FRANCE(continue)

8. OWNERSHIP, ADMINISTRATION, AND MANAGEMENT²

² This section is derived from: Gaudet (1974), material received from France by EIFAC in 1979, Aptekman (1979), Cons. Sup. de la Pêche (1980), and personal communication (March 1992) from M.G. Castelnaud (CEMAGREF) who also used material received from J. Allardi (CEMAGREF) and D. Viard of the Cons. Sup. de la Pêche

8.1 Ownership

Under the law in France, a distinction is made between “free waters” (eaux libres) and “landlocked waters” (eaux closes). Free waters include all bodies of waters and their tributaries that eventually flow into the sea. The downstream limit of such a system is formed by the point of appearance of salinity which is determined by decree. Land-locked waters are those closed off in such a way that they cannot communicate with free waters except by flooding or emptying. They can be ponds, ditches, or even small lakes. These land-locked waters are outside the jurisdiction of fluvial fishing regulations under the Rural Code, and their owners and their assignees can fish them in any season, day or night, or by any means except the use of poison.

The free waters in France include: (i) lakes and streams of the public domain, and (ii) private lakes and streams. (See sections 5.1 and 5.2 for their extent and Table 17 with respect to their ownership.)

1. Waters in the public domain. These include not only lakes and streams intended for navigation (and their tributaries), but also water courses which supply water for agricultural, industrial and domestic use, or are used for flood control. Fishery leases on waters of the public domain are renewed every five years both for line fishing and the use of other types of gear.

2. Private waters. These are waters whose beds belong to the riparian owners.

As is shown in Table 17, the proportion of private property in the total fishing areas is very large. There is a good deal of competitive bidding for lease of fishing rights on these areas, and - especially in landlocked waters where the fishing tax is not imposed - some owners prefer to fish the property themselves.

There are no legislative provisions establishing a general order or priority between different water uses, areas, or established rights.

Table 17

Ownership in France within the total fishing area (percent)

Source: Cons. Sup. de la pêche (1980) after a survey in 1977 by the Société Française d'Enquêtes par Sondage (SOFRES)

8.2 Administration and Management

Two ministries are generally responsible for administration of French inland fisheries: the Ministry of the Environment and the Ministry for Agriculture and Forest.

8.2.1 Ministry of the Environment

With respect to inland fisheries, the following elements are involved: the General Inspectorate for the Environment; the General Secretariat of the High Committee for the Environment; the Service of Research and Information for the Environment; Directorate for the Prevention of Pollution, and the Directorate for the Protection of Nature.

The latter Directorate includes a Service of Fisheries and Hydrobiology. It also supervises the Conseil Supérieur de la Pêche. (As the latter has a certain degree of autonomy, it will be discussed separately, in section 8.2.3.)

8.2.2 Ministry for Agriculture and Forests

With respect to fisheries, there is a Directorate for Veterinary Services, two laboratories of Aquatic Animal Pathology, a Directorate of Production and Exchanges and a Directorate of Rural Area and Forest.

8.2.3 Conseil Supérieur de la Pêche

This fisheries council is classified as a national public body having both an advisory and technical function. It has legal status and is financially autonomous, under the supervision of the Ministry of Environment. Its principal mandates are to: (i) give technical advice to fishing groups and public authorities on ways to enhance, protect or manage fish populations and aquatic ecosystems; (ii) advise public authorities on legislation and regulations concerning inland fishing; (iii) to train and manage 650 nationally appointed wardens with fisheries environmental and pollution police powers.

One aim of the Conseil is to distribute responsibility among public authorities, the Conseil, and approved groups of fishermen. The authorities look after policing, control and exploitation of fish in domanial waters, and policing and control of fishing in private waters, as well as the legislative, regulatory and organizational aspects of fishing.

The Conseil's financial resources accrue from the fishing tax. It returns part of these monies to local fishing groups in the form of personnel put at their disposal as well as with certain subsidies to augment their own resources.

The approved fishing groups are the link between the authorities and riparian owners. They negotiate with owners of fishing rights and provide a channel of communication between various national, regional and departmental authorities and the fishermen.

Amateur and professional fishermen have equal representation on the Conseil Supérieur with local authorities concerned with fishing. Other groups consulted are representatives of riparian owners, manufacturers and sellers of fishing equipment, national associations of specialized fishermen, fish breeders and environmental associations.

8.2.4 Fishermen's Groups

Amateur fishermen who fish in free waters must be members of an approved fishing and piscicultural association (Association Agréée de Pêche et de Pisciculture) and pay an annual fishing tax. These associations (numbering 4 100 in 1980) supervise fishing areas for their protection and development. The approved associations constitute a federation for each Department in France. The federations coordinate the actions of their members and develop and protect departmental resources against poaching and pollution. Each federation has at its disposal fishing wardens designated by the Conseil Supérieur de la Pêche as well as an individual budget, augmented by subsidies, for projects such as ponds, hatcheries and fish stocking. They have the status of State-approved establishments.

Professional fishermen who are lessees and permit holders have similar obligations. They must be members of an approved professional association (Association Agréée Départementale or Interdépartementale de Pêcheurs Professionels) which collects a special fishing tax.

8.3 Scientific and Research Services

Major services of this type are the National Institute of Agronomic Research (INRA) and two hydrobiological stations: one at Biarritz and one for lake research at Thonon. There is also the French Institute of Agricultural and Environmental Engineering Research with a division for the Quality of Water and a division for Fisheries and Fishculture.

8.4 International Agreements

Bilateral agreements exist between France and Belgium on technical cooperation on navigable rivers, and between France and Switzerland on water quality and fisheries of Lac Léman and hydropower on boundary streams. France has a trilateral agreement with Belgium and Luxembourg on uses of their boundary streams.

France belongs to an international commission with Germany and Luxembourg concerning water quality of the Moselle and Saar rivers.

It is a member of the International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine against pollution, given legal authority by a treaty together with Germany, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Switzerland and the European Economic Community (EEC). This Commission is charged with drawing up permit and discharge standards and will fix the maximum tolerable levels of pollution in the Rhine.

France also belongs to the Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine to guarantee freedom of navigation on this river. Other members include Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland and the UK.

9. STATE OF THE FISHERY

9.1 Yield

Lacking the type of catch statistics (gross as they may be) available for most European countries in the FAO Yearbook of Fishery Statistics, it is difficult to trace general trends in the inland fishery catch in France.

It is, however, quite obvious that the fishery for its stocks of Atlantic salmon deteriorated long ago (see section 8.1), and that all of its salmonoid stocks are particularly vulnerable to continued manmade changes such as both chemical and thermal water pollution, the erection of barrier dams, diminished flows and gravel extraction. It is also obvious that since France is a large country with many individual waters, the yield of fish is spread over many areas. The vulnerability of stocks through deleterious effects of either nature or man are therefore minimized.

Tables 18 and 19 provide some estimates of the average yields and total annual production from France's inland waters in recent years.

Table 18

Estimated average yield of fish from French inland waters

Source: Cons. Sup. de la Pêche (1980) French and English version

It may be noted that the grand total of estimated production (i.e., catch) in Table 19 is close to the gross estimate made by Charpy (1957) of an annual freshwater production of almost 19 585 t from the same type of French waters. Charpy added that in addition to these figures one should add the catch of France's anadromous fishes, of which the annual catch of salmon alone was close to 260 t, and the production from private trout farms of (at the time) about 1 500 t. He also estimated that each of these harvests could be increased through better management so that those of all fluvial waters could be increased from 5 435 to 7 658 t per year, those of lakes of the public domain from 700 to 950 t per year, reservoirs from 250 to 500 t per year, and private ponds from 13 200 to 22 000 t per year. This would amount to a total production of 31 108 t per year from the same type of waters represented in Table 18.

Arrignon (1985) has also cited a variety of “approximate” figures for both production and yield in France's inland waters. Some of these are exact duplicates of the figures in Tables 18 and 19 (although the source is not given) and some of his other figures are close to those quoted here.

In considering any of the figures cited here, one must bear in mind that they are all labelled as estimates, Charpy's prognostications of future yield appear to be based on the very theoretical formulae of Leger, and the estimates by the Conseil Supérieur de la Pêche (1980) are stated to be “…the result of sampling, rather than a more direct, census approach”.

Substituting the term “yield” for “established fisheries management practices”, the author agrees generally with Souchon and Trocherie (1990) that its expression is most often based on know-how or empirical methods. The new methods to be followed in France as a result of the latest Freshwater Fisheries Act (1984) may serve to improve both figures on yield and improve, as Souchon and Trocherie (1990) prognosticate, freshwater ecosystem management.

With respect to freshwater aquaculture, it is noted that the yield from carp production is quite low, only about 180 kg/ha annually. This is far below that achieved even in a number of European countries where climatic conditions are more adverse, and can probably be attributed to the fact that much of the French carp culture has been extensive with little feeding.

Some yields reported from the brackish waters of France follow. It is not always clear whether they represent yields from what are essentially capture fisheries within confined waters or are at least partly the result of aquaculture. The Etang de Berre is reported to have produced more than 100 kg/ha/year of European eels for several years before the stocks became exhausted (ICES/EIFAC, 1976). Bonnet (1973) reports a yield of 158 kg/ha/year of finfish from this 15 000-ha lagoon in 1971, and 260 kg/ha/year of finfish in 1971 from the 7 500-ha Etang de Thau. Annual production in the 5 400-ha Etang de Salses-Leucate was over 200 kg/ha/year in the 1964–71 period, and only 35–50 kg/ha/year in 1976–78 (Quignard, 1984). Amanieu and Laserre (1981) report a yield (stock unspecified) of 89 kg/ha/year from 120 000 ha in the Golfe du Lion (Mediterranean in 1978). In Corsica, the yield of various euryhaline fishes from about 3 000 ha of lagoons was about 130 kg/ha/year (Kiener, 1978), and from 3 200 ha of lagoons about 119 kg/ha/year in 1971 (Amanieu and Laserre, 1981). Frisoni (1981) says that the yield of finfish from the Corsican lagoon Biguglia was once 150 kg/ha/year, but is now 100 kg/ha/year, and that in 1978, the lagoon of Urbino produced 25 kg/ha/year and that of Diana only 10 kg/ha/year of finfish. Frisoni, Guelorget and Perthuisot (1984) say that Biguglia produces 100–150 kg/ha/year of eels, mullets, sea bass and sparids.

It has been considered by many that a yield of 150 kg/ha/year can be obtained from a brackishwater lagoon under good management (see Italy).

9.2 Factors Affecting the Fishery

The wide variety of France's inland waters - ranging from small Alpine torrents to large meandering rivers, and from high mountain tarns to deep natural lakes and warm brackish lagoons ensures a variety of fishing, as does its species complex. Its intricate system of canals and interconnected rivers ensures a wide distribution of species, and - in the case of introduced fishes - has heightened their spread. Furthermore, most of the country's growing season is rather long, for example, young salmon in the Allier grow rapidly, to become smolts when only 13–15 months old (see Norway).

Table 19

Estimated annual fish production in the inland waters of France

Source: Cons.Sup. de la Pêche (1980) French and English versions

For a country of its size, France is, however, deficient in its number of large natural freshwater lakes, and thus the opportunity for yield from lacustrine fish such as coregonids is minimized. Furthermore, factors such as eutrophication and overexploitation seem to have reduced stocks and recreational of both char and coregonids in lakes such as Bourget. Coordination of regulations for both commercial fishing in Lake Léman (Geneva) which is shared with Switzerland has been a helpful recent move (see, especially, Gerdeaux (1990). Fisheries in its large reservoirs have not attained a position of as great importance as might be expected.

There is, therefore, an emphasis upon stream fishing, but even here conditions are not always optimal - particularly because of the great variations in flow of many of the rivers. For example, in the Dordogne the ratio between maximum and minimum flow is 1:780. And, with respect, to the countrywide gross surface flows, there is a seasonal fluctuation from a median January figure of 9 800 m³sec down to an August flow of only 2 800 m³/sec, and at least every hundred years the low season flow may be as low as 1 000 m³/sec throughout France (House, 1978). Such variations affect fisheries vitally; they affect the fishing itself, habitat, food production, migration and water quality. Such fluctuations have also encouraged the construction of flood control structures, aids to navigation and impoundments for generation of electricity (the great drops in streams such as those in the Alps have also been a factor in the latter development). Some of these developments have been an aid to fisheries. Others have been detrimental, especially where barriers to migration have been created and where the flows below dams have been severely lessened.

Water pollution is also a problem. For example, circa 1972 it was reported that with respect to fish kills in France, about 30 percent were caused by the chemical industry, 27 percent by agricultural wastes, and 22 percent by domestic sewage (Holden and Lloyd, 1972). Furthermore, it should be noted that the annual runoff, at present about 3 732 m³ per caput, is well below the European average. Were France a densely populated country, the annual runoff would not be enough to maintain reasonably good water quality in its rivers.

Nevertheless, water quality in France is generally conductive to fish production, for throughout most of the country the rivers are not so badly polluted that aquatic life is drastically harmed. There is still relatively low public sewerage in rural areas, and concentration of industry in the north minimizes countrywide pollution from this source. Furthermore, the treatment capacity, in terms of millions of person equivalents, increased from 13.0 in 1970 to 48.5 in 1980. Improvement in water quality is shown in Table 20.

Unlike a good many European countries, a great effort is made in France to derive direct revenue from angling through sale of fishing licences which is then used to improve fishing through stocking, control of overfishing, and other forms of management. Although most of the choice (trout) fishing is in the hands of private owners, the State allows licensed anglers to fish in all public waters.

9.3 Prospect

Given the large size of the country, its relatively low population density, the emphasis on agriculture (without severe demands for irrigation), and generally favourable ecological conditions - the prospect for continued inland fisheries in France is good.

The anadromous fisheries have suffered greatly through past development, but there have been as yet only limited intercatchment exchanges (other than those to sustain inland navigation) which might affect fisheries adversely. As in the UK an integrated approach to river basin management came at a rather late date to France (circa 1965–66) and is still in its early stages. It is obvious that great changes will now occur in these basins.

The number and length of waterways in commercial use in actually declining; conversely, tonnage on these waterways has increased. Many more reservoirs will be built, especially to increase critical low water flows, and this will obviously change fishing patterns. There is also a move in France to encourage industries to use surface rather than ground water. The extent of all the changes and the effects upon fisheries cannot be appraised accurately, but some extent of the magnitude of impending changes may be visualized by noting the following estimations. In 1967, the Commission de l'Eau, Water for Peace 1967, estimated that by the year 2025, with a population of 60 million, the total water needed for domestic, industrial, agricultural and navigational use in France would amount to 122 000 million m³ annually, as against a use of only 43 000 million m³ in 1970. Another estimate (House, 1978) stated that by the year 2000, domestic requirements in France would rise by a factor of 2.3 and the needs for power station cooling and process water by 5.7 (Cf. section 6). Obviously, there will be serious competition between alternative users for the available supplies.

Despite such competition, it is believed that the general goals of water quality management in France now include: (i) no further deterioration, and (ii) gradual improvement over time (Johnson and Brown, 1976). It is known that since an effluent charge programme began around 1970, water quality began to improve, and that there has been more abatement in the last few years than in all the previous ones. As an example of improvement, diversion of sewage from the Lake of Nantua in the 1970s drastically reduced orthophophates with subsequent cessation of the proliferation of Oscillatoria rubescens (Feuillade et al., 1984). See also Table 20.

As in most European countries, the general outlook for commercial capture fishing in inland waters is one of gradual decline. Sport fishing, backed up by active angling associations, will remain the most important type. There is now some effort to make it more of a tourist attraction but, with respect to angling, France is thought of primarily as a place for resident fishermen.

Table 20

Changes in the quality of surface waters in France, 1977–1988

Source: France, Institute national de la statistique et des études économiques (1991) after the Minsitère de l'Environnement

Growth in aquaculture is certainly possible, especially through improved and more intensive management of both fresh and brackish waters. Brown (1983), for example, stated that French trout producers and specialists suggested that production could rise by 10–20 percent before all the existing freshwater supplies were used up. He also believed that if brackishwater culture expanded, there might be no foreseeable limit to this type of production where yields of 4–20 t of trout/ha might result.

On the wider scale, one should note that “planning” has become more and more a part of the Government's life. The first Plan was devoted to increasing industrial and agricultural production, but the latest plans have deliberately shifted from the primacy of growth and led to more emphasis on the quality of life. This should have a direct effect upon inland fisheries with emphasis on environmental protection and improvement as well as on the recreational aspects of fishing.

10. REFERENCES

Allardi, J., 1984. Introduction et acclimatation de poissons d'eau douce en France; historique et bilan. EIFAC Tech.Pap/Doc.Tech.CECPI, (42) Suppl. Vol.2:427–35

Allardi, J. (ed), 1990. Rapport d'activité intersession pour la France. 1988–1990. C.E.C.P.I-E.I.F.A.C (Meeting Paper) 16ème session, Prague, mai 1990. 12 p. (mimeo)

Amanieu, M., et al, 1981. Etude préliminaire de l'aménagement à des fins d' exploitation extensive d'une lagune saumâtre littorale, la lagune de la Sarrazine à Palavas (Hérault, France). Stud.Rev.Gen.Fish.Counc.Mediterr., (58): 241–56

Aptekman, T., 1979. France. In Water laws in selected European countries. Vol.1, compiled by Agrarian and Water Legislation Section, Legislation Branch, Legal Office, FAO Legisl.Stud., (10):257 p.

Arrignon, J., 1975. Crayfish farming in France. In Freshwater crayfish. Papers from the Second International Symposium on Freshwater Crayfish. Held at Baton Rouge, Louisiana, U.S.A., 1974, edited by J.W. Avault, Jr. Baton Rouge, State University of Louisiana, pp. 105–16

Babin, D. 1991. Résultats de l'enquête expresse 1989. Estimation de la production et du chiffre d'affaires des pêches professionelles françaises (marins pêcheurs exclus). CEMAGREF (Division Aquaculture et Pêchel), 4 p.

Bonnet, M., 1973. Les pêches maritimes sur les côtes françaises de la Méditerranée: actualités, perspectives. Sci.Pêche, (222), 18 p.

Brunet, A.R., 1980. Present status of the Atlantic salmon stocks in France and environmental constraints on their extension. In Atlantic salmon: its future. Proceedings of the Second International Atlantic Salmon Symposium, Edinburgh 1978, sponsored by the International Salmon Foundation and the Atlantic Salmon Research Trust, edited by A.E.J. Went. Farnham, Surrey, England, Fishing News Books Ltd., pp. 128–34

Cantrelle, I., et al., 1982. La pêche de la civelle en France: généralités, aspects réglementaires, cas de l'estuaire de la Gironde. In Allocation of Fishery Resources. Proceedings of the Technical Consultation on Allocation of Fishery Resources, held in Vichy, France, 20–23 April 1980, edited by J.H. Grover. FAO/American Fisheries Society, pp. 31–3

Castelnaud, G., et al., 1982. La pêche dans l'estuaire de la Gironde (France): ses particularités et ses problèmes. In Allocation of Fishery Resources. Proceedings of the Technical Consultation on Allocation of Fishery Resources, held in Vichy, France, 20–23 April 1980, edited by J.H. Grover. FAO/American Fisheries Society, pp. 34–6

Castelnaud, G. and D. Babin, 1990. La pêche professionelle aux filets et aux engins dans les eaux continentales françaises. Deuxième Partie. Les bassins Rhone-Saône-Doubs, Rhin, Somme, Charente, Garonne-Dordogne, Adour, et les lacs alpins. CEMAGREF Groupement de Bordeaux (Division Aménagements Littoraux et Aquaculture/Ministère de l'Environnement), 141 p.

Champigneulle, A., et al, 1986. Etude de la production de préestivaux de corégone (Coregonus sp.) en cages éclavées immergées dans le Léman. Bull.Fr.Pêche, (300):1–12

Charpy, R., 1957. Aperçu d'ensemble sur la production piscicole d'eau douce française. Cah.Richesses Piscic.Fr., (6):1–9

Charpy, R., 1968. La production piscicole française. Bull.Tech.Inf.Ing.Serv.Agric.,Paris, (228): 345–54

Conseil Supérieur de la Pêche, 1974. Pêche en France. Edition 1974. Conseil Supérieur de la Pêche avec le concours du Ministère de l'Agriculture et le Secrétariat Général de la Marine-Marchande, Paris.

Conseil Supérieur de la Pêche, 1980. La pêche récréative en France dans le domaine fluviale. Meeting (Country) paper presented at the Technical Consultation on Allocation of Fishery Resources, Vichy, France, 20–24 April 1980:18 p. (mimeo)

Conseil Supérieur de la Pêche, 1980a. Recreational fishing in the rivers of France. Meeting (Country) paper presented at the Technical Consultation on Allocation of Fishery Resources, Vichy, France, 20–24 April 1980: 24 p. (mimeo) (Translation of the French version)

FAO, 1979. France Fishery Country Profile. Rome, FAO, FID/CP/FRA Rev. 1:4 p.

Feuillade, J., et al., 1984. Traitement d'un lac par détournement d'eaux usées; réaction d'une population d'Oscillatoria rubescens D.C. Verh.Int.Ver.Theor. Angew. Limnol., 22(Part2): 1040–6

Fish Farming International, 1980. Warm water eels. 50 tons a year from French power station test farm. Fish.Farming Int., 7(3): 42–3

France/EIFAC, 1974. Information on inland water fisheries in France. (Response to a questionnaire, EIFAC/74/Circ. 10, Nov. 1974). Unpubl.

France/EIFAC, 1979. Information on inland water fisheries in France. (Response to the EIFAC Secretariat revising Dill, 1976). Unpubl.

France, Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques, 1978. Annuaire statistique de la France, 1978. Résultats de 1976/77. Nouvelle série no. 25. Paris, Ministère de l'économie, vol.83:799 p.

France, Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques, 1982. Annuaire statistique de la France 1982. Résultats de 1981. Nouvelle série No. 29. Paris, Ministère de l'économie, vol.87:832 p.

France, Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques, 1983. Annuaire statistique de la France 1983. Résultats de 1982. Nouvelle série No. 30. Paris, Ministère de l'économie, des finances et du budget, vol.88:852 p.

France, Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques, 1991. Annuaire statistique de la France 1990. Résultats de 1989. Nouvelle série No. 37. Paris, Ministère de l'économie, des finances et du budget, Vol. 95:887 p.

Frisoni, G.F., 1981. Exploitation et aménagement des lagunes de la Corse. Stud.Rev.GFCM, (58):265–71

Frisoni, G., O. Guelorget and J.P. Perthuisot, 1984. Diagnose écologique appliquée à la mise en valeurs biologique des lagunes côtières Méditerranéennes: approche méthodologique/Ecological diagnosis applied to biological development of Mediterranean coastal lagoons: methodological approach. Stud.Rev.GFCM/Etud.Rev.CGPM, (61) Vol. 1:39–95

Girin, M. and Y. Harache, 1979. L'élevage des poissons en eau de mer: Nouveaux résultats français en matière de recherche et de développement. In Advances in aquaculture. Papers presented at the FAO Technical Conference on Aquaculture. Kyoto, Japan, 26 May–2 June 1976, edited by T.V.R. Pillay and W.A. Dill. Farnham, Surrey, England, Fishing News Books Ltd., for FAO, pp. 173–9

Great Britain Naval Intelligence Division, 1942. France. London, H.M. Stationery Office, Geographical Handbook series BR:503, Vol. 3:503 p; Vol. 4:524 p.

Hansen, N.M., 1969. France in the modern world. New York, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 167 p.

House, J.W., 1978. France: an applied geography. London, Methuen and Co., Ltd., 478 p.

de Kinkelin, P. and G. Tuffery, 1972. Rapport de la France/Report from France. In Country reports on fish diseases and their control and national and international traffic of live fish and fish eggs. Symposium on the Major Communicable Fish Diseases in Europe and their Control, organized by FAO/EIFAC with the support of OIE, 20–22 April 1972, Amsterdam, the Netherlands. (FAO/EIFAC Meeting Paper) Rome, FAO, Fl:EIFAC 72/SC II-Symp. 9, Suppl. 1:15 p. (mimeo)

Laurent, P. 1973. Astacus and Cambarus in France. In Freshwater crayfish. Papers from the First International Symposium on Freshwater Crayfish, Austria, 1972, edited by S. Abrahamsson, Lund, Sweden, Studentlitteratur, pp. 69–78

Laurent, P.J., D. Vigneux and E. Vigneux, 1984. Présence en France d'espèces exotiques d'écrevisses provenant d'introductions récentes. EIFAC Tech.Pap./Doc.Tech.CECPI, (42) Suppl. Vol.2:405–11

Noel, S., 1982. French experiment in water temperature control. Fish. Farming Int., 9(9):2

OECD, Committee for Fisheries, 1981. France. In Recreational fishing. Paris, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Fl/211:15–7

Pelletier, J.P., 1978. Production primaire du Léman et de quelques lacs français voisins. Verh.Inst.Ver.Theor.Angew.Limnol., 20:921–7

Petit, G. and D. Schachter, 1959. Les étangs et lagunes du littoral méditerranéen français et le problème de la classification des eaux saumâtres. Arch.Oceanogr.Limnol., Venezia, 11 Suppl.:76–91

Rouzard, P., 1973. General situation of aquaculture in France. Stud.Rev.GFCM, (52): 25–33. Issued also in French

Souchon Y. and F. Trocherie, 1990. Technical aspects of French legislation dealing with freshwater fisheries (June 1984): “Fisheries orientation schemes” and “fishery resources management plans”. In Management of freshwater fisheries. Proceedings of a symposium organized by the European Inland Fisheries Advisory Commission, Göteborg, Sweden, 31 May – 3 June 1988, edited by W.L.T. van Densen, B. Steinmetz and R.H. Hugues. Pudoc. Wageningen, pp. 190–214.

Vivier, P., 1957. Le milieu aquatique et son amélioration. Cah.Richesses Piscic.Fr., (6):49–59

Vivier, P., 1960. Température et oxygène dessous en profondeur dans les lacs de barrage artificiel français. Schweiz.Z.Hydrol., 22:350–64

Williot, P., 1980. Etat actuel de la pisciculture d'étang en France. In La pisciculture en étang. Actes du Congrès sur la pisciculture en étang. Arbonne-la-Forêt, France, 11–12–13 mars 1980, edited by R. Billard. Paris, Institut National de Recherche Agronomique, pp. 411–25

Wojtenka, J. D. Gerdeaux, and J. Allardi, 1988. Coregonid fishery in Lake Annecy - an example of dual exploitation. Finnish Fish.Res., 9:389–96

Anon., 1982. Recreational fishing in the rivers of France. In Allocation of Fishery Resources. Proceedings of the Technical Consultation on Allocation of Fishery Resources, held in Vichy, France, 20–23 April 1980, edited by J. H. Grover. FAO/American Fisheries Society, pp. 569–82