The priority themes for enhancing international cooperation in fire management are clustered in four broad areas, covered in the subsections that follow. For each theme, the current contributions of international actors are briefly reviewed. Suggested time frames are based on a realistic assessment of priorities and the feasibility of implementation, considering the availability of funding and/or time required for the development of systems and standards.
The time frames attached to the proposed activities are categorized as short, medium and long term. They do not set thematic priorities, but rather reflect the time required for financing and developing projects and programmes:
• time frame 1: 2007–2008 (two years);
• time frame 2: 2007–2010 (four years);
• time frame 3: 2007–2012 (six years).
A clearly defined and agreed fire management terminology is not available in many languages. Multilingual fire terminology is a prerequisite for enhancing bilateral and international dialogue and cooperation in fire management (Table 3).
The FAO wildland fire management terminology (first published in 1986 and updated jointly with GFMC in 2003) is available online. However, it currently includes only the English base definitions, a complete German counterpart terminology and outdated, incomplete French and Spanish terminology. In the updated version, very specific local terms were reduced to a minimum to favour its global use and acceptance. This terminology should serve as a starting point for translation to other languages.
TABLE 3
Fire terminology
Specific activities |
Current actors, activities and/or products |
Proposed activities and potential actors for further development |
Time frame, finances/donors |
Development of a multilingual fire terminology, based on the updated FAO wildland fire terminology, in all languages spoken in countries with major fire problems |
Online FAO wildland fire terminology (updated jointly with GFMC in 2000) Russian version in preparation |
Experienced research institutes and individual scientists of the UN-ISDR Regional Wildland Fire Networks to be involved in adding languages to the terminology. Existing regional initiatives to be taken into account |
Time frame: 1 Finances: |
Information sources/portals: |
International fire glossaries portals: | ||
Internationally agreed methodologies and procedures for the establishment of fire databases and formats for national fire reporting are not in place. Both databases and national fire assessments are important in decision support at national, regional and global levels, as well as in assessment of needs and impacts.
FAO’s Global forest fire assessment 1990–2000 – an element of the Global forest resources assessment 2000 (FRA 2000) and the reports from the 12 UN-ISDR Regional Wildland Fire Networks, summarized and evaluated in Fire management: global assessment 2006, revealed the lack of current and consistent statistical data sets. The concept of the detailed Global wildland fire assessment 2004, initiated by GFMC, was used for a number of national reports submitted to the Regional Wildland Fire Networks. However, the assessment covered only a fraction of countries.
Information flow must be ensured from national and regional levels to a global clearing house for receiving, processing and disseminating fire data, as well as the flow of other fire information back to countries and other users, connected with a network of national fire management agencies.
A task force should be established to produce a proposal for a harmonized and coordinated data-collection and reporting system that will meet the demands of various user communities – as recommended by FAO, the International Labour Organization (ILO) and the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) in 1996 (Annex IV) – and build on the concept of the Global wildland fire assessment 2004 (Table 4).
Currently available space-borne systems for the detection and monitoring of vegetation fires and fire impacts are not yet fully used by all countries. Satellite-derived information generated by institutions with satellite data receiving and processing capabilities must be systematically disseminated and used by all countries. Political and financial support must be increased for the further development of dedicated satellite instruments and information systems designed to support fire management.
TABLE 4
Global fire database
Specific activities |
Current actors, activities and/or products |
Proposed activities and potential actors for further development |
Time frame, finances/donors |
Revision of existing national data-collection mechanisms and terminology Revision of the applicability/feasibility of the Global wildland fire assessment 2004 format Agreement on a common international format to be harmonized with FRA 2010 Development of mechanisms of exchange of information on this data |
Initial concepts developed by the UNECE/FAO seminar on Forest, Fire, and Global Change (1996) (Annex IV) Concept of the Global wildland fire assessment 2004 |
Creation of a task force under the joint auspices of GFMC, FAO and GOFC-GOLD to develop standard methodology Gathering and processing of information through the Regional Wildland Fire Networks by the network focal points and/or by FRA focal points Harmonization of regional databases (e.g. European Union, UNECE) and major national data-collection systems (e.g. Australia, Canada, USA) GOFC-GOLD to support assessment by remote sensing (see Subsection 4.1.3) National governments to provide access to national data and agreement upon and adoption of data-collection methodology |
Time frame: 2 Finances: |
Information sources/portals: |
Initial proposal for global fire datasets by UNECE/FAO seminar on Forest, Fire, and Global Change: FAO Global forest resources assessment 2005 (FRA 2005): Global wildland fire assessment 2004: 12 working papers reporting on fires by the UN-ISDR Regional Wildland Fire Networks: www.fao.org/forestry/site/35853/en | ||
The GOFC-GOLD project is an element of the Global Terrestrial Observing System (GTOS) programme, sponsored by the Integrated Global Observing Strategy (IGOS). The project provides a forum for international information exchange, observation and data coordination, including calibration and validation of sensors and algorithms, and a framework for establishing the necessary long-term monitoring systems. The GOFC-GOLD Fire Mapping and Monitoring Theme is aimed at refining and articulating the international observation requirements and making the best possible use of fire products from existing and future satellite observing systems, for fire management, policy decision-making and global change research. In particular, GOFC-GOLD is functioning in:
• specifying requirements for products;
• assessing algorithms and data assimilation procedures;
• ensuring the availability of observations;
• harmonizing and developing protocols and standards;
• ensuring that operational products meet accuracy requirements;
• capacity-building and the role of regional networks;
• creating GOFC-GOLD products and services;
• providing information to support international assessments;
• advocating, especially in relation to the continuity of observations and validation.
The GOFC-GOLD fire goals are to:
• increase user awareness and data use;
• establish a geostationary global fire network;
• secure operational polar orbiters with adequate fire monitoring capability;
• determine product accuracies;
• develop fire emissions product suites;
• develop long-term fire data records;
• establish enhanced user products and improved data access;
• promote experimental fire observation systems and related research.
GOFC-GOLD and GFMC are interacting closely with the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UN-OOSA), the United Nations Operational Satellite Applications Programme (UNOSAT) of the United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR), the International Charter “Space and Major Disasters”, and the Group on Earth Observations (GEO), with its Global Earth Observing System of Systems (GEOSS).
The involvement of the fire community in the implementation of GEO tasks offers an opportunity to shape Tasks DI-06-13 (initiation of a globally coordinated warning system for fire and monitoring for forest conversion), DI-06-09 (expansion of the use of meteorological geostationary satellites for the management of non-weather-related hazards) and DI-06-12 (initiation of knowledge-transfer programmes to developing countries in order to ensure a basic capacity to use Earth observations for disaster management).
A coordinated research and development programme will require close cooperation between a number of international environmental research programmes (Table 5). Such cooperation will include the development of capabilities of global real-time to near-real-time detection and monitoring of active wildfires and land-use fires based on polar-orbiting and geostationary satellite assets, and integration of these observations into a coordinated global observing network to be used for both operational and research purposes.
In this context, the efforts to develop a public/private partnership approach to the installation of a new generation of small satellites for operational fire detection and monitoring should be supported, such as the proposed follow-up to the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) mission and the Bi-spectral Infrared Detection (BIRD) satellite mission (led by the German Aerospace Center – DLR).
Methods and dissemination of information on early warning of fire risk and fire danger have been developed in some countries and could be applied in others lacking such systems. Priority must be given to the end-users of early warning information – particularly local communities (i.e. people-centred early warning systems).
TABLE 5
Fire monitoring
Specific activities |
Current actors, activities and/or products |
Proposed activities and potential actors for further development |
Time frame, finances/donors |
Development and strengthening of capabilities for use of existing satellite systems Capacity-building at national/local levels for the user community Development of new space technologies and platforms for operational purposes |
GOFC-GOLD Fire Implementation Team: development of standards UN-OOSA and UNOSAT (UNITAR): UN support to countries in need International Charter “Space and Major Disasters”: provision of remote-sensing data for disaster response operations GEOSS: long-term framework for coordinated efforts of countries contributing to Earth Observation GOFC-GOLD regional outreach workshops Design and concept for a BIRD successor satellite mission |
GOFC-GOLD to develop a START-funded global vegetation fire inventory in cooperation with the UN-ISDR Global Wildland Fire Network Systematic cooperation and information flow between UN-OOSA, UNOSAT and the International Charter to be enhanced Implementation of GEO Tasks DI-06-13, DI-06-09 and DI-06-12 Joint Research Centre and DLR to expand regional Europe/North Africa coverage GOFC-GOLD regional outreach workshops with/through United Nations University (UNU) DLR Public-Private Partnership (PPP) project to develop BIRD successor mission |
Time frame: 2 Finances: GEO Secretariat support: see Subsection 4.1.4 DLR/PPP to continue seeking partners and finances |
Information sources/portals: |
GOFC-GOLD Fire Implementation Team: UN-OOSA: UNOSAT: International Charter “Space and Major Disasters”: Global Earth Observation System of Systems: Global Fire Monitoring Center (GFMC): European Forest Fire Information System (EFFIS) Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) Bi-spectral Infrared Detection (BIRD) satellite mission | ||
A Global Multi-Hazard Early Warning System has been proposed in the Hyogo Framework for Action – an outcome of the World Conference on Disaster Reduction (WCDR), Kobe, Japan, January 2005, and was explicitly requested by the United Nations Secretary General in 2005. A global survey of existing capabilities, gaps and needs for further development has been conducted by the UN-ISDR Early Warning Programme and supported by GFMC and WFAG. A project proposal for the development of a Global Wildland Fire Early Warning System, submitted by an international consortium, was endorsed by the United Nations and presented at the Third International Conference on Early Warning (EWC-III) in March 2006 (Table 6).
Objectives of the Global Wildland Fire Early Warning System:
• develop a global early warning system for fire, based on existing and demonstrated science and technologies;
• develop an information network to quickly disseminate early warning that reaches from global to local communities;
• develop a historical record of global fire danger information for early warning product enhancement, validation and strategic planning purposes;
• design and implement a technology transfer programme to provide the following training for global, regional, national, and local community applications:
- early warning system operation;
- methods for local to global calibration of the system;
- using the system for prevention, preparedness, detection and, where appropriate, fire response decision-making.
Expected impacts:
• Early warning of fire danger, on a global basis, will provide international agencies, governments and local communities with an opportunity to mitigate fire damage by assessing threat likelihood and the possibility of extreme behaviour, enabling implementation of appropriate fire prevention, detection, preparedness and fire response plans before wildfire problems begin.
• A globally robust operational early warning framework with an applied system will provide the foundation on which to build resource-sharing agreements among nations during times of extreme fire danger.
• Development of local expertise and capacity-building in fire management to achieve system sustainability through technology transfer and training.
The initiative will be supported by the GEO secretariat and will cooperate closely with the UN-ISDR Platform for the Promotion of Early Warning (PPEW) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) (see Subsection 4.3.2).
TABLE 6
Fire early warning
Specific activities |
Current actors, activities and/or products |
Proposed activities and potential actors for further development |
Time frame, finances/donors |
Development/strengthening of wildfire early warning/fire danger forecasting capabilities at the global level with national/local application |
International consortium facilitated by GFMC has submitted a proposal and is seeking financial support (2006-2007).a UN-ISDR International Early Warning Programme (IEWP)/PPEW |
Consortium to be supported by UN-ISDR IEWP/PPEW, GEO secretariat in conjunction with WMO Commission for Agricultural Meteorology (CAgM) |
Time frame: 2 Finances: |
Information sources/portals: |
Global Wildland Fire Early Warning Portal: UN-ISDR IEWP/PPEW: Group on Earth Observations (GEO): WMO Commission for Agricultural Meteorology | ||
a Members of the consortium: GFMC, on behalf of WFAG/GWFN and UNU; Canadian Forest Service (CFS), Edmonton, Canada; WMO; World Weather Research Programme (WWRP); Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre, Melbourne, Australia; GOFC-GOLD secretariat, Edmonton, Canada; University of Maryland (UMD), College Park, MD, United States; Bushfire Cooperative Research Centre (CRC), Melbourne, Australia; European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts.
Collection, processing and evaluation of global fire data and related information (see Subsection 4.2.1) are prerequisites for the development of informed international policies. The flow of data and information from national and regional levels to an international monitoring centre/clearing house is essential for global analysis (Figure 2), as was mentioned in Subsection 4.1.2.
Vice versa, countries and regions are dependent on receiving data and information generated or processed by international application centres, for example for fire management (space-borne fire monitoring, early warning) or in support of the development of national policies.
In some countries, national fire information systems are operational. Coordinators of Regional Wildland Fire Networks are already cooperating with national focal points, agencies and academic institutions, and GFMC is functioning as a global information clearing house.
However, the flow of data and information from some countries and regions is limited. There is also a lack of adequate funding for the comprehensive collection and processing of global fire data and information. This gap could be closed by the establishment of regional wildland fire monitoring/information centres (Table 7). GFMC is offering suitable structures for the development of such regional clearing-house centres/information portals, while support to improve the functions of a global information clearing house and fire information portal is required.
FIGURE 2
International sharing of fire data and information
TABLE 7
International sharing of data and information
Specific activities |
Current actors, activities and/or products |
Proposed activities and potential actors for further development |
Time frame, finances/donors |
General and current country information made available |
Cooperation initiated between focal points of the UN-ISDR Regional Wildland Fire Networks and national agencies and academic institutions for collection of data |
Establishment of regional wildland fire monitoring/information centres; creation of internet-based national and regional fire information systems Establishment of regional wildland fire advisory boards: see Subsection 4.3.3 Establishment of a coordinated global observing network to be used for both operational and research purposes (through an international fire observation data centre) |
Time frame: 1 Finances: |
Information sources/portals: |
Global Fire Monitoring Center Web portal: UN-ISDR Global Wildland Fire Network: GOFC-GOLD Fire Implementation Team: | ||
Capacity-building of human resources is a key prerequisite for efficient planning and implementation of sustainable fire management.
Many countries in need of developing or reviewing fire policies or upgrading existing fire management methods and/or technologies do not have their own resources or expertise in capacity-building. International cooperation in fire management is critical to support these countries (see Section 4.3).
Priorities for international cooperation should include advanced capacity-building of those target groups influential in or responsible for developing fire policies, fire management planning and implementation. Multistakeholder, intersectoral and interagency approaches will be key considerations. Non-governmental organizations and the private sector are important target groups. Capacity-building of instructors (training for trainers) will be a key prerequisite for success in building capacities at local to national levels.
Advanced international training courses for fire management specialists working at high-level positions in their home countries and in the private sector will support the development of a culture of transnational cooperation. Experience has been gained by United Nations interagency training courses conducted by UNU and GFMC in Africa.
Training courses dedicated to advanced-information and remote-sensing technologies or fire early warning should preferably be conducted at regional and international levels. The outreach work of the GOFC-GOLD Fire Implementation Team, in collaboration with the partners mentioned in section 4.1.3 or FAO’s e-learning network Proyecto FODEPAL7 in Latin America and the Caribbean, is offering suitable expertise.
In 2005 UNU and GFMC, in partnership with the UNU Institute for Environment and Human Security (EHS) and GWFN, undertook an initiative to provide advanced fire management training involving United Nations interagency contributions. Its vision is to work through a decentralized worldwide network of training institutions in which donor organizations would collaborate. The development of international training materials is needed – by a range of organizations and for a range of actors and purposes.
Capacity-building programmes will take advantage of numerous bilateral and multilateral assistance projects and programmes. Thus the list of current actors is not at all exhaustive, and institutions interested in advertising their courses, projects and programmes are encouraged to submit information to GMFC.8
Suggested contributions of international institutions or consortia are derived from previous institutional involvements and/or mandates (Table 8).
TABLE 8
Fire management training
Specific activities |
Current actors, activities and/or products |
Proposed activities and potential actors for further development |
Time frame, finances/donors |
National and regional advanced fire management training courses |
UNU through GFMC and EHS, in cooperation with FAO, United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), The Nature Conservancy (TNC) UN-OOSA FAO (notably FAO’s e-learning programme) TNC Comité Technique International du Feu (CTIF) and GFMC: development of training materials for the European Fire Services (EURO-FIRE) Wildland fire management handbook for trainers (2nd edn.), Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Finland European Union’s Fire Paradox project: extension programme to partner countries outside the EU (Africa, Central Asia, South America) Bilateral programmes, e.g.: GTZ USAID/U.S. Forest Service (USFS) CFS European Union (….) |
UNU: advanced fire management courses (interdisciplinary, intersectoral target group) UNEP/OCHA: emergency/disaster assessment methodologies and harmonization FAO, TNC: community-based fire management (see Subsection 4.2.2) UNITAR/UNOSAT/UN-OOSA with GOFC-GOLD Regional Fire Network: to join efforts in capacity-building of use of space-borne remote sensing of fires and fire effects UNU with partners (CFS, World Weather Research Programme): outreach workshops in fire early warning systems Development of training materials for international use. |
Time frame: 1 Finances: UNEP/OCHA: limited funding FAO, TNC: use of trust funds (FAO) and combination with TNC Latin American and Caribbean Fire Learning Network and GFMC/UNU outreach projects GTZ (currently being negotiated) European Union through 6th Framework Programme (Fire Paradox, in progress until 2010) and Leonardo Da Vinci (CTIF with GFMC, in progress until 2008). |
Information sources/portals: |
EHS/GFMC website: TNC Latin American and Caribbean Fire Learning Network: | ||
Valuable experiences and methods in the prevention of wildfires and application of fire in land-use systems have been developed in several regions of the world and could be applied elsewhere. Community involvement (integrated fire management, joint fire management, community-based fire management – CBFiM) is essential for success in fire prevention and fire management at the local level.
Countries and Regional Wildland Fire Networks should seek support for conducting training where needed and implementing CBFiM as part of national fire management policies. Special emphasis should be given to capacity-building in the use of prescribed fire in land-use and resource management.
Additional options include CBFiM approaches that consider mitigation of the impacts of climate change by improving management of terrestrial carbon resources and contributing to the maintenance or enhancement of ecosystem integrity and functioning. This would also contribute to reducing the vulnerability of affected communities to climate-change-induced fires and land degradation.
The prevention and combating of fires along national borders must be addressed cooperatively. Local authorities and communities should work together in the border regions where fires and fire-generated smoke cross national borders, and where cooperation and mutual support are required in order to work together directly and efficiently.
Based on the experience of the first international CBFiM training courses, with United Nations interagency involvement, donor organizations should consider offering opportunities to promote capacity-building in participatory fire management and public involvement in fire management (Table 9). The development of training and demonstration materials for joint international use would be beneficial to the economizing of resources.
TABLE 9
Public/community Involvement
Specific activities |
Current actors, activities and/or products |
Proposed activities and potential actors for further development |
Time frame, finances/donors |
Promotion of principles and application of community-based fire management (CBFiM) Promotion of public involvement in prevention activities (educational, informational) Establishment of border-crossing agreements operational at the local level |
FAO outreach work UN-ISDR outreach work United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO): 2006–2008 World Disaster Reduction Campaign – Disaster Risk Reduction Begins at School GTZ tri-national project TRIFINIO: CBFiM along the borders of El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras CBFiM as an element of the GTZ-UNEP/Global Environment Facility (GEF) project Integrating Vulnerability and Adaptation to Climate Change into Sustainable Development Policy Planning and Implementation in Southern and Eastern Africa |
Outreach work in CBFiM: FAO, UN-ISDR Expand learning networks from national/regional to global, e.g. TNC, Bushfire CRC (Australia) UNESCO: disaster reduction programmes for schools Bilateral technical development programmes in CBFiM and climate mitigation/adaptation projects |
Time frame: 2 Finances: |
Information sources/portals: |
International CBFiM portal: UNESCO Earth Science – Disaster Reduction: UN-ISDR Public Relations Campaign on Wildland Fire: Bushfire CRC Fire Knowledge Network: | ||
Guidelines are needed for the various user levels, ranging from practical guidelines for local fire managers to guidelines for land-use planning and policy development (Table 10). They must consider the specific natural (ecological) conditions of vegetation fire, as well as the social, cultural, economic and political environment. Valuable guidelines exist for local to global use. In many countries, however, these guidelines are not known or not applied, or they need to be adapted for specific conditions or translated.
Examples of international guidelines include the ITTO guidelines on fire management in tropical forests, the FAO Guidelines on fire management in temperate and boreal forests, the World Health Organization (WHO)/WMO/UNEP Health guidelines for vegetation fire events, or specific handbooks such as the GFMC Wildland fire management handbook for sub-Sahara Africa or the Manual Centroamericano de prevención de incendios forestales of the Central American Fire Management Group. Some of these guidelines require updating or review, while in some regions or countries, guidelines are lacking and must be developed.
In addition, other, specific guidelines are needed, e.g. on integrated fire management of tropical and boreal peatlands, or on vegetated terrain contaminated by radioactivity, landmines or unexploded ordnance (UXO) (see Subsection 4.3.3).
TABLE 10
Fire management guidelines
Specific activities |
Current actors, activities and/or products |
Proposed activities and potential actors for further development |
Time frame, finances/donors |
Develop, update and translate existing guidelines |
ITTO Guidelines on fire management in tropical forests FAO Guidelines on fire management in temperate and boreal forests WHO/WMO/UNEP Health guidelines for vegetation fire events (see Subsection 4.3.2) GFMC Wildland fire management handbook for sub-Sahara Africa Wildland fire management handbook for trainers (2nd edn.) (Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Finland) Manual centroamericano de prevención de incendios forestales (Central American Fire Management Group) |
Update/revision of ITTO and WHO/WMO/UNEP guidelines Translation of guidelines into key languages Support to countries for development of national fire management guidelines (in conjunction with definition of fire management policies and strategies; see Subsection 4.3.1) Development of specific guidelines (e.g. for peatland fire management, fire management on terrain contaminated by radioactivity, landmines and UXO) |
Time frame: 1 Finances: |
Information sources/portals: |
Portal for international fire management guidelines: FAO Guidelines on fire management in temperate and boreal forests: ITTO guidelines on fire management in the tropical forests: WHO/WMO/UNEP Health guidelines for vegetation fire events: Namibia: example for development of national guidelines: | ||
Some countries will require international cooperation and support in developing national fire policies based on state-of-the-art science and technologies. Fire-induced transboundary processes or global-level issues (conservation and restoration of natural ecosystems; management of biodiversity and fire regimes; combating of desertification; fire-related disaster risk reduction; atmospheric and climate change; poverty reduction) require joint, internationally concerted responses based on policies and best practices, as well as dedicated zonal and thematic guidelines (Table 11 – see also Subsection 4.2.3).
Over the last six years, a number of projects have supported the development of national policies, legislation and strategies, mainly through bilateral technical cooperation projects. The experience gained in the facilitation of multistakeholder participation and the models developed may be suitable for adaptation in other countries.
Through harmonization of the principles in policies, legislation and strategies, synergies could be achieved in meeting the requirements for regional or international action or reporting, e.g. for international conventions and agreements.
Regional agreements and initiatives (such as the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution) or the development of initial regional strategies (such as FAO/GFMC support to the development of a Regional Strategy on International Cooperation in Wildland Fire Management in Latin America and the Caribbean) have resulted in awareness and commitments at the national level to developing national policies, legislation and strategies accordingly.
In addition to the need to set up regional wildland fire monitoring/information centres (see Subsection 4.1.5), the establishment of regional wildland fire advisory boards has been proposed. These advisory boards would constitute permanent bodies in which the countries of a region would be represented and they could promote regional cooperation activities in fire management, monitor the implementation of regional strategies and provide advice to governments. They would maintain contact and exchange information with the advisory boards of other regions and, at the international level, with the UN-ISDR Wildland Fire Advisory Group/Global Wildland Fire Network. The advisory boards would actively contribute to the series of International Wildland Fire Conferences.
Bilateral projects could follow the model of the Twinning Projects of the European Union. These projects, granted by the European Commission to candidate member states, screen national legislation and recommend harmonization with European regulations. In the case of forest fire regulations, the European Union has supported Bulgaria and Hungary in harmonizing their legislation with the requirements of the Union’s Forest Focus scheme. A similar procedure could be used to develop national regulations and legislation to address the Fire management: voluntary guidelines. Principles and strategic actions.
The development of the Regional Strategy on International Cooperation in Wildland Fire Management in Latin America and the Caribbean with subregional strategies for South America, Central America and the Caribbean, supported by FAO in 2004–2006, may serve as a guiding example for other regions. The Southeast European Wildland Fire Network has put forward an initial proposal.
An ITTO programme launched in 2002 is providing external expert advice to countries to assist them in evaluating their forest fire management situations, identifying pragmatic strategies and actions and, as appropriate, developing pre-project or project proposals. The instrument would seem to be suitable for expansion in the future.
TABLE 11
Policies, legislation and strategies: national and regional
Specific activities |
Current actors, activities and/or products |
Proposed activities and potential actors for further development |
Time frame, finances/donors |
Support for the development of national policies, legislation and strategies Support for the development of regional policies Establishment of regional wildland fire advisory boards |
Various countries supported through facilitation of consultations (multistakeholder, with interagency involvement): e.g. Bulgaria (Switzerland/GFMC); Ethiopia (GTZ/GFMC); Namibia (Finnish International Development Agency – FINNIDA/GFMC); FAO (Technical Cooperation Programmes –TCPs – in Bulgaria, Croatia, Nicaragua, Syria) EU Twinning Projects granted to candidate countries to harmonize legislation with EU requirements ITTO support to country assessments Development of a Regional Strategy for Latin America and the Caribbean (TCP FAO/GFMC) ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution |
Regional Wildland Fire Networks to play a role in encouraging countries to develop national policies, legislation and strategies Possible catalytic role for development of regional strategies in encouraging countries to develop national policies and harmonize legislation (donor support required) |
Time frame: 2 Finances: |
Information sources/portals: |
Regional Wildland Fire Networks: Regional Fire Management Strategy for Latin America and the Caribbean: ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution online: ITTO/GFMC joint activities: | ||
Provision for firefighter and public safety must be considered paramount in all fire activities, and this requires collective planning at community and interagency levels (Table 12). Early warning and response to transboundary smoke pollution require bilateral and multilateral tools, as well as protocols for smoke transport prediction and mitigation of smoke pollution.
Smoke from vegetation fires contains several hundreds of gaseous compounds, such as carbon monoxide, aldehydes, volatile organic compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and fine particulate matter. While some of these compounds can affect firefighters and people living close to fires, others, such as fine particulate matter, may disperse over hundreds of kilometres and seriously affect exposed populations. An example is the concentrations of PM10 (particles smaller than 10 micrometres in aerodynamic diameter) monitored in many parts of the world, where they substantially exceed the air quality guidelines recommended by WHO and national air quality standards. Increasing incidences are reported of respiratory diseases and hospital admissions. In past years, advanced space-borne sensors have repeatedly depicted long-range fire smoke transport at transboundary (transnational) and intercontinental distances.
The WHO/WMO/UNEP Health guidelines for vegetation fire events advocate a comprehensive strategy and contingency plans that are harmonized among countries to the utmost extent possible, which would help mitigate the air pollutant burden suffered by the public. Developed in the late 1990s, they are based on broad international consensus and intend to avoid or mitigate the health effects of exposure of the population to smoke from vegetation fires.
The strategy involves: development of a rapid detection and monitoring capability for smoke emissions generated by vegetation fires; development of a health surveillance system; dissemination of information to all affected parties for appropriate decision-making; and development of national environmental and health response plans to vegetation fire emergencies. The strategy considers environmental as well as health aspects, cause-and-effect relationships, long-range pollution transport, land-use planning and fire prevention and other related issues.
However, only a few countries are in a position to take appropriate action in case of fire smoke emergencies. WHO currently does not have any capabilities to address the problem. Regional agreements in place in the ASEAN and UNECE regions have not yet prevented or reduced the occurrence and impacts of smoke episodes and their consequences on human health.
TABLE 12
Human health
Specific activities |
Current actors, activities and/or products |
Proposed activities and potential actors for further development |
Time frame, finances/donors |
Development of locally applicable firefighter and public safety standards and guidelines Building of early warning capabilities for smoke transport and impact prediction |
Expertise regularly discussed and published in Wildland Fire Safety Summits organized by the International Association of Wildland Fire (IAWF), to be expanded to regions with less expertise and high risk of public health and security European and Mediterranean Major Hazards Open Partial Agreement (EUR-OPA) (Council of Europe - CoE) through the European Center for Forest Fires (ECFF) |
Capacity-building by bilateral and regional projects Global Wildland Fire Early Warning System, part of the future UN Multi-Hazard Global Early Warning System, to include a public health component Implementation: UN interagency (WHO, WMO Expert Team on Non-Nuclear Emergency Response Activities, UN-ISDR IEWP….) with EUR-OPA (CoE) through ECFF |
Time frame: 2 Finances: |
Information sources/portals: |
International Wildland Fire Safety Summits: European Center for Forest Fires (ECFF): | ||
Countries at war or in tension continue to suffer wildfires as a consequence of military operations. Post-conflict situations or former military exercise areas are often characterized by large-scale contamination of unexploded ordnance (UXO) and landmines. Wildfires occurring on contaminated terrain are threatening human lives or cannot be suppressed due to safety considerations.
Confidence-building measures during conflicts and post-conflict efforts in stabilization, reconstruction and rehabilitation may include integrated fire management approaches and cooperation with specialized entities such as Halotrust (a non-governmental organization operating worldwide in UXO and landmine clearing), as well as national ordnance disposal services.
Experience can be drawn from the confidence-building forest fire exercises in the Balkan region by the Euro-Atlantic Disaster Response Coordination Centre (EADRCC) in 2002 and EASTEX FIRE by the UN-ISDR Regional Southeast Europe/Caucasus Wildland Fire Network in 2005. Bilateral efforts by Italy in support of post-crisis stability measures in Kosovo and the confidence-building environmental operation in the Caucasus by the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)/UNEP/GFMC in 2006 provide further relevant experience. Framework agreements on civil/military cooperation should be used, e.g. the United Nations Register of Military, Civil Defence and Civil Protection Assets. The MCDA Register contains data on the military, civil defence and/or civil protection expertise, capacities and range of services that may be offered in emergencies by member states and multinational organizations for international humanitarian disaster relief operations. CoE, through the European and Mediterranean Major Hazards Open Partial Agreement (EUR-OPA), is offering suitable structures for cooperation in the region. EUR-OPA is an intergovernmental platform for cooperation between European countries and those south of the Mediterranean in the event of major natural and technological disasters, with its field of action covering knowledge and risk prevention, risk management, post-crisis analysis and rehabilitation.
Fires burning in vegetation that is radioactively contaminated as a consequence of nuclear accidents or nuclear weapons tests may result in uncontrolled redistribution of radioactivity and represent a major threat to human health and security. Cooperation is needed in monitoring transport of radioactivity and issuing relevant early warnings (Table 13). Joint international efforts may be necessary to develop fire management concepts for contaminated terrain, and cooperation with the International Atomic Energy Commission/Agency (IAEO/IAEA) is advisable.
TABLE 13
Human security and peace
Specific activities |
Current actors, activities and/or products |
Proposed activities and potential actors for further development |
Time frame, finances/donors |
Confidence building between countries in tension Reduction of wildfire risk in radioactively and UXO contaminated terrain |
GFMC/UN-ISDR Regional Southeast Europe/ Caucasus Wildland Fire Network: stabilization in the Balkans and Caucasus region Experience gained by international forest fire response exercises of North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) EADRCC (2002) and Global Wildland Fire Network (EASTEX Fire 2005) in the Balkan Region OSCE/UNEP/GFMC environmental operation as confidence-building measure in the Caucasus region 2006 |
Development of a regional strategy for cooperation in fire management (OSCE, UNEP, GFMC) International Atomic Energy Commission/Agency (IAEO/IAEA), OSCE, CoE/EUR-OPA, Halotrust, GFMC to cooperate on principles in UXO disposal and fire management in contaminated terrain |
Time frame: 1 Finances: |
Information sources/portals: |
Halotrust: OSCE confidence-building mission: MCDA Register: NATO EADRCC: E:\fire\htdocs\programmes\nato\nato.htm Council of Europe – EUR-OPA: | ||
During extreme fire situations, a country may be short of fire suppression resources, including command and coordination personnel. Protocols, agreements and standardized command systems and methods would ensure that countries delivering to, or receiving assistance from other countries can cooperate effectively (Table 14). The International Wildland Fire Management Agreements Template – as adopted by the 2003 International Wildland Fire Summit and regularly updated by FAO – may serve as a guiding document.
In addition to bilateral or multilateral agreements, it will be important to adopt the Incident Command System (ICS) as a unified standard procedure for multinational cooperation in wildfire incidents. This procedure should regulate the details of cooperation in order to ensure efficient communication and cooperation among personnel from two or more countries.
National fire monitoring centres or national agencies responsible for fire management should provide national databases of the fire management resources available for international cooperation. A standard format could be developed (e.g. based on the draft GFMC Format of Country Profiles of Fire Management Resources).
TABLE 14
International policies and agreements
Specific activities |
Current actors, activities and/or products |
Proposed activities and potential actors for further development |
Time frame, finances/donors |
Development of protocols between countries Clarification of procedures for requesting assistance Adoption of ICS as international standard Establishment of regional databases on fire management resources |
Template available for development of agreements International procedures (UN: Joint UNEP/OCHA Environment Unit) and regional procedures available in EU and NATO member states ICS adopted as standard for international collaboration in Australia, Canada, New Zealand and USA |
UN-ISDR Regional Wildland Fire Networks to develop bilateral and multilateral initiatives Interface procedures to be developed between UN (UNEP/OCHA) and international/regional bodies UN-ISDR Regional Wildland Fire Networks and bilateral projects to promote adoption of ICS as standard for international cooperation (bilateral, regional) Regional mechanisms, e.g. the EU Community Mechanism for Civil Protection (and its Monitoring and Information Centre – MIC) or the ASEAN Transboundary Haze Agreement, to adopt ICS as common system Databases to be developed together with the establishment of regional fire monitoring centres/wildland fire advisory boards |
Time frame: 2 Finances: |
Information sources/portals: |
International Wildland Fire Summit: UN Coordination/Assistance to Fire Emergences: Joint UNEP/OCHA Environment Unit: Templates and examples of international agreements: Proposed establishment of regional wildland fire advisory board in eastern Mediterranean: | ||
Fire research in the coming years is challenged to address the interactions between ‘global changes’ – i.e. the environmental, demographic, social, political and land-use changes – and fire regimes. Similarity of conditions in countries within a region should encourage the development of fire research projects in which resources will be economized and shared and synergies created (Table 15). The involvement of academia (the fire research community) in the overall concept of regional cooperation will contribute to the sustainability of cooperation.
TABLE 15
Fire research
Specific activities |
Current actors, activities and/or products |
Proposed activities and potential actors for further development |
Time frame, finances/donors |
Improved knowledge of changes in fires regimes Prioritization of research on the role of humans in the vegetation fire arena (underlying socio-economic processes and problems of fire use and wildfires; effects of fires on human populations; human response to fire) Assessment of the role of and required response to fire in relation to international agreements |
Large number of coordinated and non-coordinated fire and fire-related research projects underway |
Establishment of long-term monitoring programmes in those ecosystems expected to undergo the widest range of changes as a consequence of global changes Expanded interdisciplinary research to forecast potential fire season severity and improve seasonal weather forecasts under future climate change scenarios Conferences or symposia to enhance communication among researchers and managers and to engage the general public in discussions on how best to adapt public land management to cope with fire in a changing environment Interdisciplinary teams of researchers, including fire ecologists and climate scientists, to identify and pursue emerging areas of climate and fire research |
Time frame: 3 Finances: |
Information sources/portals: |
San Diego Declaration on Climate Change and Fire Management: United Nations University and fire research and training: | ||
Research programmes – such as projects sponsored by the International Geoshere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP) and numerous projects conducted by universities and other research facilities, including initiatives by non-governmental organizations – should be instrumental in establishing a global fire atlas. The atlas would contain information on ecosystem characteristics related to fire (fire regimes, ecosystem sensitivity/vulnerability, wildfire risk and hazard maps, etc.) and appropriate fire management solutions.
In the context of several international agreements and conventions (e.g. the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)/Kyoto Protocol, Ramsar Convention on Wetlands), the impact of vegetation fires on biodiversity, desertification, composition and functioning of the atmosphere, and climate change must be fully understood and translated into action.
The Third International Fire Ecology and Management Congress, held in San Diego, California, 13–17 November 2006, produced the San Diego Declaration on Climate Change and Fire Management. The declaration includes recommendations reflecting the priorities for research, education and outreach:
• implement long-term biodiversity and fuels monitoring programmes in the fire-adapted ecosystems that are expected to undergo the widest range of change and variability as a result of climate change, such as those that once experienced frequent, low-to-moderate-intensity fire regimes;
• expand interdisciplinary research to forecast potential fire season severity and improve seasonal weather forecasts under future climate change scenarios;
• integrate the subject of climate change and its influence on ecosystem disturbance into curricula within natural resource management programmes at university and continuing education levels, and in science programmes within primary schools;
• disseminate information to the general public and government agencies regarding the potential impacts of changing climate on local natural resources and disturbance regimes, particularly those that interact with fire;
• hold conferences or symposia to enhance communication among researchers and managers and to engage the general public in discussion on how best to adapt public land management to cope with fire in a changing environment;
• form interdisciplinary teams of researchers that include fire ecologists and climate scientists to identify and pursue emerging areas of climate and fire research.
A list of fire research themes and current or future partners in collaborative and interdisciplinary research is not provided because it would need to be exhaustingly comprehensive. Table 16 presents several major international organizations or associations involved in cooperative vegetation fire research. Table 17 provides selected examples of international research programmes that have been or are addressing interdisciplinary fire themes relevant for consideration in fire management and fire policy development at the international level.
TABLE 16
Contributions of major fire R&D organizations, consortia, projects and programmes to regionally and globally concerted cooperative fire management programmes
Non-governmental organization |
Related activity, programme or product |
Potential contribution to synergy |
Global Terrestrial Observing System (GTOS) programme, sponsored by the Integrated Global Observing Strategy (IGOS) |
Global Observation of Forest Cover/Global Observation of Land Cover Dynamics (GOFC-GOLD) - Fire Mapping and Monitoring Theme with regional implementation teams |
Development of a global database on vegetation fires and fire effects; contribution to the development of a Global Wildland Fire Early Warning System as part of the planned UN Multi-Hazard Global Early Warning System |
World Weather Research Programme (WWRP) |
Development of a Global Wildland Fire Early Warning System as part of the planned UN Multi-Hazard Global Early Warning System (UN-ISDR, WWRP, CFS, GFMC) |
Contribution to the development of a Global Wildland Fire Early Warning System as part of the planned UN Multi-Hazard Global Early Warning System (UN-ISDR, WWRP, CFS, GFMC) |
International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP) |
International Global Atmospheric Chemistry (IGAC) Project: Biomass Burning Experiment (BIBEX) |
Clarification of the impact of vegetation fire emissions on atmosphere and climate |
International Boreal Forest Research Association (IBFRA) |
Wildland Fire Working Group (formerly Stand Replacement Fire Working Group - SRFWG) |
Facilitation of cooperative international and multidisciplinary boreal forest fire research between Russia and western boreal countries |
International Union of Forestry Research Organizations (IUFRO) |
Unit 8.01.10 Forest Fire Research |
Platform of dialogue with other forestry research disciplines |
International Association of Wildland Fire (IAWF) |
International Journal of Wildland Fire |
Scientific. peer-reviewed magazine ensuring quality control of fire research publications |
TABLE 17
Examples of international fire research programmes
Designation |
Description and objectives |
SAFARI-92 SAFARI 2000 |
International scientific initiatives to study the linkages between fire (and other land) and atmospheric processes in the southern African region SAFARI 2000 examined the relationship of biogenic, pyrogenic and anthropogenic emissions and the consequences of their deposition for the functioning of the biogeophysical and biogeochemical systems of southern Africa. http://diotima.mpch-mainz.mpg.de/bibex/ |
Northern Eurasia Earth Science Partnership Initiative (NEESPI) |
Development of a comprehensive understanding of northern Eurasian terrestrial ecosystem dynamics, biogeochemical cycles, surface energy and water cycles, and human activities – and of how they interact with and alter the biosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere of the Earth. The anticipated outcome of this research programme is the ability to measure, monitor and model the processes, including vegetation fires, that will provide accurate future projections of climatic and environmental changes in the region. |
International Crown Fire Modeling Experiment (ICFME) |
Cooperative international experiment, bringing together fire modelling experts from Canada, Russia and the USA, to address the prediction of high-intensity fire behaviour www.nofc.forestry.ca/fire/research/environment/icfme/icfme_e.htm |
Fire Paradox |
Regional European fire research programme with the participation of 14 countries (2006–2010): development of innovative methods in fire management for European conditions; transfer of advanced fire science to fire management |
Bushfire Cooperative Research Centre (CRC) |
Research collectively aimed at enhancing management of the bushfire risk to the community in a manner that is economically and ecologically sustainable |
7 Proyecto Regional de Cooperación Técnica para la Formación en Economía y Políticas Agrarias y de Desarrollo Rural en América Latina.
8 As indicated in the Foreword, this document will be updated in accordance with new developments. The author of the report, GFMC, will collect suggestions for additions or changes and update the paper regularly for publication by FAO.
