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Regulatory Issues in Africa's Regulatory Framework

Bruce Mukanda, Lusaka, Zambia

Introduction

Africa, with a human population of about 856,174,814, occupies a total surface area of 30,359,509 square kilometers of which 98% is land and 2% is water. About 10.5% of the land is arable, most of it found in sub-Saharan Africa, while 3.2% has permanent crops and the rest is used for other purposes (Table 1).

Given the large land and water resources available, agricultural forms a significant proportion of the economies most African countries, especially sub-Saharan Africa, with the GDP in most of these countries ranging between 20% to 74% of the total GDP (Table 2). This obviously means that the production of raw materials and food are significant economic activities in these countries and the continent as a whole, and positions the continent as an important bread-basket for the world.

However, in most African countries dualistic agricultural systems are practiced, and where this is so, crop production seems to take higher priority over livestock (Table 3). This is despite the fact that livestock production in most countries serves as a source of protein, raw materials such as hides for the leather industry and draft power, and most communities recognize the important role livestock plays in the economies of these countries.

Most of the livestock resources in African countries are found in the rural/communal sector. In Botswana, for instance, 80% cattle are found in this sector, while in Zambia 70% of this species is owned by rural keepers. In most African countries, the major purposes of livestock production in this sector are as a symbol of prestige, a fallback resource and draft power. Hence the sector is in most cases characterized by low productive, transhumance practices and low commercial drive. There is usually no sustained commercial supply of animals to the market except when there is need for financial resources. This, therefore, means that the sector has no sustained profit motive.

In Africa, while the level of consumption of livestock products such as meat, milk and eggs is high in urban areas, this consumption is very low in most rural communities mainly owing to cultural and economic reasons and religious beliefs, yet the sector holds the bulk of livestock resources. This means that the demand for livestock product in rural communities is very low.

Lastly, most African counties run budget deficits (Table 2). This means that one of the measures they have to take in running the economy is to prioritise those sectors they consider more important. One of the influencing criteria for this prioritization is social pressure. The more a society directly or indirectly demands government intervention into a particular sector the higher will that sector be on the priority list. Since most livestock production is not profit and sustained demand driven, it receives low prioritization, resulting in, among other things, inadequate funding to veterinary services, and consequently, inadequate enforcement of regulations.

Veterinary drug regulatory systems

Most African countries do recognize the importance of food hygiene particularly with regards to meat safety, and have laws and regulations that govern food production and processing including such aspects as meat inspection and drug residue levels. This results more from perceived human health concerns rather than sustained consumer pressure for quality products. However, enforcement of such laws and regulations is usually poorly done. Farmers, for instance, sometimes buy veterinary drugs over the counter and administer then on their own. In most cases this results in abuse. All this is attributed to several reasons. Firstly financial resources are usually inadequate for law enforcement agencies to carry out their work effectively. Support facilities such as laboratories are usually ill equipped in terms of both equipment and personnel. This is further compounded by the fact that in terms of prioritization for resource allocation, livestock production is lowly place by most African governments.

The implementation of regulatory systems that ensure food safety require an appreciable amount of resources both from the government and producers point of view. In order to ensure safety of his products for consumers, an individual farmer, for example, has to invest financial resources in animal disease control measures, whether preventive or curative. A processor has to invest appreciably in processes and equipment that assure quality and safety for his products. The producers' willingness to investment into quality and safety assurance systems depends largely on the demand of the consumers and the level of profits or gains he makes by supplying such products. The higher the level of such demand the higher the investment the farmer or processor has to make in order for his products to be accepted by the market.

In dealing with ADI and MRL for residues of veterinary drugs, a number of issues arise. The control of the administration of drugs becomes difficult where resources are not adequate. The process of identifying residue substances requires precision equipment most of which is very expensive. Un less a country has high priority in this regards, few will be willing to invest in them. In situations where LODs and LOQs become lower and lower more sensitive techniques and equipment is required and, as already noted, such levels may be as a result of contamination in one form or another, which also need to be regulated carefully. All these factors put together may require huge resources to invest in.

The relationship between consumer demand, producer motives and market strength on one hand and regulation on the other

When consumers demand a product they do so from a point of view of quantity and quality. The level of each one of these may vary. If the quantity and quality demanded are high, the producers of the products must strive to satisfy them as much as possible otherwise they loose the market. In other words, producers are initially stimulated into ensuring high quality by the level of demand by consumers in both cases.

Producers, on the other hand, are motivated to produce products demanded by consumers if this entails attractive profits for them. Their biggest motivation is profit. If investing into producing the quantity and quality demanded by the market leads to good profits they will be willing to do so.

Consequently when the demand for quantity and quality are high and attractive to the producer in terms of profit, the producers respond, in the process complying with all requirements.

The consumers demand for quality usually includes three major aspects. These are disease control measures implemented in order to ensure that animals slaughtered for food are health, physical quality of the product and ethical considerations. When a producer undertakes to supply the market with products such as meat he has to ensure that that the quality demanded, taking into account these three aspects, is met. The contrary may lead to his products not being bought and therefore loosing his gains. He must then ensure that he invests in quality assurance measures.

On the other hand, if the consumer demand is low, it follows that the producers will not be attracted and may not produce the goods they intended. Sometimes the consumers may demand a certain quantity but not very high quality. In this case, the producers will supply the quantity and low quality, as they are not pressure to meet high standards.

Independent of the quantity or quality the consumer demand, the producers' desire to supply the goods may not be there if they have no profit motive. They therefore do not see the need to invest in producing the quantity and quality the market dictates.

It follows therefore that when the consumers demand is low and the producer motive is not driven by profit quality of the product will also be low.

The African Scenario

Given the fact that the demand for livestock products in most rural communities in Africa is very low, the market for such products within these communities is very low.

Since most communities in Africa do not demand high qualities of livestock products and most rural producers do not have profit motives for their production, the quantity and quality demanded and supplied is low, as both the consumers and the producers do not see the need for higher ones. This leads to low level of compliance with food safety and related regulations.

In addition, since most do not rural markets do not require high standards, there is little pressure on governing authorities to enforce regulations. This means that regulation of foods safety and hygiene becomes of low priority and their enforcement is weakened. In such situations, when governments try to enforce regulations just as an obligation to society even when society has not demanded it, it becomes difficult to achieve and may sometimes lead to black markets.

However, when one takes the example of Botswana, where livestock is the main livelihood of most rural populations, the rural producers supply large numbers of animals to the market in order for them to obtain their livelihood. The government is also willing to support livestock investment ventures with huge financial backing, such as the trace-back system demanded by the EU.

In a situation where the local market is not available for livestock products, despite there being willing producers, a market has to be found elsewhere in order to assure the livelihood of the producers. Botswana also serves as an example of this as it exports huge amounts of meet to the EU. The quantity and quality supplied by producers in this case will be dictated by this external market, and in this case by the EU.

However, when the demand of an external market becomes too high there is a possibility of it not being attractive to the producers. Most African countries are finding it extremely difficult to export livestock products to developed trading partners because of the many stringent requirements that have been put in place. In the specific case of veterinary drug residues it will be extremely difficult for African countries, given the factors discussed above, to make the investment required to detect these residues at LOD or LOQ. As a result this will hinder them from complying with the export requirements and consequently will not be able to trade in meat and related products.

Conclusion

Africa, having a great potential for agricultural production, is an important bread-basket for the world. In this position the continent will be required to produce sufficient quantities and quality of food products, including those derived from livestock, not only for its own market, but also for the external one. The quality of food supplied will depend on Africa's ability to institute and enforce regulations that ensure that international standards are adhered to. Among these will be those to do with MRL and ADI for veterinary drug residues, whose use is widespread on the continent. However, in order to achieve this the continent will have to make considerable investments into institutions, equipment and personnel needed for this task. With the current levels of budgetary deficits, coupled with the generally low livestock product consumption levels and insufficient profit motive, there is no significant motivation for producing required quantities and quality of livestock products especially meat, milk and eggs. There is also failure to enforce regulations and, therefore, putting consumers at risk. Issues of veterinary drugs without ADI/MRL become of great concern in this situation. There is need to find an innovative way of ensuring that Africa moves to implement sufficient standards for food products in general and veterinary drug use in particular.

Recommendations

In order to deal with the African situation, the following suggestions should be considered:

Concerted efforts should be made to educate the rural population on the importance of consuming livestock products;

Similarly, efforts should be made to educate the rural producers on the benefits of profit driven production. However, this is a toll order as it involves changing people's attitudes.

The most effective alternative to the education of the rural producers, is the encouragement of out-grower schemes, especially among the already enlightened part of the rural population;

The establishment of out-grower schemes can then be used as a means of ensuring that farmers are provided with the proper professional veterinary service and ensure that compliance with regulations regarding the use of veterinary drugs, among other things, is observed. In this case, such services could be included as one of the prerequisites for eligibility for a farmer to participate in the scheme. In addition, strict monitoring of drug usage and residue levels in products could also form part of the package. Governments can then work through such schemes to regulate veterinary drug usage and promote good veterinary practices in general in accordance with the dictates of international standards; and

Given their economic situation, not all African counties may manage to implement quality assurance schemes without assistance from its cooperating partners. It is, therefore, important for international assistance to Africa, especially with regards to the issue of veterinary drug residues, to be enhanced.

Table 1: Surface Area and Land Use on the African Continent


Surface Area (sq km)

Land Use (%)

Country

Total

Land

Water

Arable

Crops

Other

Algeria

2,381,740

2,381,740

0

3

0

97

Angola

1,246,700

1,246,700

0

2

0

97

Benin

112,620

110,620

2,000

15

1

83

Botswana

600,370

585,370

15,000

1

0

99

Burkina Faso

274,200

273,800

400

12

0

87

Burundi

27,830

25,650

2,180

30

13

57

Cameroon

475,440

469,440

6,000

13

3

85

Cape Verde

4,033

4,033

0

10

1

90

Cen. Afri. Rep.

622,984

622,984

0

3

0

97

Chad

1,284,000

1,259,200

24,800

3

0

97

Comoros

2,170

2,170

0

35

18

47

Congo D.R.

2,345,410

2,267,600

77,810

3

1

97

Congo Rep

342,000

341,500

500

1

0

99

Cote d'Ivoire

322,460

318,000

4,460

9

14

77

Djibouti

23,000

22,980

20

0

0

100

Egypt

1,001,450

995,450

6,000

3

0

97

Equ. Guinea

28,051

28,051

0

5

4

92

Eritrea

121,320

121,320

0

4

0

96

Ethiopia

1,127,127

1,119,683

7,444

10

1

89

Gabon

267,667

257,667

10,000

1

1

98

Gambia, The

11,300

10,000

1,300

20

1

80

Ghana

239,460

230,940

8,520

16

7

77

Guinea

245,857

245,857

0

4

2

94

Guinea Bissau

36,120

28,000

8,120

11

2

88

Kenya

582,650

569,250

13,400

7

1

92

Lesotho

30,355

30,355

0

11

0

89

Liberia

111,370

96,320

15,050

2

2

96

Libya

1,759,540

1,759,540

0

1

0

99

Madagascar

587,040

581,540

5,500

4

1

95

Malawi

118,480

94,080

24,400

20

1

79

Mali

1,240,000

1,220,000

20,000

4

0

96

Mauritania

1,030,700

1,030,400

300

0

0

100

Mauritius

2,040

2,030

10

49

3

48

Morocco

446,550

446,300

250

20

2

78

Mozambique

801,590

784,090

17,500

4

0

96

Namibia

825,418

825,418

0

1

0

99

Niger

1,267,000

1,266,700

300

4

0

96

Nigeria

923,768

910,768

13,000

31

3

66

Reunion

2,517

2,507

10

13

2

85

Rwanda

26,338

24,948

1,390

32

10

57

Sao Tome & P.

1,001

1,001

0

2

41

57

Senegal

196,190

192,000

4,190

12

0

88

Seychelles

455

455

0

2

13

84

Sierra Leone

71,740

71,620

120

7

1

92

Somalia

637,657

627,337

10,320

2

0

98

South Africa

1,219,912

1,219,912

0

12

1

87

Sudan

2,505,810

2,376,000

129,810

7

0

93

Swaziland

17,363

17,203

160

10

1

90

Tanzania

945,087

886,037

59,050

4

1

95

Togo

56,785

54,385

2,400

41

2

57

Tunisia

163,610

155,360

8,250

19

13

68

Uganda

236,040

199,710

36,330

25

9

66

West. Sahara

266,000

266,000

0

0

0

100

Zambia

752,614

740,724

11,890

7

0

93

Zimbabwe

390,580

386,670

3,910

8

0

91

AFRICA

30,359,509

29,807,415

552,094

10

3

86

Source: World Fact Book (CIA)

Table 2: GDP and Budgets of African Countries


GDP (ppp)

Budget (Billion US$)

Country

Total (US$m)

P/Cap. (US$)

Agric (%)

Indus. (%)

Serv. (%)

Revenue

Expenditure

Deficit

Algeria

167,000.00

5300

8

60

32

20.3

18.8

1.5

Angola

16,900.00

1600

8

67

25

0.928

2.5

-1.572

Benin

7,300.00

1070

38

15

47

0.377

0.562

-0.185

Botswana

15,100.00

9500

4

44

52

2.3

2.4

-0.1

Burkina Faso

13,600.00

1080

35

17

48

0.316

0

0.316

Burundi

3,800.00

600

50

19

31

0.125

0.176

-0.051

Cameroon

27,000.00

1700

46

21

33

2.2

2.1

0.1

Cape Verde

600.00

1400

11

17

72

0.112

0.198

-0.086

Cen. Afri. Rep.

4,700.00

1300

55

20

25

0

0

0

Chad

10,000.00

1100

38

13

49

0.198

0.218

-0.02

Comoros

441.00

720

40

4

56

0.028

0

0.028

Congo D.R.

34,000.00

610

55

11

34

0.269

0.244

0.025

Congo Rep

2,500.00

900

10

48

42

0.87

0.97

-0.1

Cote d'Ivoire

24,500.00

1500

29

22

49

1.72

2.4

-0.68

Djibouti

619.00

1300

3.5

15.8

80.7

0.135

0.182

-0.047

Egypt

268,000.00

3900

17

34

49

21.5

26.2

-4.7

Equ. Guinea

1,270.00

2700

20

60

20

0.2

0.158

0.042

Eritrea

3,300.00

740

17

29

54

0.206

0.616

-0.41

Ethiopia

50,600.00

750

52

11

37

1.8

1.9

-0.1

Gabon

7,000.00

5700

15

60

25

1.8

1.8

0

Gambia, The

2,600.00

1800

33

13

54

0.091

0.081

0.01

Ghana

42,500.00

2100

36

25

39

1.603

1.975

-0.372

Guinea

15,900.00

2000

25

37

38

0.396

0.472

-0.076

Guinea Bissau

1,100.00

800

62

12

26

0

0

0

Kenya

32,000.00

1020

24

13

63

2.91

2.97

-0.06

Lesotho

5,600.00

2700

20

46

34

0.076

0.08

-0.004

Liberia

3,500.00

1100

74

7

19

0.085

0.905

-0.82

Libya

41,000.00

7600

9

45

46

13.7

8.6

5.1

Madagascar

12,600.00

760

25

12

63

0.553

0.735

-0.182

Malawi

7,200.00

670

37

16

47

0.49

0.523

-0.033

Mali

9,800.00

860

45

17

48

0.764

0.828

-0.064

Mauritania

5,300.00

1900

25

29

46

0.421

0.378

0.043

Mauritius

13,200.00

11000

6

33

61

1.1

1.2

-0.1

Morocco

115,000.00

3900

15

33

52

13.8

14.6

-0.8

Mozambique

19,200.00

1000

22

23

55

0.393

1.025

-0.632

Namibia

12,600.00

6900

11

28

61

0.883

0.95

-0.067

Niger

8,800.00

830

39

17

44

0.32

0.32

0

Nigeria

113,500.00

875

45

20

35

3.4

3.6

-0.2

Reunion

3,600.00

4800

8

19

73

1.26

2.62

-1.36

Rwanda

9,000.00

1200

45

20

35

0.199

0.445

-0.246

Sao Tome & P.

200.00

1200

25

10

65

0.058

0.114

-0.056

Senegal

16,200.00

1500

18

27

55

1.373

1.373

0

Seychelles

626.00

7800

2.4

24.4

73.2

0.249

0.262

-0.013

Sierra Leone

2,800.00

580

49

31

21

0.096

0.351

-0.255

Somalia

4,100.00

550

65

10

25

0

0

0

South Africa

432,000.00

10000

4.4

28.9

66.7

22.6

24.7

-2.1

Sudan

52,900.00

1420

43

17

40

1.6

1.9

-0.3

Swaziland

4,800.00

4400

17

44

39

0.448

0.507

-0.059

Tanzania

22,500.00

630

48.1

15.4

36.5

1.01

1.38

-0.37

Togo

8,000.00

1500

42

21

37

0.232

0.252

-0.02

Tunisia

63,000.00

6500

12

32

56

5.2

5.7

-0.5

Uganda

31,000.00

1260

43

19

38

0.959

1.04

-0.081

West. Sahara

0.00

0

0

0

40

0

0

0

Zambia

8,900.00

890

22

26

52

1.2

1.25

-0.05

Zimbabwe

27,000.00

2400

18

24

58

2.5

2.6

-0.1

AFRICA

1,806,256.00

2553.98148

29.007407

25.601852

45.492727

0

0

-9.807

Source: World Fact Book (CIA)

Table 3: List of Apparent Prioritisation of Agricultural Products

Country

Agricultural Products

Algeria

wheat, barley, oats, grapes, olives, citrus, fruits; sheep, cattle

Angola

bananas, sugarcane, coffee, sisal, maize, cotton, manioc (tapioca), tobacco, vegetables, plantains; livestock; forest products; fish

Benin

cotton, maize, cassava (tapioca), yams, beans, palm oil, peanuts, livestock (2001)

Botswana

livestock, sorghum, maize, millet, beans, sunflowers, groundnuts

Burkina Faso

cotton, peanuts, shea nuts, sesame, sorghum, millet, maize, rice; livestock

Burundi

coffee, cotton, tea, maize, sorghum, sweet potatoes, bananas, manioc (tapioca); beef, milk, hides

Cameroon

coffee, cocoa, cotton, rubber, bananas, oilseed, grains, root starches; livestock; timber

Cape Verde

bananas, maize, beans, sweet potatoes, sugarcane, coffee, peanuts; fish

Cen. Afri. Rep.

cotton, coffee, tobacco, manioc (tapioca), yams, millet, maize, bananas; timber

Chad

cotton, sorghum, millet, peanuts, rice, potatoes, manioc (tapioca); cattle, sheep, goats, camels

Comoros

vanilla, cloves, perfume essences, copra, coconuts, bananas, cassava (tapioca)

Congo D.R.

coffee, sugar, palm oil, rubber, tea, quinine, cassava (tapioca), palm oil, bananas, root crops, maize, fruits; wood products

Congo Rep

cassava (tapioca), sugar, rice, maize, peanuts, vegetables, coffee, cocoa; forest products

Cote d'Ivoire

coffee, cocoa beans, bananas, palm kernels, maize, rice, manioc (tapioca), sweet potatoes, sugar, cotton, rubber; timber

Djibouti

fruits, vegetables; goats, sheep, camels

Egypt

cotton, rice, maize, wheat, beans, fruits, vegetables; cattle, water buffalo, sheep, goats

Equ. Guinea

coffee, cocoa, rice, yams, cassava (tapioca), bananas, palm oil nuts; livestock; timber

Eritrea

sorghum, lentils, vegetables, maize, cotton, tobacco, coffee, sisal; livestock, goats; fish

Ethiopia

cereals, pulses, coffee, oilseed, sugarcane, potatoes, qat; hides, cattle, sheep, goats

Gabon

cocoa, coffee, sugar, palm oil, rubber; cattle; okoume (a tropical softwood); fish

Gambia, The

rice, millet, sorghum, peanuts, maize, sesame, cassava (tapioca), palm kernels; cattle, sheep, goats

Ghana

cocoa, rice, coffee, cassava (tapioca), peanuts, maize, shea nuts, bananas; timber

Guinea

rice, coffee, pineapples, palm kernels, cassava (tapioca), bananas, sweet potatoes; cattle, sheep, goats; timber

Guinea Bissau

rice, maize, beans, cassava (tapioca), cashew nuts, peanuts, palm kernels, cotton; timber; fish

Kenya

tea, coffee, maize, wheat, sugarcane, fruit, vegetables; dairy products, beef, pork, poultry, eggs

Lesotho

maize, wheat, pulses, sorghum, barley; livestock

Liberia

rubber, coffee, cocoa, rice, cassava (tapioca), palm oil, sugarcane, bananas; sheep, goats; timber

Libya

wheat, barley, olives, dates, citrus, vegetables, peanuts, soybeans; cattle

Madagascar

coffee, vanilla, sugarcane, cloves, cocoa, rice, cassava (tapioca), beans, bananas, peanuts; livestock products

Malawi

tobacco, sugarcane, cotton, tea, maize, potatoes, cassava (tapioca), sorghum, pulses; groundnuts, Macadamia nuts; cattle, goats

Mali

cotton, millet, rice, maize, vegetables, peanuts; cattle, sheep, goats

Mauritania

dates, millet, sorghum, rice, maize, dates; cattle, sheep

Mauritius

sugarcane, tea, maize, potatoes, bananas, pulses; cattle, goats; fish

Morocco

barley, wheat, citrus, wine, vegetables, olives; livestock

Mozambique

cotton, cashew nuts, sugarcane, tea, cassava (tapioca), maize, coconuts, sisal, citrus and tropical fruits, potatoes, sunflowers; beef, poultry

Namibia

millet, sorghum, peanuts; livestock; fish

Niger

cowpeas, cotton, peanuts, millet, sorghum, cassava (tapioca), rice; cattle, sheep, goats, camels, donkeys, horses, poultry

Nigeria

cocoa, peanuts, palm oil, maize, rice, sorghum, millet, cassava (tapioca), yams, rubber; cattle, sheep, goats, pigs; timber; fish

Reunion

sugarcane, vanilla, tobacco, tropical fruits, vegetables, maize

Rwanda

coffee, tea, pyrethrum (insecticide made from chrysanthemums), bananas, beans, sorghum, potatoes; livestock

Sao Tome & P.

cocoa, coconuts, palm kernels, copra, cinnamon, pepper, coffee, bananas, papayas, beans; poultry; fish

Senegal

peanuts, millet, maize, sorghum, rice, cotton, tomatoes, green vegetables; cattle, poultry, pigs; fish

Seychelles

coconuts, cinnamon, vanilla, sweet potatoes, cassava (tapioca), bananas; broiler chickens; tuna fish

Sierra Leone

rice, coffee, cocoa, palm kernels, palm oil, peanuts; poultry, cattle, sheep, pigs; fish

Somalia

cattle, sheep, goats; bananas, sorghum, maize, coconuts, rice, sugarcane, mangoes, sesame seeds, beans; fish

South Africa

maize, wheat, sugarcane, fruits, vegetables; beef, poultry, mutton, wool, dairy products

Sudan

cotton, groundnuts (peanuts), sorghum, millet, wheat, gum Arabic, sugarcane, cassava (tapioca), mangos, papaya, bananas, sweet potatoes, sesame; sheep, livestock

Swaziland

sugarcane, cotton, maize, tobacco, rice, citrus, pineapples, sorghum, peanuts; cattle, goats, sheep

Tanzania

coffee, sisal, tea, cotton, pyrethrum (insecticide made from chrysanthemums), cashew nuts, tobacco, cloves, maize, wheat, cassava (tapioca), bananas, fruits, vegetables; cattle, sheep, goats

Togo

coffee, cocoa, cotton, yams, cassava (tapioca), maize, beans, rice, millet, sorghum; livestock; fish

Tunisia

olives, olive oil, grain, dairy products, tomatoes, citrus fruit, beef, sugar beets, dates, almonds

Uganda

coffee, tea, cotton, tobacco, cassava (tapioca), potatoes, maize, millet, pulses; beef, goat meat, milk, poultry, cut flowers

West. Sahara

fruits and vegetables (grown in the few oases); camels, sheep, goats (kept by nomads)

Zambia

maize, sorghum, rice, peanuts, sunflower seed, vegetables, flowers, tobacco, cotton, sugarcane, cassava (tapioca); cattle, goats, pigs, poultry, milk, eggs, hides; coffee

Zimbabwe

maize, cotton, tobacco, wheat, coffee, sugarcane, peanuts; cattle, sheep, goats, pigs

Source: World Fact Book (CIA)


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