implemented (Mutsekwa, 1991). It can thus be safely said that little of the potential research capacity has been utilized to date.
However, the private sector through commercial fish farmers has been taking the lead in other aspects of research. Most important is the selective breeding research through hybridization of O. mossambicus and O. macrochir to get all-male fry with better growth at the Kariba Bream Farm. Trials using methyl-testosterone for all-male fry production have also been conducted, and various other exotic species (Nile tilapia, Chinese carps) have been tried. At the moment, the farm produces mostly O. niloticus, which is manually sexed, all the breeding techniques having been developed on the farm. The Cairns Holdings Kariba Prawn Farm also conducts applied breeding research and, most importantly, has trials for the propagation of Clarias spp. through induced breeding.
The Nyanga Trout Farm has been actively involved in trout feed research and has, on many occasions, carried out various nutrition-related studies. A characteristic of private sector research activites is that it is all applied and aimed at boosting the profitability of the aquaculture business.
Non-governmental organizations such as the Cold Comfort Farm Trust also carry out applied research on farming systems, aimed at developing integrated fish farming systems that can be adapted to existing rural agro-based economic activities.
An overall assessment shows that only research conducted on commercial fish farms contributes to biotechnological aspects of fish farming. A unique study by the AFC provided information on the economic feasibility of different aquaculture production models (Gutu, 1991). This stands as a vital resource for new investors in the aquaculture business.
Social impact research was incorporated in UNDP/FAO socio-economic surveys conducted in 1991 under the auspices of AGRITEX as well as in a simultaneous survey conducted under the sponsorship of the Finnish International Development Agency (Mandima, 1992). Both studies unveiled the existing activity profiles of communal target groups and the fish consumption habits in different rural areas of Zimbabwe. There now exists an informative data base from these baseline studies.
To date, no environmental impact assessment has been conducted, apart from a short impact assessment done for cage culture in Lake Kariba by Swedish students through the LKFRI. Findings from this study have not yet been published.
The DNPWM has seven research stations spread all over the country. Of these, the LKFRI, the Nyanga Trout Centre, Lake Chivero and Lake Mutirikwi stations have hatcheries and fairly up-to-date facilities for research. The stations are actually under-utilised for research and are only active in fry production for SWB stocking.
The DRSS manages the Henderson research station, where pond facilities are available for a functional experimental and demonstration fish farm, but during the last two-to-three years little research has been done at Henderson because of severe drought and lack of water from the Mazoe Dam. Since its re-opening in 1980, this station has been involved in fry production activities for Micropterus salmoides, Tilapia rendalli, O. mossambicus, O. andersonii and C. carpio for stocking of small water bodies (Balarin, 1984). In 1988–89, an FAO/TCP project was implemented to rehabilitate the fish farm. This has been followed by the secondment of an ecologist from DNPWM as well as a full-time head from the DRSS (ALCOM, 1991; Nugent and Campbell, 1988). Current research places particular emphasis on integrated fish-cum-pig culture as well as the pursuance of a reliable fry production programme using indigenous tilapias as broodstock (ALCOM, 1991).
Nyanga Trout Research Station
Headed by an ecologist, this station focuses its research on a selective breeding programme to produce quality trout fingerlings which are disease-resistant and tolerant to high temperatures for stocking in recreational lakes and rivers in the Eastern Highlands. Other research work includes different culture techniques (e.g. cage culture) and better food quality to minimize nutritional diseases (Balarin, 1984; ALCOM, 1991).
Lake Chivero Fisheries Research Station
Research is mainly concerned with fish breeding. In the seventies it became the main source of black bass, Micropterus salmoides, and tilapia seeds for distribution and stocking in small water bodies after the closure of the aquaculture section at Henderson. Breeding experiments aimed at producing all-male hybrids of O. mossambicus × O. macrochir are a main activity, using Brazilian-type hatchery ponds. Other activities include cage trials, design of automatic feeders and feeding experiments (Balarin, 1984; ALCOM, 1991). All this research is facilitated by the 20 ponds of 400–500 m2 (20 ha) present on site. A recent development is the involvement of the station research staff in the setting up of a mass fry production hatchery for the grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella, with funding from DANIDA (ALCOM, 1991).
Lake Sebakwe Fisheries Research Station
Opened in 1987, it is involved in the production of tilapia fry for stocking reservoirs of the Midlands province. Supporting infrastructure include a few ponds on site (ALCOM, 1991).
Lake Mutirikwi Fisheries Station
With 19 ponds (1 ha) and 5 circular tanks of 30 m3, research at this station concentrates on fingerling production of Micropterus salmoides, various tilapia hybrids and a local freshwater prawn, Macrobrachium lepidactylis. While the former are for stocking into Lake Mutirikwi for angling purposes, the latter is studied for culture potential (Balarin, 1984; ALCOM, 1991).
Bulawayo Branch of Aquatic Ecology
Established in 1981, it aimed at taking care of fisheries research, development and management in Matebeleland. To date, there is no infrastructure for any reasonable aquaculture research (ALCOM, 1991).
Lake Kariba Fisheries Research Institute (LKFRI)
This is the largest of the research stations and today has a semi-autonomous status with funding from DANIDA and NORAD. Research activities are manned by a doctorate scientist assisted by four ecologists, all with M.Sc degree qualifications. Most research work is on the ecology and fisheries of Lake Kariba. Some aquaculture research used to be conducted in the seventies (Kenmuir, 1973), but this subject has since lost ground with the increase in the commercial exploitation of Limnothrissa miodon (kapenta) which has prompted increased research for this new fishery.
However, in the mid-eighties, the station was involved in research to assess the aquaculture potential of the Lake Kariba environment. This thrust for aquaculture research was reinforced by the construction of four concrete tanks of 5–10 m3 and small aquaria (Balarin, 1984). Recent aquaculture activities include assistance research during the establishment of the King Prawn Ltd by Cairns Foods for cage culture, monitoring trials with Procambrus by Anderson of Kariba Air Safaris Ltd, work with Kariba Foods (Pvt) Ltd to induce spawning in Clarias and checking the potential of tilapia hybrids for production under local conditions (Balarin, 1984).
Matopos National Park
There is no on-going research at this station, and its role is entirely extension. This involves the monitoring of recreational fishing within the National Parks area of Matopos (Balarin, 1984; ALCOM, 1991).
There are excellent laboratory facilities at LKFRI but all the other stations are poorly equipped.
The stations are entirely funded by the government through their respective ministries. No figures could be obtained of money allocated for research, but the general picture given by officers at these stations is that too little money is earmarked for research. Consequently, only routine services are offered such as fry production using wild fish stocks.
The Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management, which has the jurisdiction to conduct aquaculture research has from 14 to 20 qualified ecologists. Of these, one is a doctoral scientist, three are at advanced stages in their doctoral studies, the majority have a master's degree in a branch of fisheries science, and only a few have a B.Sc Honours in biological sciences or some ecological science. This staff is stationed at different research centres country-wide. Most of them, however, are engaged more in fisheries than aquaculture research.
The DRSS has one researcher with a master's degree in animal science (small livestock) and a postgraduate diploma in fisheries. He is currently heading the Henderson fish farm.
AGRITEX, which is the government extension wing, boasts of three fisheries extension specialists, two at the Fisheries Unit in Harare and one at Henderson. They all have a B.Sc honours degree in a biological science, and two of them have undergone specialized aquaculture short courses in Kenya and Thailand under the UNDP/FAO project.
The other institution with manpower that can potentially be used for aquaculture research is the University of Zimbabwe's biological sciences department. It has two fisheries scientists, one currently an associate professor and the other about to complete his doctorate studies. Furthermore, the University of Zimbabwe Lake Kariba Research Station (ULKRS) has three qualified research scientists: a well-experienced professor who is an aquatic ecologist, another aquatic ecologist with a doctorate, fisheries and aquaculture scientist with a master's degree and registered for a doctorate. There is scope for involvement of these scientists in aquaculture research in the future.
No research programmes have so far been successfully completed to yield tangible results, but a number of programmes are being developed. The LKFRI intends to work with Kariba Foods (Pvt) Ltd to induce spawning in Clarias spp. and also to check the aquaculture potential of tilapia hybrids under local conditions. The Chivero Research Station aims at producing all-male hybrids of O. mossambicus and O. macrochir. Research is also underway to test various culture techniques such as cage culture, designs of automatic feeders, feed trials and use of greenhouses.
At Lake Mutirikwi Fishery Station, trials are underway to produce all-male tilapia hybrids, and findings so far indicate hybrid vigour to be evident. Furthermore, research is being conducted on growth and reproduction of a local freshwater prawn indigenous to the Save-Runde river systems, Macrobrachium lepidactylis, to assess its culture potential. The black bass is also undergoing trials, and fingerlings are being produced for stocking in Lake Mutirikwi for angling purposes.
The Nyanga Trout Centre has embarked on a 17-year breeding programme aimed at producing trout best adapted to the local environment. Other research activities are concerned with trout feed development and disease control.
As an on-going programme, all these major stations, including Henderson, produce various grades of tilapia fry and fingerlings. These are stocked in SWB as well as in rivers, as in the case of trout, for recreational purposes.
It was not possible to obtain information on the procedures followed in defining research programmes, but observations seem to indicate a balance between top-down and bottom-up approaches. The ministry sets out parameters within which research proposals should be made to satisfy national development plans. It then becomes the prerogative of the research scientists to make project proposals within their areas of expertise, giving due consideration to the relevance of the study to developments in the aquaculture industry.
Researchers also work out annual project budgets and these are submitted to the DNPWM Head Office for approval, after which they are submitted to the respective ministry. Thereafter, an allocation is made to the DNPWM which, in turn, allocates the funds to different stations, according to their individual needs. The officer-in-charge then administers the day-to-day use of the money while keeping the Director of DNPWM informed through the Deputy Director in charge of the Aquatic Ecology Branch.
Each station produces an annual report in which all research activities are outlined and these become part of the DNPWM publication series.
The same process takes place in AGRITEX and DRSS. The former, however, being an extension wing, is mainly concerned with development. There is currently very little coordination and colloboration between the government research and extension departments. What the DNPWM envisages as relevant for national development plans and incorporates in their research schemes is often not used by AGRITEX in the aquaculture extension and development efforts.
Most research findings are never published, even in local journals, usually ending up in office cabinets away from the public. This poor information dissemination has led to a generally reluctant attitude towards increasing funding for research since the results are not accessible for use.
Ideally, research is intended to cater for development needs but, in practice, this is not so. However, it is a clearly spelt out government policy that the DNPWM is responsible for producing fish fingerlings from its stations for supply to rural fish farmers as well as for stocking SWB. In this way, research has been used to support development schemes. However, research findings have never been the basis for development plans, a situation which may be attributed to the difficulty in accessing these results.
In Zimbabwe there has generally been a very poor relationship between research and production. This situation is caused by the fact that research (DNPWM) and extension (AGRITEX) departments fall under different ministries which have different operational agendas. Concern about this lack of collaboration was expressed during a round-table meeting convened by ALCOM in 1991. Participants noted that research and extension (development) at national level need to be streamlined to allow better co-operation and coordination among various agencies to avoid reinvention of the wheel, allow higher productivity and permit improved access to the locally available knowledge and information base (ALCOM, 1991).
In the private sector, producers directly participate in applied research activities. There is a tendency of commercial fish farms, such as the Nyanga Trout Farm, Kariba Bream Farm, Kariba Prawn Farm and others, to incorporate research activities into their operations. Their findings and efforts have rarely been utilised by the public sector, though there is now a drive towards using fish fingerlings produced through selective breeding by commercial fish farmers for SWB stocking.
The limited collaboration that is starting to show up is mainly technical. The DNPWM stations supply fish fingerlings to AGRITEX which uses them for stocking SWB and rural farmers' ponds. At Henderson fish culture station, findings on trials with integrated fish farming systems are being adopted for rural aquaculture development in order to enhance production levels.
The LKFRI also collaborated with Cairns Holdings during the establishment of the King Prawn Farm and following up on an impact assessment of production on the environment. There is thus a general tendency by commercial investors to consult the DNPWM for technical and social assistance to identify appropriate technologies during the initial phases of establishment.
Subjects for collaboration between research and production are evidently still limited, but the situation seems to be improving, with the parties involved gradually realizing the need for such collaboration.
The only existing mechanism to facilitate collaboration in Zimbabwe is extension. As noted earlier, all public sector and externally funded development projects targeted to the rural sector are implemented through AGRITEX. The latter then uses technologies developed through research. This is done through extension manuals developed by AGRITEX on the basis of findings from Henderson fish culture station or other government research stations.
The department for research itself does not have its own publication which could be used as a medium for communicating research findings to the production sector.
Joint research by the LKFRI and Kariba Foods (Pvt) Ltd to induce spawning in Clarias spp. was successful, but the production of fingerlings could not be sustained due to lack of adequate hatchery infrastructure. Work on this subject is continuing at Cairns Holdings's fish farm in Kariba.
Trials to produce all-male tilapia hybrids (male × female) at Mutirikwi Research Station yielded the following results:
O. placidus × O. mossambicus = 60 per cent male hybrids
O. placidus × O. macrochir = 81
O. macrochir × O. mossambicus = 99.9
O. macrochir × O. placidus = 99
O. mossambicus × O. macrochir = 50
These findings were already reported by Balarin (1984) but the current status and use of the findings has not been documented.
Research on the growth and reproduction of a local freshwater prawn, Macrobrachium lepidactylis has not been documented and it probably failed. Another research subject is the production of black bass juveniles for SWB stocking, but the sustainability of this programme is doubtful, especially now that research programmes are geared towards promoting the propagation of indigenous tilapia species.
The 17-year trout breeding programme had hitches in the late eighties and early nineties due to a nutritional disease outbreak, and to date no report on progress made has been publicized.
Most of the other programmes run country-wide, aimed at producing fingerlings for SWB and pond stocking. They were virtually stalled in 1990–92 due to a severe drought and the drying out of most SWB. A vast restocking programme was organized in 1993 (AGRITEX/FAO). following a good rainy season.
Continuity of some research programmes has failed, due to lack of adequate funding from the government. Furthermore, research institutions have also to police capture fisheries, an activity which seems to preoccupy all of them since the natural resource to monitor is already there. Capture fisheries obtain more easily funding from donors and this makes it easier to implement research in this sector than in aquaculture (e.g. the case of LKFRI). The situation is further aggravated by the lack of reliable sources of good-quality pond water at most research stations which ultimately led to failure in programme implementation.
In the private sector, research at the Kariba Bream Farm has shown that O. niloticus has a 2:1 food conversion ratio (FCR), as compared to 3 to 4:1 for O. mossambicus. These findings led the farm to bias their production to the Nile tilapia.
To some extent, priorities have already been defined by government in collaboration with donor agencies to develop the rural aquaculture sector. The Ministry of Environment and Tourism and that of Lands, Agriculture and Rural Resettlement collaborated in setting the development priorities.
The short-term priority was to rehabilitate Henderson fish farm with funding from FAO/TCP. This was deemed necessary in order to provide a functional base for institution building, where experiments could be carried out and fingerlings produced to cater for emergent rural fish farmers.
As part of the short-term objectives, the project was also to support rural aquaculture extension in its second phase, funded by UNDP and implemented by FAO and AGRITEX. Justification for this focus on rural aquaculture was that government was implementing integrated rural development projects and the concerned ministries wanted aquaculture to be part of that integration. Furthermore, 70 per cent of Zimbabwe's population is rural, and it is here that a great need for animal protein exists, so aquaculture would be one way of increasing availability of cheap animal protein.
Apart from this past priority, the following is a list of envisaged priority lines for aquaculture development.
Rehabilitation of government facilities
In the short-term, the government should rehabilitate all facilities at the DNPWM stations country-wide in order to revive their fingerling production capacities. This is necessary since there is currently an outcry from communal fish farmers on the lack of a reliable source of adequate and viable fish seed. Funding should be given by the government which should realise that this is the only way to succeed in developing rural fish farming, while some money could be solicited from donor agencies. There is also scope to contract private fish farmers to produce fingerlings as a short-term measure while the government is reviving its infrastructure.
Aquaculture education and training
There is need to set up a long-term training programme at the level of agricultural colleges and university to train manpower in aquaculture. This could be done through having more aquaculture and fisheries courses in the B.Sc Biological Sciences degree programme and by starting an aquaculture and fisheries management master's course. This would go a long way in boosting the manpower requirements at the research stations in Zimbabwe, since the current staff seems to be mostly preoccupied by capture fisheries engagements.
Market development
There is need for market development as a long-term priority to cater for the rural small-scale producers as well as individual commercial producers who are out-competed and dominated by monopolistic corporate food companies like Cairns and Willards, which already have wide market structures. This could be implemented by AGRITEX during its extension missions. The commercial farmers could also contribute if encouraged to form Fish Farmers' Associations.
Fish feed availability
The fish feeds industry needs to be developed as a long-term priority. The only suppliers of stock feed, National Foods and Agrifoods, are producing poor quality feed; this is probably prompted by the fact that the aquaculture sector is still very small. It could therefore be wise for the commercial sector to vertically integrate and include feed production in their schemes to ensure reliable supply of quality fish feed.
In Zimbabwe, these priorities were defined at a meeting convened by ALCOM in 1991 and attended by representatives of the DNPWM, AGRITEX, DRSS, the University of Zimbabwe, commercial fish farmers and the two FAO-executed projects, ALCOM and UNDP/FAO ZIM/88/021.
Research priorities agreed on are as listed below:
Species selection for pond culture as a short-term programme.
Pond ecology as a long-term priority, since physical research conditions and locations are variable.
Aquaculture and farming systems, especially on determining the best combinations for polyculture and appropriate integration systems, taking into consideration the prevailing agro-economic activities in different localities.
Evaluation of organic fertilization and fish feeds, i.e. animal wastes, crop residues and formulated commercial feeds. Long-term studies should be undertaken to develop plant-based protein fish feeds in order to minimise the high cost of fish-meal-based feeds.
Catfish propagation, since this fish has been identified as a potentially important species for the future development of aquaculture in Africa.
Biology and ecology of exotic species such as the carps and Nile tilapia under local conditions should be conducted before large-scale introductions are carried out.
Fish pathology, especially now that aquaculture is likely to develop widely and disease problems to become a more common feature.
Market research to assess the distribution of fish from capture fisheries, especially kapenta, in order to see how this would affect the marketing of aquaculture products. This was to be implemented under the UNDP/FAO project, but it has not taken off the ground to date.
These research priorities were defined after considering that although some research has been done in these areas, findings are not definitive and in most cases the programmes were not completed. The current government plan includes aquaculture development at national level for which a backing research machinery is considered essential.
For all these research priorities no executing agencies were specified. It is, however, expected that the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management will take charge of most of these research programmes as per government jurisdiction. Some research, especially on farming systems, could be conducted by the DRSS at Henderson. It is thus clear that institutions for this research are already available in Zimbabwe, if only they could get funding to renovate and establish infrastructure. The University of Zimbabwe can also, in the long-run, be involved in some of these research programmes through its research station in Kariba.
The major limitation for the implementation of research in Zimbabwe is funding. Government record to date has proven that it cannot support sustainable research programmes. There is therefore a need for the ministries concerned to seek external funding to stimulate research in the short-term. The government could ultimately take over when the economic climate improves.
ALCOM, 1991. Round Table Meeting on Research Needs in Aquaculture and Culture-based Fisheries in Zimbabwe. ALCOM Field Doc., (18):40 p.
Balarin, J.D., 1984. National reviews for aquaculture development in Africa. 1. Zimbabwe. FAO Fish.Circ., (770.1):67 p.
Govereh, J., S.M. Chigume and S. Sen, 1992. Socio-economic and marketing constraints to the development of aquaculture and utilisation of small water bodies in Zimbabwe. AGRITEX Fisheries Unit, FAO/UNDP support for Rural Aquaculture Extension (ZIM/88/021), 82 p. + ann.
Gutu, K. 1991. Feasibility study on economics of fish farming in Zimbabwe: the AFC perspective. Unpubl. report
Kenmuir, D.H.S., 1981. Temperature and fish growth in a hot house fish pond. Zimbabwe Agric. J., 78(5)
Kenmuir, D.H.S, 1988. Zimbabwe's fish needs stimulate farming. Fish Farming International, 15(1):67
Kenmuir, D.H.S, 1990. New centre planned for farm research. Fish Farming International, 17(5)
Mandima, J.J., 1992. Socio-economics of aquaculture development as part of integrated rural development in Zimbabwe. M.Sc. Thesis, University of Kuopio, Finland
Mutsekwa, S.E., 1991. Aquaculture Development: Where we are and where we are going. ALCOM Field Doc., (18):16–21
Nugent, C. and D. Campbell, 1988. Zimbabwe. Technical assistance for the rehabilitation of Henderson aquaculture farm and proposal for extension and training in rural aquaculture. Rome, FAO, FI:TCP/ZIM/6753, 41 p.
SODETEG, 1984. Mtilikwe aquaculture research, training and demonstration centre. Final Report, Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism
Soulsby, J., 1982. Inland fisheries. In Clark, J.M. et al., Report of the Zimbabwe general project identification mission. Rome, FAO Investment Centre, Report 29/82 DDC (ZIM4), pp. 63–67
