Country review: Iran (Islamic Republic of)

Gary Morgan
FAO Consultant, Fishery Policy and Planning Division, Fisheries Department
August 2004

INTRODUCTION

Iran has major fisheries in both the Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman and is the largest fishery producer in the region. With an annual production from all areas in recent years in excess of 400 000 tonnes, Iran is also one of the world’s major fish producers. Of this production, approximately 324 000 tonnes in 2002 was derived from the fishing areas of the Persian Gulf, Gulf of Oman and the Caspian Sea.

With fisheries extending over two major sea areas, the marine areas of Iran range from the extreme meteorological and hydrological conditions of the Persian and Oman Gulfs, where summer water temperatures reach over 35° C to the colder conditions of the Caspian Sea. As a result, the fisheries of Iran are diverse and include major demersal and pelagic resources in the Gulf areas to the major clupeid fisheries and the valuable sturgeon fishery of the Caspian Sea.

Most fisheries in Iran are undertaken by a combination of large vessels and smaller, artisanal vessels with, for example, the fisheries of the Persian Gulf area consisting of 66 steel trawlers, 2 835 wooden vessels (or dhows) and 6 793 out-board-powered small boats. There is very limited recreational fishing activity (mainly from boats) although this is growing in popularity, particularly in the resort islands area of the southern Persian Gulf.

The management of fisheries in Iran has been characterized (unlike other countries in the region) by a more well-developed partnership between the Government and the private sector with all fishing activities being undertaken by the private sector, apart from the important sturgeon fishery in the Caspian Sea. The private sector also has input into fisheries investment and management processes, which legislatively are under the control of Iran Fisheries Company (Shilat).

In recent years, Iran has needed to address some major fish stock issues. Among these are declining demersal (and some pelagic) resources in the Persian Gulf, environmental degradation and an invasion of the Caspian Sea by an exotic comb jelly which has reduced the large clupeid fisheries in the area and overfishing of the important sturgeon fishery. However, the Government of Iran sees potential for further development in the large, but untapped mesopelagic resources in the Gulf of Oman and is planning investment in fishmeal plants in southern Iran to utilize these resources.

POLICY FRAMEWORK

The national, or federal, authority with responsibility for fisheries management is the Iranian Fisheries Company (or ‘Shilat’). This Company is managed by a vice-minister as the general director and head of the board of directors. The company is supervised by a general assembly, whose members are: the Minister of Jehad-e-Sazandagi as the head of the assembly, the Minister of Agriculture, the Minister of the Interior, the Minister of Economic Affairs and Finance, the Head of Planning and Budget Organization and the Executive Deputy of the President. This assembly usually holds its session biannually.

Shilat has a number of affiliated companies, each responsible for various aspects of fisheries management, development and training. These include the Shilat Trading Company (which has exclusive rights to the sturgeon fishery), the Industrial Fishing Company, the Kilka Industry Company and the Iranian Research and Training Company.

With the passage of the new Fisheries Law in 1993^[312], the policy framework for Iranian fisheries management and development moved towards greater private sector involvement in fishing activities and encouragement of private sector investment in fisheries infrastructure. The new Law also separates Shilat from enforcement and prosecution responsibilities and gives Shilat the power to suspend licenses, obtain compensation for damage to a fishery and call for the suspension of polluters damaging a fishery. These powers give Shilat the support that was previously lacking to carry out its principal role as manager and conservator of the resources. With the revision of the mandates of Shilat under the National fisheries law, fisheries law enforcement has been made the responsibility of a new coastguard agency, and its prosecution is the responsibility of the Ministry of the Interior.

Overcapacity has been recognized as a major issue in many Iranian fisheries and the Government has taken decisive steps to reduce such capacity in its most important fisheries. The government recently launched a “buy-back scheme” for vessels engaged in bottom trawl fishing that has led to a substantial reduction^[313] in the number of large trawlers operating in this fishery. In addition to these measures, a limitation in fishing period for shrimp has been introduced, allowing only one month a year of fishing operation in the Persian Gulf.

A buy-back scheme has also been introduced in the Caspian Sea with the aim of eliminating gillnet fishing operations by the private sector, identified as destructive of the resources, especially sturgeon.

Almost all fishermen are members of fishing cooperatives and most provinces have one or two Cooperative Unions. Fish farmers also have their own cooperatives and Unions. There is one “Union of Fish Exporters” in the country, which deals with fish trade in domestic and international markets.

Local Provincial Governments undertake administration of fisheries-related infrastructure, such as the important local fish landing sites and fish markets.

International fisheries issues are the responsibility of the Shilat. However, regional co-operation is weak, both on a bilateral basis and through mechanisms such as the regional fisheries commission, RECOFI. Although Iran is a signatory (in 1982) to the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), it has not yet ratified UNCLOS. Iran ratified the UN Fish Stock Agreement in 1998 but has not yet ratified the FAO Compliance Agreement.

LEGAL FRAMEWORK

Iran has had a legal framework for fisheries management for some time^[314] and has updated this legislation on a regular basis. In 1993, the earlier fisheries legislation of Law of Protection and Exploitation of the Fisheries Resources (1974), and the Law Related to Punishment Applicable to the Over-exploitation of the Fishery Resources in the Persian Gulf and the Caspian Sea (1979) was replaced by a comprehensive Fisheries Law. This new Fisheries Law defines the role of the national management authority (Shilat) and provides Shilat with the powers for comprehensive fisheries development and management.

There is also a large body of national, provincial and local legislation that impacts on fisheries management, including Article 50 of Constitution of Islamic Republic of Iran which declares protection of the marine environment a public obligation and therefore ‘economic and any other activity, which results in pollution or irremediable destruction of the environment is prohibited’. Other major relevant legislation that impacts on fisheries management issues includes:

Environmental Protection and Enhancement Act (1974)

Law of Protection of the Sea and Internal Water Bodies against the Oil and Oil-products Pollution (1975)

Law of Proper Use of Water Resources (1982)

Law of Environmental Protection against Water Pollution (1984)

Law Applicable to Any Economical, Cultural, Societal Development (1989)

Law of Environmental Protection and Development (1991)

Law of Protection against Natural Environmental Damages (1991)

The practical result of this range of overlapping legislation is that action on important resource or fisheries management issues is often difficult to implement. Further revisions of the national fisheries law is in progress which is attempting to address this problem.

STATUS OF THE FISHERIES

The fisheries of Iran are significant and comprise two distinct geographic sectors: the Caspian Sea fisheries (the ‘northern’ fisheries) and the fisheries of the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman (the ‘southern’ fisheries). In both areas, the fisheries are a mixture of large-scale industrial production and artisanal, small-scale fisheries. The national legislation encourages private sector investment in large-scale, industrial fishing enterprises.

(a) The Northern Fisheries

Iran shares its Caspian Sea stocks with other countries that border this inland Sea and therefore regional fisheries and environmental issues can, and do, impact on stock status. The principal fisheries in the Caspian Sea are the fisheries for sturgeon (Acipenser spp.) and for ‘kilka’, a three species mixture of clupeid. Fishing in the Caspian Sea of Iran is carried out by six steel vessels, 151 wooden vessels (dhows) and about 860 out-board-powered small boats. Beach seine fishermen are organized in 141 working groups. Three types of fishing gear are used in Caspian Sea, namely: beach seine (local name pareh) for bony fish along the coastline; lift net (conical net with light attraction) for kilka and gillnet for sturgeon. Fishing for sturgeon is now restricted to the state owned company due to conservation concerns. The fishing fleet in the southern Caspian area of Iran has been significantly reduced in recent years through a Government ‘buy-back’ scheme aimed at eliminating the use of gillnetting by the private sector fisheries.

Production from the Iranian part of the Caspian Sea consists mainly of sturgeon, kilka, and a group of bony fishes including ‘white fish’ (Rutilus frisii), mullets, carp, pike-perch, breams and herrings and a few other species. The catch of sturgeon resources is controlled exclusively by the Fisheries Research Organization in collaboration with the Deputy for Fishing and Ports Affairs. Kilka resources have been exploited totally by the private sector, operating motorized vessels equipped with conical nets and light attractors. In 1999, the total catch in the Caspian Sea reached 110 000 tonnes, including sturgeon (1 000 tonnes), kilka (95 000 tonnes) and bony fish (14 000 tonnes) although catches have since declined and, in 2001 were around 40 000 tonnes.

Several major fish stock and environmental issues are impacting fish production in the Caspian Sea. In 1998, the exotic ctenophore (Mnemiopsis spp.) was accidentally introduced into the Caspian Sea from the Black Sea, where it had been a major environmental problem for some years. The impact of Mnemiopsis on the ecosystem of the Caspian Sea is already very significant. Preliminary results from monitoring programs set up in Azerbaijan and Iran clearly show that zooplankton seems to be the worst affected component of the ecosystem in the Caspian Sea. The impact of the decline in abundance of zooplankton has been reflected in major declines in small pelagic fish abundance. Kilka landings in particular being reduced by around 50 percent in two years. Water level fluctuations in the Caspian Sea (partly a result of damming of inflowing rivers) have also impacted significantly on fish production.

Apart from these major environmental issues, there is also significant illegal fishing in the Caspian Sea generally that has lead to stock declines, particularly for the important sturgeon fishery. In 1989, Iran relaunched its caviar trade, shut down since 1979 because of religious concerns and in 1996, five Former Soviet Union (FSU) Caspian Sea countries signed an agreement to ban all sturgeon fishing in the Caspian Sea except in the deep channels of the Volga delta, with equal fishing rights for all of the FSU countries. However, rampant poaching in the Volga delta and Caspian Sea by Kazakhstan and Azerbaijan, and the tacit involvement of the Russian government in 1997 led buyers more often to seek Iranian caviar. This trade is partly driven by the poor quality of some of the poached product, but more importantly by the strict controls by Shilat of the entire Iranian production and distribution through reputable dealers. Further, Iran also processes and distributes Turkmenistan caviar, because that country lacks production facilities. Although restocking of sturgeon takes place throughout the Caspian Sea (including from the Iranian research facility at Sari, in the Caspian Sea province of Mazandaran) the rate of restocking is declining as a result of financial constraints.

In 1995 Shilat exported 146 mt of caviar from a total Caspian Sea production of 182 mt. In addition, Iran also exports the legal production of Turkmenistan which has no production facilities of its own. Iran has established a target of 250 mt of caviar for the year 2020.

All sturgeon species in the Caspian Sea are listed as endangered by the Sturgeon Specialist Group of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN).

Although the sturgeon fishery is the highest profile fishery in the Caspian Sea, the kilka fishery is larger and employs more people. Iran has developed export products based on fish protein concentrate (FPC) targeted at a Far East market in Japan and China. However, the current Mnemiopsis^[315] invasion and the consequent serious decline in this fishery has resulted in development plans for this fishery now being uncertain.

(b) The Southern fisheries

Industrial and semi-industrial fishing fleets carry out almost all fisheries in the Persian Gulf and the Oman Sea. The main fishing gears used in Iran include shrimp trawls, gill-net, wire traps (local name: gargoor), longline and beach seine, angling, and some other traditional forms such as set nets and set barrier nets. Many boats use a combination of fishing gear. In 1999, there were 66 steel trawlers, 2 835 wooden vessels and 6 793 out-board-powered small boats fishing commercially^[316].

Many demersal fish stocks in the Gulf and the Gulf of Oman are most likely shared with neighbouring countries and therefore actions in those countries will have impacts in Iran and throughout the species range.

Demersal fish stocks have declined over the past five - ten years in the Gulf, as they have in neighbouring countries. This has resulted in a decline in Iranian landings from the area from around 147 000 tonnes in 1996 to 95 000 tonnes in 2001. It has been speculated that this general decline in demersal fish stocks in the region is related to nursery habitat destruction as large scale reclamation and coastal development projects are carried out in the various countries.

In contrast, landings of large pelagic species have increased in the southern fisheries of Iran, from around 68 000 tonnes in 1996 to 116 000 tonnes in 2001. This increase in landings is mainly due to fishing effort increases.

Iran is planning to develop its extensive mesopelagic resources and has committed to building several fish meal plants in southern Iran which will rely on these resources (which are abundant in deep water in the Gulf of Oman) for the supply of raw material^[317].

The largest fisheries of Iran are shown in Table 1. There are no recreational fisheries of note and no management regulations applies to recreational fisheries:

TABLE 1
Characteristics of the major fisheries of Iran

* Value in 2002 US Dollars.

Fisheries are the kilka fishery of the Caspian Sea (kilka), the demersal fishery of the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman (demersal) and the large pelagic fishery of the Gulf of Oman (pelagic).

MANAGEMENT ACTIVITY

Iran has continued to refine its fisheries management arrangements although the various layers of legislation at national, provincial and local level make progress difficult. Iran has recognized the importance of fishing over-capacity in many of its fisheries and has implemented programs to address this issue. This has included Government funded buy-back programs in both the trawl fishery of the Persian Gulf and the gillnet fishery of the Caspian Sea^[318]. In addition, there is a general freeze on the issue of new commercial vessel licenses (along with other management measures) although this restriction does not, as yet, apply to the artisanal fishery.

Gear restrictions for commercial fishing are used, with trawl fishing banned in all areas (apart from shrimp trawling in the Persian Gulf) and a general ban on private sector gillnets in the Caspian Sea. This latter measure was introduced to protect juvenile sturgeon.

All Irani management practices rely on input controls and no fishery is managed by output controls, such as catch quotas. Closed areas, which are often marine protected areas, are an important component of fisheries management measures in Iran. In addition, there are closed seasons for various fisheries.

The enforcement of management measures is carried out by the Coast Guard and, for offshore fisheries, the navy. VMS is also used on all demersal trawl vessels to assist in enforcement of fisheries regulations. However, the effectiveness of enforcement activities is generally limited by a number of factors, including inadequate resources, little fisheries-specific training for Coast Guard staff and the lack of a strategic approach to enforcement activities, including no use of intelligence gathering. As a result, illegal fishing is common, particularly for the more valuable species such as sturgeon. The effectiveness of enforcement measures, however, is improving as the country addresses these issues.

No formal management plans exist for any fishery although most fisheries are subject to some form of management arrangements. In the absence of management plans, however, these management arrangements are not implemented within a strategic context and management objectives often remain unclear.

All industrial scale fisheries are largely a joint-venture arrangement between the Government and the private sector, which invests in these large-scale fishing enterprises. Artisanal fisheries are more subject to local jurisdiction although Shilat develops national fisheries management policies.

The monitoring, control and surveillance activities in Iranian fisheries have been documented as part of the FAO Fishcode program (FAO, 2000). These MCS activities include a comprehensive logbook program and enumerators for catch and fishing effort monitoring^[319], and collection of economic and social data.

All vessels are required to be licensed with these licenses stipulating the areas in which fishing operations are permitted^[320] and the gear type allowed.

COSTS AND REVENUES OF FISHERIES MANAGEMENT

No separate data is maintained within Iran’s fisheries authority on the costs that are directly attributable to fisheries management issues. However, over the past ten years, budgets for fisheries management has certainly increased as Shilat addresses a greater range of fisheries and fisheries management issues. Fisheries development costs are generally sourced from the private sector who may also contribute, as part of the general arrangement, to fisheries management and monitoring costs.

Compliance is undertaken both by the Coast Guard, the various subsidiaries of Shilat and the Navy. Again, no separate accounting of compliance and enforcement costs is maintained. At-sea enforcement by the Coast Guard is also not accounted separately since fisheries-related issues are generally attended to during regular sea patrols for other purposes. However, it is generally agreed that the costs of fisheries management and compliance have increased significantly over the past five years.

IMPLEMENTATION OF GLOBAL FISHERIES MANDATES AND INITIATIVES

Although Iran is a signatory (in 1982) to the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), it has not yet ratified this Convention. Iran ratified the UN Fish Stocks Agreement in 1998 although it has not, as yet, ratified the UN Compliance Agreement.

Iran has already incorporated many of the provisions of initiatives such as the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries into its legislation and it is expected that other global fisheries initiatives will be incorporated when the legislation is next reviewed.

The implementation of the provisions of International Plans of Action related to managing fishing capacity, IUU fishing, shark management and seabird bycatch in longline fisheries has not been pursued. As a result, no national plans of action for any of these issues are incorporated into national legislation.

PARTICIPATION IN REGIONAL FISHERY BODIES

Iran is an active member of the Regional Commission on Fisheries (RECOFI) and participates in most of the meetings and working groups of the Commission. However, RECOFI is yet to agree on the development of regional fisheries management initiatives and, therefore, there is no management coordination for stocks that cross the boundaries between Iran and its neighbours.

As a result, there have been no regional fisheries management initiatives emanating from RECOFI. Iran, therefore, has not been required to incorporate regional fisheries management issues into its national legislation.

There is, however, no legal requirement within the Iranian fisheries legislation for fisheries management issues that may be adopted by RECOFI (or other regional body) to be incorporated into national legislation.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Iran has developed its fisheries management regime as one that works closely with the private sector for the development of fisheries while maintaining management control with the central Government through the Iran Fisheries Company (Shilat) and its various subsidiaries. However, the many layers of legislation that impacts on fisheries at the national, provincial and local level makes progress towards a national fisheries policy difficult.

Iran has also been pro-active in developing the supporting infrastructure for effective fisheries management, particularly its research and training capabilities.

Despite this commitment to sustainable management of its fisheries, Iran is facing a number of major issues related to the management of its fisheries. Environmental issues in the Caspian Sea have resulted in serious declines in the abundance of the major kilka fishery. In addition, these environmental issues, combined with illegal fishing in Iran (and more so in neighbouring countries) have also resulted in serious declines in the valuable sturgeon fishery.

In the southern fisheries, demersal resources have declined in recent years, as they have in other countries of the region. However, pelagic landings have increased and Iran is moving to develop the large mesopelagic resources of the Gulf of Oman.

Fish landings in Iran have been maintained in recent years by developing new fisheries as others decline. This is not a strategy that can be pursued indefinitely. As a result, Iran will need in the future to address the legislative issues that hampers effective fisheries management in the country and to further pursue regional solutions to some of the more pressing marine environmental and fish stock issues.

REFERENCES

FAO. 2000. Report of a Regional Workshop on Fisheries Monitoring, Control and Surveillance FAO/Norway programme of assistance to developing countries for the implementation of the code of conduct for responsible fisheries. Sub-programme C: Assistance to developing countries for upgrading their capabilities in monitoring, control and surveillance.(FISHCODE). GCP/INT/648/NOR: Field Report C-3 (En): 244pp.

Taghavi, S.A. 2000. Fisheries Monitoring, Control and Surveillance in the Islamic Republic of Iran, Country paper 5, in FAO (2000). Report of a Regional Workshop on Fisheries Monitoring, Control and Surveillance FAO/Norway programme of assistance to developing countries for the implementation of the Code of conduct for responsible fisheries, op.cit.

APPENDIX TABLES

Note: ‘Commercial’ Fisheries are regarded as non subsistence fisheries. Although there are small boat commercial fisheries in Iran (and these are often called ‘artisanal’ fisheries) these are included as commercial in the following tables.

Current management of marine capture fisheries

* In other cases of managed fisheries where no regulations have been published, licenses with conditions/rules are issued to participants under the Fisheries Act

n.a: not available

Summary information for three largest fisheries (by volume)

* Value in 2002 U.S. Dollars.
** % values caught and % volume caught are based on totals for each category of fishery.
n.a: not available

Use of fishery management tools within the three largest fisheries

n.a: not available

Costs and funding sources of fisheries management within the three largest fisheries

n.a: not available

Compliance and enforcement within the three largest fisheries

* May be required to take observer on board. There is no observer programme.
n.a: not available

Capacity management within the three largest fisheries

n.a: not available