U Tun Win1
Two decades ago the agriculture, fisheries and forestry sectors were under the sole administration of the Ministry of Agriculture. As there was a strong tendency for each sector to develop individually, the state set up three separate ministries with their own ministers, objectives, functions and staff. Subsequently, old laws were amended, replaced or negated and new laws were promulgated.
If issues or conflict are generated when sectoral decisions overlap, the local authority intervenes among the departments concerned. Consensus is final. This practice has been adopted nationwide for the time being in the absence of integrated coastal area management plans. Sectoral coastal area management plans that follow laws and regulations have already been formulated.
In the fisheries sector, the Myanmar Fisheries Federation (MFF) is an NGO established by the Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries. The main objective of the MFF is to represent stakeholders in the context of managing various types of fisheries conducted by the Department of Fisheries (DoF). Although it has no legislative power, it can contribute to management activities via training, demonstration, information dissemination and enhanced commitment through better stakeholder awareness.
After the 2004 tsunami a considerable amount of information on, inter alia, movement and abundancy of fish stocks, altered fishing grounds, deterioration of submarine habitats and abnormal migration of commercially important species was reported to the DoF by stakeholders through the MFF. This information enabled the DoF to set up appropriate strategies, guidelines and systems for improved environmental and socio-economic management.
Out of the eight Southeast Asia countries struck by the tsunami, Myanmar was the least affected. More than 800 islands, thick and dense mangrove areas along the coast and submarine structures mitigated the impact.
Although onshore structures that were destroyed have been reconstructed within a short time by local state authorities and international and regional institutions such as FAO, SEAFDEC and NACA, residual tsunami effects are still manifested with regard to the environment, biodiversity and the livelihoods of coastal fishery communities.
It is timely to “build back better” and to formulate and develop responsible fishery management systems under appropriate and efficient policy and legislative frameworks.
Although Myanmar has gained only limited experience of the tsunami strike and its residual effects, it is strongly believed that the outcomes of this meeting will lead to enhanced food security, rational exploitation of resources and better livelihoods for fishery communities in the coastal areas.
Apropos the fisheries sector in Myanmar, the state has laid down sectoral policy, of which some salient objectives are as follows:
In this context, managers from departments, fishery-related institutions and associations have been intensively addressing anomalies such as overinvestment, excessive capacity and overexploitation of resources.
In the meantime, in order to prevent overlapping among capture fishery activities, the DoF is initiating coastal aquaculture management through demonstrations. Sea bass, seaweed, crabs and shrimps are the main species highlighted by the department; green mussels, clams, oysters and various coastal fish species are potential husbandry subjects for tsunami-affected communities to consider.
To address land-use conflict and issues in coastal areas, integrated sectoral groups, including forestry, agriculture and fisheries, under the supervision of local authorities, have been organized.
1 Fisheries Department, Myanmar. (This presentation incorporates information from the paper “Coastal area planning and management of the fisheries sector in Myanmar” by Tun Win, Director, Research and Development Division, Department of Fisheries, Myanmar.)
R.A.D.B. Samaranayake1
Sri Lanka’s coastal zone contributes 40 percent to the national GDP and is pivotal for economic development. Coastal resources such as coral reefs, mangrove forests, seagrass beds, salt marshes, sand dunes and coastal wetlands have been exploited by development activities; consequently, coastal erosion, degradation and transformation of coastal habitats, as well as water quality deterioration, are major threats. Damage generated by the tsunami in December 2004 has exacerbated socio-economic, cultural and environmental issues. The Sri Lankan Government has had to provide immediate relief, restore livelihoods and rebuild housing facilities and other infrastructure, including hard and soft defense mechanisms.
In addressing coastal issues caused by human activity or natural hazards, the Sri Lankan Government has recognized the importance of coastal zone management; it has developed policies and institutional frameworks for coastal resource management. Under the provisions of the Coast Conservation Act (No. 57) of 1981, the Coast Conservation Department was established to implement coastal zone management through national level policies and coastal zone management plans, as well as local Special Area Management plans for specific sites. During the implementation of the coastal management programme, future needs have been identified to regenerate and improve the quality of coastal zone resources.
1.1 Status of the coastal area of the country
Sri Lanka is an island with a total land area of 65 510 square kilometres encompassed by a 1 620-kilometre-long coastline lying within latitude 6–10° north and longitude 79–82° east. Under the provisions of the Maritime Zones Law No. 22 of 1976, the territorial sea and the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) extend to a distance of 12 and 200 nautical miles respectively, or up to the maritime boundary between Sri Lanka and India. The extent of the territorial sea and the EEZ is 21 500 and 517 000 square kilometres respectively (Appendix 1).
The climate of Sri Lanka is influenced by two monsoons and two intermonsoon periods. The southwest monsoon, which occurs from May to September, is associated with cyclonic wind circulations or depressions and is marked by heavy rainfall and squally weather, especially on the southwestern seaboard. The northeast monsoon occurs between December and February, and is characterized by heavy rainfall more or less confined in the northeastern half of the country, and with wind generally coming from an easterly direction. The wind is usually light during the two intermonsoon periods — March to April and October to November.
For administrative purposes, the coastal region is divided into 74 coastal divisions of the divisional secretariats. Sri Lanka’s coastal zone has served as a focal point for the social, cultural, environmental and economic development of the country for centuries.
The land area of the coastal zone, which is approximately 24 percent of the total land area, is occupied by 34 percent of the country’s population, of which 45 percent lives in urban areas. Sixty-five percent of the country’s urbanized areas are located in this zone. Therefore, a highly developed road and rail transport infrastructure can be found in this area, together with commercial ports, fishery harbours and anchorages. The coastal area thus provides access to transportation and shipping lanes which lead to distant markets and link neighbouring communities through navigable lagoons, rivers and canals. Some of the richest biodiversity areas in the country occur in the coastal zone, including coral reefs, extensive seagrass beds, mangrove forests, salt marshes, beaches, sand dunes, coastal wetlands, highly productive estuaries and lagoons and sanctuaries, which in toto, cover an area of 160 000 hectares. (Appendix 2).
The coastal zone also serves as a focal point for economic development. Forty percent of the Gross Domestic Production (GDP) comes from the coastal zone with 70 percent of the total industrial output. The contribution to economic development by way of tourism-related industries is high, as more than 80 percent of the tourism-related infrastructure is located within this zone (most in the western and southwestern coastal belts). There are nearly 100 sites of special historical, archaeological, cultural and religious significance and 100 more of special scenic and recreational importance scattered within the coastal zone.
Fishing is the predominant coastal economic activity along the eastern and northeastern coasts during the southwest monsoon and along the southern and western coasts during the northeast monsoon. Marine fisheries are of considerable socio-economic importance along the entire Sri Lankan coastline. In 2003, the fisheries sector contributed nearly 3 percent to the GDP and employed over 300 000 persons directly and in related activities. The livelihoods of about one million people depend directly and indirectly on the fisheries sector. The fishing industry has become an important foreign exchange earner for the country; in 2003 foreign exchange earned through exports of fish products such as tuna, shrimp, lobster and ornamental fish to all major international markets amounted to about US$100 million (US$1.00 = Rs.107.00). Fish contributes nearly 65 percent to the total animal protein consumed in Sri Lanka. Prior to the disaster, about 285 000 tonnes of fish were landed annually (Appendix 3), of which 90 percent was consumed locally and 10 percent was exported. However, in order to satisfy increasing local demand for fish protein, Sri Lanka imports annually an additional 70 000 tonnes of dried and canned fish.
Gillnetting is the primary fishing method (about 80 percent of production), followed by beach seine, bottom trawl and other forms of nets. The purse seine came into use in recent years, but its future is uncertain because of severe objections by gillnet operators. Diverse types of traditional and larger scale fishing craft are used. Fishing activities occur around the entire coast, at 12 fishery harbour centres, several large and small anchorages, and as many as 700 village-level landing sites.
Over 15 fishery resource surveys have been conducted in Sri Lanka since 1920, mostly on demersal resources. Some of the potential yield estimates made in the past were based on these surveys. The results of the two seasonal surveys conducted during 1978–1980, using primarily the acoustic survey method, are used practically in every development plan/programme in Sri Lanka up to the present day. Based on the survey results, potential yields from coastal resources were estimated at 170 000 tonnes for small pelagics and 80 000 tonnes for demersals. However, whether this potential yield has already been attained cannot be accurately determined since the surveys were not followed by reliable statistical data collection.
In the estuaries and lagoons spread throughout the coastline with a combined surface water area of 1 265 square kilometres, only the major lagoons and estuaries (Puttalm Lagoon, Negombo Lagoon, Bolgoda–Panadura Estuary, Batticaloa Lagoon and Jaffna Lagoon) contribute significantly to fisheries (Appendix 4). Economically important invertebrates found in the estuaries are shrimps, mud crabs and edible bivalves. Over 26 species of shrimps have been recorded in Sri Lanka and are caught in various lagoons, estuaries and the sea using traditional methods. Spiny lobsters abound in reefs and rocky areas and some 183 tonnes of lobsters were exported with a value of Rs.267 million in 2005.
From about 710 square kilometres of brackish water mangrove swamps, marshlands and salt marshes along the coastline, about 35 square kilometres have been converted into prawn ponds. Aquaculture, particularly of the jumbo tiger prawn, Penaeus monodon, is concentrated in the Chilaw–Puttalam area and in Dutch Bay and Negombo Lagoon. Aquaculture has gained importance in the recent past because of the high export demand. In 1997, the export of prawns generated the highest contribution to foreign exchange revenues from fisheries at Rs.2.194 billion, equivalent to 51 percent of total export earnings. In 2005, shrimp production was around 1 800 tonnes and export earnings were Rs.1.769 billion.
Agriculture is much less important than fisheries and industry in coastal areas in its contribution to the national economy (only 17 percent of the gross domestic agriculture product from the coastal region). The coastal region contains about 25 percent of the country’s total croplands. Paddy accounts for 70 percent, coconut 26 percent and rubber two percent of the coastal agricultural GDP. About 55 900 hectares of coconut are currently cultivated in the coastal region. Small areas of tea are found in the coastal divisions of Galle, Matara, Colombo and Kalutara districts, and cinnamon is grown in Galle, Matara and Kalutara. The coastal region has over 420 000 agricultural holdings with an average size of 0.65 hectares. About one-third of these holdings contain both crops and livestock and about six percent has only livestock. The majority (about 61 percent) grows only crops. Of greater significance is the many home and small market gardens that are important sources of food for the poor. Food from these gardens is used for home consumption or is sold in local markets. Homesteads account for about 24 percent of all croplands. The trend in coastal areas is towards smaller landholdings and more intensive farming. The average employment in agriculture for the whole coastal region is only about 24 percent, varying from 1.1 percent in the Colombo region to nearly 80 percent in the divisional secretariat areas of Batticloa, Mulativu and Kilinochi.
The land area per capita in coastal areas is decreasing due to the population increase. Hence, a higher degree of self-reliance in basic foods will come only through more intensive and diversified small farms and gardens. This is viable in some parts of the coastal region. The wet zone of the southwest coastal belt contains stretches of flat lands with potential for group or cooperative farming for the large-scale production of crops. With an adequate water supply most of the year, these areas lend themselves to intensive agriculture, animal husbandry and poultry farming, which could help to increase food production in the country.
The first comprehensive forest survey was carried out from 1956 to 1961.The survey found that the total area of forest was 2.9 million hectares, or 44 percent of the land area. According to the next inventory done by FAO in 1982 to 1985, Sri Lanka’s forest cover was 1.76 million hectares and the area of scrubland was 625 000 hectares.The aggregate figure of 2.385 million hectares, or 36 percent of the land area is often cited as the area of forest land. In the 2003 estimates, natural forests which included closed canopy natural forests, sparse forests and mangroves, accounted for 1 422 hectares, indicating the rapid declining trend of forest cover in the island. Over 95 percent of forests are state-owned. Following the Forest Ordinance of 1885, some forests were proclaimed reserves. Because of time-consuming, legal and administrative procedures for establishing reserve forests, several more areas were set apart as proposed reserves, also under the jurisdiction of the Forest Department. Village forests were placed under the District Secretary, and other Crown forests were at various times transferred between the Forest Department and the District Secretary. The forestry master plan concludes that the total area of productive plantation forests is 97 650 hectares. Of this, 77 000 hectares are industrial wood plantations, comprising teak, Pinus, industrial wood species of eucalyptus and other species.
Vegetation associated with landforms is of immense importance for their stability. Plants with adaptations such as prop roots, pneumatophores and deep tap roots, consolidate sediment leaving slight opportunity for waves to transport them. In addition, plants act as barriers that dissipate wave energy. Dune vegetation captures sand and contributes to its vertical growth, enhancing the protective function. Mangroves and salt marshes also consolidate sediment with their unique roots and act as wind barriers that protect the hinterland. A good wind shelterbelt mix should include shorter trees and shrubs. Wherever there are wide thick belts of mangroves or seashore forest, protection has been afforded to coastal settlements and property. Other benefits that coastal vegetation offers include conservation of biodiversity, providing livelihood support for coastal communities through agricultural and forestry crops, affording shade for various human activities and contributing to recreation and scenic beauty.
Tourism in Sri Lanka has primarily focused on scenic sandy beaches and coastal estuaries and lagoons. About 80 percent of tourist revenue comes from facilities in coastal areas supplemented by the diversity of attractions in the interior cultural triangle. Wildlife resources add to coastal potential. Two national parks, Wilpattu and Ruhuna, border the northwest coast and southern coast respectively. Several lagoons and coastal wetlands serve as bird sanctuaries and marine sanctuaries.
At present, over 75 percent of graded hotels and over 80 percent of the hotel rooms are located along the coast. The number of hotel rooms in the country increased gradually to 14 322 until 2004, and then decreased to 13 162 in 2005, due to the destruction of hotels in coastal areas by the tsunami. Once one of the fastest growing sectors, tourism declined steeply during the civil unrest in 1983 to 1989. It peaked in 2004, with 566 202 arrivals and revenue of Rs.4.2 billion, but then came a decline in 2005 (549 308) due to the tsunami. Pleasure travel accounts for about 92 percent of the total arrivals in Sri Lanka. Business and official travel accounts for about six percent, while arrivals for other purposes such as social, religious, cultural and educational purposes account for the balance (Appendix 5).
1.2 Issues and driving forces
Coastal erosion: The impacts of coastal erosion are most severe along the west and southwest coasts. It has been estimated that along the western coastal segment, extending about 685 kilometres from Kalpitiya to the Yale National Park Bay, about 175 000 to 285 000 square metres of coastal land are lost each year. Of this amount, about 95 000 to 160 000 square metres are lost annually from the 137-kilometre segment that stretches from the mouth of the Kelaniya River (north of Colombo) to Talawila (Kalpitiya Peninsula) (CZMP, 1990). Most of Sri Lanka’s coastline is retreating. In several locations, the rate of retreat has increased due to human activities. Erosion rates vary greatly between different locations, and maximum local retreat rates of around 12 metres/year have been observed in some areas between Mahaoya and Lansigama. Available records indicate an average rate of coastal erosion of about 0.5 metres/year and an accretion rate of about 0.2 metres/year.
The coastal zone, while extremely valuable to the country’s economy, is also very fragile and highly vulnerable to the many dynamic processes which occur on land and at sea, caused by both natural and human-induced forces. Beaches and coastal stretches are continuously subjected to wave action and are increasingly threatened by natural processes like storm surges which cause erosion or accretion. The dynamic balance which normally exists between erosion and accretion, has been upset by human intervention, and severe imbalances in these complementary processes have occurred in the last several decades. Sand mining in the major rivers as well on beaches and dunes has reduced the amount of sand which would otherwise be available to replenish sand lost during storm events.
Sand mining: Sand mined from coastal areas and rivers is used by the construction industry. Sand mining in a river lowers its bed, causes bank erosion and reduces the supply of sand to the coast. The river bed and the banks will show continuous erosion when the extraction rate nears or exceeds natural production. In these circumstances there may be a sharp drop in supply of sand to the coast.
A survey of the location, extent and socio-economic issues related to coastal sand mining from Puttalam to Dondra Head conducted by the CCD in 1984 was updated in 1991. This area includes most of the major sand mining locations in Sri Lanka. The 1991 study revealed that approximately 576 938 cubes (1 633 700 cubic metres) of sand were mined from the coastal region. This indicates a 14 percent increase in 1991 over 1984. River sand mining has increased drastically over the last two decades. For instance, sand mining has increased in six rivers from 1.2 million cubic metres in 1984 to 5.5 million cubic metres in 2001. The present sand requirement for the entire country has been estimated at seven to 7.5 million cubic metres per year, of which approximately 40 percent is used in western Sri Lanka.
Coral mining: Other human activities such as reef breaking for coral mining, reef dynamiting for fisheries and removal of coastal vegetation contribute to degradation. Coral is one of the sources of lime for the construction industry. In certain parts of the southwestern coastal sector, coral has been mined for almost 100 years. This has aggravated coastal erosion in Sri Lanka. During coral mining, the coral rock is gathered, crushed and burned for use as a lime source for plastering and other construction purposes.
Historically, coral is mined from inland deposits of relic coral that are 5 000 to 6 000 years old. More recently, due to reduced supplies and general population pressure, coral mining activities have extended to live corals. Mining of inland deposits outside the coastal zone is allowed with a permit. Mining of live corals is strictly prohibited. In the southwestern coastal area, the restrictions may have played a role in reducing the mining of live corals from 7 659 tonnes (42 percent of the total) in 1984 to 4 020 tonnes (20 percent of the total) in 1994.
The end result is increasing coastal erosion and the consequent loss of usable land and associated infrastructure, houses and archeological and religious sites, all accompanied by socio-economic loss.
In economic terms, the public and private costs of erosion are enormous. Millions of rupees are spent annually to cope with losses imposed by erosion. Approximately Rs.1 520 million were invested in erosion management in the coastal zone from 1985 to 1999; Rs.2.3 billion have been spent on coastal stabilization works through the USAID-funded Coastal Resources Management Project (CRMP) from 2000 to 2005 in addition to the government allocation of Rs.100 million annually.
Overexploitation and degradation of habitats: Other human activities are equally responsible for the degradation or loss of coastal resources through numerous extractive and exploitative activities, which also impact adversely on fish and other aquatic resources. Due to destructive fishing practices and environmental impacts such as siltation and pollution, only two (Kandakullya and Talawila) out of some eight coral reef areas studied under the CRMP showed live coral coverage greater than 50 percent. Two nearshore reefs, Weligama and Polhena, showed a significant proportion of dead corals, while dead corals at Hikkaduwa and Akurala are reported to amount to 25 percent (Appendix 6). Even within the country’s two declared marine-protected areas, corals continue to be damaged by divers collecting fish for the ornamental fish export trade and overuse of the coral reef area by tourists and boat operators continues. Destruction of coral reef habitats has obvious consequences for small-scale fisheries. As many economically important fish and shellfish species utilize reefs for habitats, spawning and feeding grounds, the destruction of the habitats leads to reduced stocks of fisheries resources.
Cumulative damage to mangroves has resulted from their overutilization and transformation of large areas to other uses such as shrimp ponds and lowland agriculture. Mangroves estimated to cover approximately 12 000 hectares in 1986 had been reduced to 8 687 hectares by 1993. Some 1 500 hectares of coastal area between Chilaw and Puttlam, most of it mangrove forest, have been developed for aquaculture, and about 63 percent of the previously existing mangroves in Puttalam Lagoon has been reported lost in the ten-year period from 1982 to 1992. In Negombo, 50 hectares of mangroves were cleared and filled in the mid-1980s for a national housing project. Most of the mangrove forests in Sri Lanka are being eliminated through a combination of encroachment of human settlements, cutting for fuelwood and clearing of coastal areas for intensive shrimp culture. All of these conversion activities result in habitat destruction and reduced productivity in coastal fisheries. Loss of mangroves leads to increased shore erosion in coastal areas and loss of land.
Unregulated fishing and the use of destructive fishing methods such as dynamite fishing, cyanide poisoning and mechanized push nets have seriously damaged fish habitats and reduced fish stocks. The use of “moxy nets”for the collection of ornamental fish for export has destroyed coral reefs and led to reduced fish and shellfish stocks. Pollution from industrial, agricultural and domestic sources has degraded coastal habitats and has threatened the sustainability of the nearshore/coastal fisheries. Oil pollution from shipping has further degraded fish habitats.
Transformation of habitats: Salt marsh areas have also been destroyed by human intervention, including conversion for salt production (for example at Hambnantota and Palavi), shrimp aquaculture (various lagoons) or reclamation (for example Muthurajawela Marsh). In Puttalam Lagoon, 50 percent of the existing marshland was lost in a ten-year period.
Lagoons and estuaries are threatened by pollution and siltation and this is exacerbated in some cases by water diversions that reduce natural flows. Pollution can result when lagoons are used as harbours (Negombo, Chilaw), sewage disposal sites (Kelani Estuary, Negombo and Lunawa lagoons), or for receiving industrial effluents (Lunawa and Negomabo, Kelani and Valaichchenai estuaries). A number of lagoons are being severely impacted by encroachment and land reclamation which contribute to a direct loss of functional lagoons (Chilaw, Negombo, Mawelia lagoons). All of these impacts hamper the preservation of areas of high ecological and aesthetic value, such Bentota Estuary, Bolgoda Lake and parts of Negombo Lagoon and the subsequent use of these sites for recreation, conservation, scientific research, and educational purposes.
Water quality degradation: The growth of the tourism industry has resulted in the improper siting of facilities as well as increased coastal pollution owing to inadequate or poorly designed infrastructure. Encroachment or unplanned and unauthorized development has caused direct habitat loss and increased public health risks as a result of inadequate infrastructure for sewage treatment and potable water. Rampant logging and mining in upland areas, which generate economic benefits for companies undertaking these activities and to a certain extent, increased government revenues, have proven detrimental to lowland activities such as fisheries, aquaculture and coastal tourism-dependent industries. Most importantly, the inability of the resource base to renew itself under such heavy exploitation and pollution pressure exacerbates the situation.
2.1 Tsunami impacts
The tsunami-affected about one million people initially and devastated two-thirds of Sri Lanka’s coastline. The tsunami caused extensive damage and disruption to human life, livelihood, infrastructure, private and public property and economic and social activities. The official death toll was 35 322; 21 441 people were injured and over 5 000 are still missing. Approximately 516 150 people have been internally displaced (Appendix 7).
The tsunami caused severe damage to fisheries assets, residential houses, schools, hotels, railways, roads, electricity supply, ports, fishery harbours, anchorages, health institutions and private commercial buildings. The fisheries sector per se suffered enormous losses along two-thirds of the coastline.
The total cost of the required relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction efforts is estimated to be around US$2 billion. The government has projected that it will take three to five years to rebuild destroyed structures and achieve full recovery.
The government created the Task Force to Rebuild the Nation (TAFREN) as the primary institutional mechanism for recovery and reconstruction, to coordinate, facilitate and assist implementing organizations, to coordinate donor assistance and fund-raising activities, to expedite the procurement process and to enable implementing agencies through capacity building. TAFREN focused on four thematic areas.
Implementing agencies established several innovative mechanisms at the sectoral level such as permanent housing and education.
Displaced families initially found shelter in emergency accommodations such as tents, public buildings and religious institutions or sought refuge with friends and relatives. It was recognized in the early stages that emergency accommodation would be only a temporary solution because the reconstruction of approximately 98 000 houses would take time. Therefore, transitional shelters were required to bridge the gap between emergency accommodation and permanent housing.
Through all three housing phases, the government provided the overall policy, guidelines and framework for house reconstruction. Relevant line ministries and departments such as the Ministry of Urban Development and Housing, Urban Development Authority (UDA), National Water Supply and Drainage Board (NWSDB), Ministry of Power and Energy, Ceylon Electricity Board (CEB), Ministry of Highways, Road Development Authority (RDA) and other relevant government institutions worked together with TAFREN on house building. The government received the support of international organizations, including major international non-governmental organizations (INGOs), multilateral and bilateral donors and civil society organizations to construct transitional shelters and permanent housing.
The Tsunami Housing Reconstruction Unit (THRU) was created under the Ministry of Urban Development and Water Supply. THRU offices were established in the tsunami units of all tsunami-affected districts and divisional secretariats and work with village rehabilitation committees operating at the village level. At the local level, the focal points for coordination and implementation in the respective districts are the district secretaries and the divisional secretaries.
As a result of the combined effort of the government, private sector, civil society and international community, the achievements in restoring livelihoods have been remarkable. The available information shows that between 70 and 85 percent of households affected by the tsunami had regained their main sources of income by November 2005. On the other hand, at least 15 percent of the tsunami-affected population is living off an income of temporary relief work, not necessarily an income earned through regular work. The percentage of persons living off other sources is presumably higher in areas with lower economic activity.
2.2 Land issues
Twenty-four percent of Sri Lanka is under the Coastal Divisional Secretariat, but along the coast, beaches and coastal reservations are state lands. Prior to the tsunami, most of the Crown lands in urban areas were encroached on by the coastal communities. In these populated areas it was very difficult to maintain the set-back zones stipulated under coastal zone management plans owing to unauthorized construction and demolition orders to eject them. A set-back (buffer) zone is defined as an area left free of any physical modification. It is good planning practice to leave a minimum set-back from the mean sea level line. A set-back is desirable to allow for the dynamics of seasonal and long-term fluctuations of the coastline, and to ensure public access to the waterfront and visual access to it. Therefore, a set-back area belongs to the owner of the land and it benefits the owner to protect the property from hazards. However, the enforcement of these regulations was not successful in some areas owing to socio-economic conditions and political interferences. The encroachers of the set-back areas were devastated by the tsunami and had to be provided with emergency accommodation.
Vis-à-vis vulnerability factors such as exposure to extreme natural events, geomorphological characteristics, current development densities and availability of free space, the cabinet decided to implement set-back zones of 100 and 200 metres in the west and south coasts and north and east coasts respectively. Then a senior committee was appointed to prepare interim guidelines for all the development activities within the coastal zone; these are effective until formal guidelines are formulated based on the findings of studies on vulnerability assessments, coastal bathymetry and coastal mapping. The buffer zones for development activities within the coastal zone and interim guidelines — declared by the government — are described hereunder.
2.2.1 Interim guidelines
“A 100 m buffer zone should be delineated for any new constructions in the west and south coast from Kala Oya river mouth (Ganga Wadiya) to Kirindi Oya river mouth and a 200 m buffer zone should be delineated for any new construction in the East and the North coast from Kirindi Oya river mouth to Kala Oya (Ganga Wadiya)” (sic).
➢ Nationally important projects;
➢ Fisheries-related buildings and infrastructure;
➢ and Tourism-related developments.
The elevation of the development site, soil and geomorphological conditions, coastal hazard-proof building plans, evacuation and safety plans and national or sectoral importance of the projects will be assessed in granting exemptions.
Due to limited or non-availability of land to relocate displaced families under donor-built housing programmes and homeowner-driven programmes, the Secretary of the Ministry of Urban Development and Water Supply and the district secretaries requested the CCAC to reduce the set-back zone size.
The CCAC considered the request and approval was granted for construction following the set-back standards stipulated in the national Coastal Zone Management Plan, 1997.
Now the land in the set-back zones is vacant. Prior to relaxation of the set-back zone size the market value of other land coming within the set-back areas declined, but subsequently it has increased gradually despite tsunami risk. Incidences of land capture by powerful players following the tsunami have not been reported. However, people who own coastal lands have already started reconstructing their businesses, mainly in the tourism and fisheries sectors.
Rehabilitation and reconstruction of coastal protective structures: After the tsunami strike, rapid surveys were carried out by government officers along the coastline of the country, including the north and east quadrants. It was observed that the tidal wave had penetrated from 500 metres to 1 kilometre on the west coast and about 1-2 kilometres on the east coast. More damage to buildings and structures was incurred within a 200-metre range on the north and east coasts. Further, erosion of the coast has been aggravated and approximately 20–30 metres of land width have been lost on the western and eastern coasts. Significant morphological changes to the coastline have been observed at Bentota beach barrier, Gin Oya barrier, north of Mahaoya, dunes in Hambantota and Pottuvil (breaches) and some coastal stretches in the east.
A team of experts from the CRMP carried out a rapid survey on damage to harbour breakwaters and coastal structures and submitted a report to the CCD, the Ministry of Fisheries and the Asian Development Bank (ADB).
On recommendations from the report, most of the coastal protective structures damaged by the tsunami were to be rehabilitated before the onset of the monsoon. Failure of the revetments and groynes would result in submergence of the low-lying areas of coastal stretches.
In early 2005, the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources also carried out a country-wide field analysis of tsunami impacts on the coastal belt of the country. This report highlighted the key issues in the aftermath of the disaster, including the pollution of the coastal strip by solid waste and debris and its contamination by seawater, as well as impacts on coastal ecosystems.
In compliance with UNEP’s guiding principles formulated at Cairo in February 2005, the CCD is constructing set-backs, reconstructing protective structures, rehabilitating sand dunes and establishing green belts along the coastline.
Under the Coastal Protective Structure Rehabilitation Programme, the CCD identified priority areas to be rehabilitated before the onset of monsoons in 2005. The CCD completed rehabilitation and reconstruction of revetments, groynes and offshore breakwaters in Galle, Matara and Kalutara districts. These structures are approximately 3 000 metres in length. Under the ADB-funded Coastal Resources Management Project, rehabilitation of Bentota Sand Spit, Hikkaduwa groyne and Tangalle revetment was carried out.The total cost of the work was around Rs.300 million. The cost of the work at Galle marine drive and the Kinniya coastal stretch in the east is estimated to be around Rs.200 million.
Rehabilitation of sand dunes: The CCD has initiated the rehabilitation of damaged sand dunes. A survey was carried out in Hambantota District to identify the damaged areas of sand dunes with the assistance of the National Aquatic Resources Development Agency (NARA). Designs and plans to carry out this pilot project have cost Rs.25 million. This programme will be extended to the eastern coast with the assistance of a proposed project on restoration of coastal ecosystems funded by GEF/IFAD.
Establishment of a green belt: The Forest Conservation Department commenced the rehabilitation of coastal forests and establishment of shelterbelts along the coastline by following major landscape types. The CCD, as the custodian of the coastal zone, coordinated the programme to restore and rehabilitate vegetation to create a green belt that may be resilient and stable enough to prevent or mitigate the devastating effects of natural disasters such as cyclones, storm surges and tsunamis; this was done in collaboration with the Forest Conservation Department, the Urban Development Authority, the Coconut Development Authority, local authorities, NGOs and coastal communities in the area. This programme commenced in Galle District and was extended to other parts of the island; guidelines for establishment of the green belt were developed with the assistance of IUCN and stakeholders. This programme is mainly implemented by NGOs and coastal communities under the guidance of CCD extension staff and the Forest Department.
Coastal communities learned that areas where coastal protection structures were in place were secure and their properties and lives were protected to some extent from tsunami waves. Therefore, requests came from the communities to reconstitute and reconstruct the damaged structures before the onset of the monsoon following the tsunami. Breakwaters, piers and fishery harbour groynes, anchorages and landing sites have to be rehabilitated and reconstructed as requested by fisherfolk and other coastal inhabitants. Biodefensive methods of ecosystem restoration programmes such as the establishment of green belts and sand dune restoration are being implemented and are well-accepted.
However, in different locations such as beach seining areas and landing sites, conflicts have arisen with fisherfolk apropos the execution of coastal protection structures; remedial action, such as the implementation of beach nourishment programmes in areas for beach seining and inclusion of alternative anchorage facilities in the planned coast protection structures, have been taken to mitigate issues in consultation with the coastal communities.
Restoration and reconstruction are major challenges because many of the affected shorelines are densely populated and multiple developments are taking place. Hence, any reconstruction effort must ensure efficiency, sustainability and equality, and be guided by principles that are scientific, participatory and in total harmony with natural systems.
Tsunami reconstruction and rehabilitation programmes have entered into the latter part of their second year. Now it is possible to learn lessons from past achievements and shortcomings.
➢ Assessment of coastal hazards; vulnerability and risk; analyzing the elevation model for both the hinterland and nearshore; coastal hydrodynamics and sediment processes; mitigatory measures, including defensive shoreline structures and buffers; appropriate guidelines.
➢ Criteria for design and construction of buildings and other structures in the coastal environment.
➢ Assessment of socio-economic impacts on set-back standards.
When these assessments and studies have been completed, new guidelines including the new set-back zones for different coastal stretches will be developed for the next revision of the national coastal zone management plan.
Reduction of future vulnerabilities
Sri
Lanka was not
considered to be a country prone to large-scale natural disasters and did not
have appropriate institutional capacity to deal with the impact of a tsunami.
In light of this experience, establishment of a suitable early warning system
and disaster management and response capabilities quickly emerged as important
priorities. An interinstitutional committee for early warning was established
in the first quarter of 2005. With an interim mechanism for an early warning
system in place, the government is working with other stakeholders for a
permanent early warning system.
Realizing the need for prompt and organized action, the Parliamentary Select Committee on Disaster Management was appointed. Subsequently, the Disaster Management Act, No. 13 of 2005 was passed by parliament on 13 May 2005. As a result, a Disaster Management Centre was established in September 2005. This Centre will promote community-based disaster management programmes. The Ministry for Disaster Management was established in November 2005 to take the lead role in directing the strategic planning for disaster response, risk mitigation, preparedness planning and risk reduction.
The CCD is playing an important role in disaster risk management of the coastal environment. Therefore, the mission of the Disaster Management Centre will assure the sustainability of future coastal area management in Sri Lanka.
Coastal zone management began in the early 1960s when coastal issues received greater attention from the government. A coast protection unit was established in the Colombo Port Commission in 1963, with the realization that a comprehensive approach to coastal zone management was required. The need for a more management-oriented approach was first recommended in 1971 by the unit. In 1978, the issue of coast conservation was transferred to the Ministry of Fisheries, which created a separate Coast Conservation Division, basically directed towards maintenance of coastal stability by planned engineering works combined with a sound planning and management approach. This division was upgraded to the status of government department in 1984 under the Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (Appendix 8).
The mandate of the CCD is: The sustainable development of coastal resources and the management of coastal processes to optimize social, economic, and environmental status of Sri Lanka (sic). The CCD’s responsibilities are achieved through the activities of several divisions. The Coastal Resources Development Division is responsible for the development of national coastal zone management plans, coastal habitat management, socio-economic issues and implementation of Special Area Management (SAM) plans. The Research and Design Division undertakes research and design of coastal protection structures, coastal investigations and monitoring of coast protection structures. The Works Division is the engineering division and undertakes construction and maintenance of coast protection structures (Appendix 9).
There are several government agencies which have some legal or administrative responsibility for the coastal zone and the management of its resources, although primary responsibility for coastal zone management is lodged with the CCD. At the local level, government departments and agencies deal with district level and divisional level offices when operating in the field. Municipalities and town councils are responsible for waste management, urban development and management. Local committees and organizations play an advisory and consultative role with the agencies responsible for Coastal Resources Management (CRM). Local level members of parliament, provincial councils and local authorities responsible for the district sit on the District Development Council, which has a variety of functions to bring development down to the local level where CRM matters are also discussed.
The Coast Conservation Act, No. 57 of 1981 shifted emphasis from “Coast Protection” to “Coastal Zone Management”.
The act decreed the appointment of a Director of Coast Conservation with the following terms of reference:
The act defines the “Coastal Zone” and “Development Activity” as follows:
The Coastal Zone is defined as that area lying within a limit of 300 metres landward of the mean high water line and a limit of two kilometres seawards of the mean low water line and in the case of rivers, streams, lagoons or any other body of water connected to sea, either permanently or periodically, the landward boundary shall extend to a limit of two kilometres perpendicular to the strait baseline drawn between the natural entrance points thereof and shall include waters of such waterbodies (Appendix 10).
Development Activity is defined as any activity likely to alter the physical nature of the coastal zone in any way and includes the construction of buildings and works, deposit of wastes or other materials from sea outfalls, vessels or by other means, removal of sand, corals, shells, natural vegetation, seagrasses or other substances, dredging and filling, land reclamation, and mining or drilling for minerals, but does not include fishing.
The act came into effect on 1 October 1983. With the experience of enforcing the Coast Conservation Act and addressing issues arising from changes in economic activities in the coastal zone, the CCD promulgated the Coast Conservation (Amendment) Act No. 64 of 1988. The establishment of state ownership of the beach, the prohibition of coral mining and awarding considerable powers, duties and functions to police officers were important provisions included in the act.
Land proposed for development activity may be privately or state owned. A permit has to be obtained from the CCD under the Coast Conservation Act of 1981 for all development activities that are likely to alter the physical nature of the coastal zone. Activities that may be engaged in without a permit within the coastal zone are fishing, cultivation of crops, planting of trees and vegetation and construction and maintenance of coast protection works by the CCD. In the permit procedure, a planner from the CCD carries out a preliminary inspection at the site of the proposed development and submits his assessment of the site to the planning committee of the department. When decisions are made on the permit issue, observations and recommendations are received from relevant agencies such as the Fisheries Department or the Tourist Board. If the planning committee feels the proposed development may have more environmental or socio-economic impacts, the proposal is submitted to the Director of Coast Conservation for a decision on the EIA. Then the director uses his discretion for conducting an EIA in consultation with the Environmental Scoping Committee. Environmental, economic and social analyses are carried out through the EIA process. Under EIA procedures, the developer is requested to submit the EIA report according to the Terms of Reference issued by the CCD. When the EIA report is received by the CCD, it is submitted to the CCAC and the public for their comments within 30 days. Availability of the report in specific locations is gazetted. Finally, the permit is issued for macrodevelopments in the coastal zone under the provisions of Coast Conservation Act.
As required by the Coast Conservation Act, the first National Coastal Zone Management Plan (1990) was prepared and approved by the cabinet in 1990. The plan deals with coastal problems such as erosion, loss and degradation of natural coastal habitats and the loss and degradation of archaeological, historical and cultural sites as well as recreational and scenic areas. It describes the nature, scope, severity and causes associated with each problem. Objectives and policies for the management of each problem are identified through specific management techniques. In particular, the rationale and procedures for continuing the coastal permit system are outlined in detail. Implementing actions in this plan are regulation, direct development, research, coordination, education and planning and policy development.
In the preparation of the National Coastal Zone Management Plan, technical committees are being established involving relevant stakeholders with the required expertise for proposed chapters of the plan. Then the draft management plan is submitted to the Coast Conservation Advisory Council, which has 11 ex-officio members and three members appointed by the minister. The council shall, within 60 days of the plan’s submission by the director, make modifications, if any, and submit it to the minister for provisional approval who will make it available for public inspection. The public may give their comments and make modifications to the plan, and submit it for cabinet approval. Upon approval by the cabinet, the minister shall cause the plan to be published in the gazette.
Coastal 2000: Recommendations for a resource management strategy for Sri Lanka's coastal region is a review document based on a series of 20 special studies commissioned by the CCD under the CRMP, which articulates the current policy on CRM and makes recommendations vis-à-vis future directions and strategic interventions in coastal zone management based on the achievements and shortcomings of the first decade of national coastal zone management.
Based on identified problems and suggested changes, the following policies and strategies were carried in Coastal 2000 and approved by the cabinet in 1992.
The Coast Conservation Act requires the CZMP to be revised every four years. The CCD, with the assistance of the CRMP, initiated revision of the CZMP using experience and lessons learned in the implementation of the first national CZMP. The CCD and the CRMP reviewed the main objectives, policies and activities of the CZMP.
The revised Coastal Zone Management Plan (1997) was approved by the cabinet in September 1997 and became effective on 1 November 1997.
The revised CZMP (as did the 1992 version) outlined interventions to reduce coastal erosion, minimize degradation of coastal habitats and minimize loss and degradation of archaeological, cultural and scenic sites. A new chapter addressed coastal pollution. Another new chapter addressed SAM by recognizing the need for locally-based collaborative management. The final chapter summarizes the objectives, policies and actions to be implemented by the CCD and sets forth priorities for action.
As in the previous plans, the revised Coastal Zone Management Plan (2004) presents a framework for the CCD’s agenda for the following five years. The preparation and review mirrored processes for the previous two plans and cabinet approval was granted in 2005, with interim guidelines suited to tsunami rehabilitation and reconstruction.
4.1 Conflicting and overlapping policies
A characteristic of coastal resource management, protection and conservation is the number of government institutions that are in some way or other vested with certain powers and functions. Additionally, some of the functions of certain institutions are totally contradictory to the very spirit of the Coast Conservation Act. It is imperative that conflicting provisions contained in several laws are harmonized to present a policy acceptable to respective institutions and ministries.
Under the Urban Development Authority Act, No. 41 of 1978, the entire coastal zone has been gazetted as an Urban Development Area (UDA). This obviously overlaps with CCD responsibilities. Thus, any development activity under CCD jurisdiction must necessarily be referred to the development plans of the UDA, as required by law.
Two directly conflicting authorities are the CCD and the Geological Survey and Mines Bureau (GSMB). While any development activity within the coastal zone requires a permit from the CCD, the GSMB is vested with the authority to issue permits under the same provision for its mining activities. Similarly, provision is made for the Board of Investment to bypass the authority of the CCD. Therefore, there should be authority for the CCD to coordinate activities within the coastal region and to be the facilitator for their agencies with the mandate to conserve resources for sustainable development.
In order to strengthen the role of the CCD and to minimize conflicts and gaps, the following amendments have been proposed to the Coast Conservation Act (a final draft is ready for submission to parliament):
4.2 Planning and decision-making process at the local level
In the past, most development and management activities at the village level were governed by the Village Communities Ordinance (VCO) No. 24, of 1889. This ordinance enabled the establishment of village level committees for the activities of each sector, and functioned along the lines of community-based systems. Under this ordinance, fisheries committees were established around the country and they operated under the supervision of the government agent of the respective areas.
In the fisheries sector at present, cooperative societies are formed by the fisherfolk themselves in order to upgrade their quality of life. They constitute a three-layered structure — primary societies, secondary unions and an apex federation. These societies come under the supervision of both the Department of Fisheries and Department of Cooperatives.
Many coastal communities have well-established resource-user societies and community groups. While some do not function well or are influenced by the local elite and political motivations, others, such as the “death societies” which raise money for funerals and for bereaved families, are highly effective and involve all community members. These groups can form the basis around which to build community action plans, such as SAM plans with the involvement of all the stakeholders in the area.
The SAM process, which is a locally based, geographically specific planning process, was initiated in 1993 in Rekawa and Hikkaduwa as pilot projects. It involves the affected communities and provincial agencies in the process of resource management by building community level support through a highly participatory process and creating community-based management groups.
The overall SAM process is coordinated by the SAM coordinating committee headed by the divisional secretary of the area and facilitated by the CCD. The coordinating committee comprises the main governmental and non-governmental stakeholders including the fisheries cooperative societies in the SAM area.
Coastal 2000 policies highlighted the importance of community involvement in integrated coastal zone management. The SAM concept, which involves an adaptive and flexible approach to resource management within a defined geographic area, is now an integral component of national coastal zone management policy. The SAM process addresses the resultant adverse impacts of increasingly rapid economic growth in environmentally sensitive areas such as coastal wetlands, which require new management tools and greater collaborative efforts with other agencies and the public.
SAM sites listed in the national CZMP can be selected by an implementing agency for SAM planning. A site-specific plan should be prepared by the implementing agency for the selected site with active community participation. The facilitating agency is responsible for identification and prioritizing the site-specific issues and implementation of the SAM process through stakeholder consultation. In this process, a coordinating committee (CC) is established at the site to function as the SAM planning and implementation body. The CC should comprise representatives of all resource user groups of the area, resource guardians (NGOs, CBOs) and resource managers (e.g. the government and local government authorities).
The final SAM plan is submitted to the CCAC for approval; it is envisaged that the revised Coast Conservation Act will have the provision to declare the sites specified in the CZMP as SAM sites, clearly defining their boundaries. This will confer legal status on the sites and regulations specified in SAM plans.
The revised CZMP (1997) identified 23 sites as potential SAM sites. The SAM process is ongoing in nine sites in Colombo, Gampaha, Galle, Hambatota and Puttlam. The revised CZMP (2004) identified another 57 potential SAM sites for SAM planning and implementation.
Measures are required to stop further degradation of the coastal resource base and, where possible, reverse the trend by implementing activities designed to regenerate and improve the quality of the natural resources of the coastal zone.
For this purpose it is necessary to undertake various activities to be planned and implemented at different levels. These activities should be complementary and mutually re-inforcing. Some activities may be planned at the national level or at the regional level, while other activities are more site-specific.
5.1 Survey and research needs
A research agenda should be set up to narrow information gaps and to strengthen the scientific basis for coastal area management. It must be emphasized that the collection and analysis of environmental and socio-economic data can be very expensive and time consuming.
At present, the database for coastal resources is very poor. A nationwide programme of data gathering and research is required to improve access to information needed for sound resource management and decision-making. The programme should be designed to improve the quality of data and facilitate access to data by scientists, decision-makers and the general public. The programme should be carried out in cooperation with relevant government research agencies, statistical departments and survey departments. The types of information to be gathered should include general surveys to monitor the conditions and extent of natural habitats and coastal resources, including mapping and GIS. Careful attention needs to be paid to replicability of data and methodology so that comparisons over time can be made to accurately detect trends and alterations; also to assessments of resource utilization patterns to evaluate whether or not resource pools are being depleted.
5.2 Strengthening of enforcement
Amendments to the Coast Conservation Act are required for the proper implementation of the revised CZMP. Proposed amendments are to be discussed with government policy-makers and the CCAC and will be submitted to the Legal Draftsman’s Department for finalization of the procedure.
It is suggested that subjects to study should be laws that inhibit the powers, functions and duties of the CCD, and draft bills which may impede or impose constraints on the CCD; recommendations should be made to the government.
The CCD has acquired field staff for coastal operations to carry out surveillance and enforcement. For effective enforcement, linkages with enforcement officers who are associated with the conservation of coastal resources should be strengthened.
5.3 Develop CZM capacity
The capacity of stakeholders should be strengthened to effectively contribute to the CZMP. A major constraint is the lack of technical and management capacities at the local level. Education and public awareness on coastal area management should be strengthened at national and local levels. The CCD organizes and conducts training programmes on coastal zone management at various levels with the assistance of the National Education Institute and the Sri Lanka Institute for Development Administration (SLIDA). Therefore, an improved extension service should be established. This extension service could work through the National Institute of Fisheries and Nautical Engineering under the Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources. Regional training centres under the Fisheries Training Institute can play a lead role in planning and conducting regular training and public awareness programmes at the local level. For further improvement of public awareness about the critical nature of environmental problems and threats to natural resources, it is essential to have a comprehensive media campaign at the national level. This should include the production and dissemination of materials designed to convey environmental messages and information via television, radio, the Internet and printed media.
5.4 Establish mechanisms for integration and coordination
Institutional mechanisms should be developed to facilitate integration and coordination of the CZMP. Integration brings about the harmonization of policies and legislation among national, provincial and local governments. Coordination plays a central role in fostering understanding and cooperation among all stakeholders. The CCAC plays a major role in interagency coordination of coastal resource management activities. The proposed Coast Conservation Act amendments will strengthen the proper participation of agencies and has a strong priority for coastal resource management. The other environmental scoping committees formed for the EIA evaluation process are making interagency coordination easier in decision-making.
Certain strategies in the management framework require more formal interagency coordination mechanisms than those currently in use. Memoranda of Understanding (MOUs) among agencies and other formal coordination devices should be developed as needed in consultation with those agencies.
At present, there is sufficient interagency coordination developed for management activities among the agencies. But there should be a proper interagency coordinating mechanism between management agencies and research organizations for identification and prioritization of research needs in coastal area management.
5.5 Monitoring the coastal area management programme
Monitoring provides a powerful tool for assessing the performance of projects and programmes and gives early warning of adverse effects so that corrective action can be taken to modify design and management to avoid irreversible impacts. Due to the complexity and dynamic nature of coastal systems, it is not always feasible to accurately predict economic effectiveness and environmental performance.
The absence of a properly organized monitoring unit is a matter for further consideration. Universities may be mobilized to set up a monitoring system supported at the field level by field officers of the related agencies or the officers of the proposed enforcement unit. The monitoring system should also be capable of collecting and analysing information to give feedback to decision-makers at various levels of management.
In view of the magnitude of observed issues, and of financial and human capacities, designing and implementing more effective ICZM programmes to sustain coastal ecosystems as healthy life-support systems for the benefit of future generations is a major challenge for the country at the moment.
Appendix 1. The maritime zones of Sri Lanka
Appendix 2. Extent of coastal habitats, by district (hectares)
|
District |
Mangroves |
Salt |
Dunes |
Beaches |
Lagoons, |
Other |
Marshes |
| Colombo |
- |
- |
- |
112 |
- |
412 |
15 |
| Gampaha |
122 |
497 |
- |
207 |
3 442 |
205 |
1 604 |
| Puttalam |
2 264 |
3 461 |
2 689 |
2 772 |
39 119 |
3 428 |
2 515 |
| Mannar |
1 261 |
5 179 |
1 458 |
912 |
3 828 |
2 371 |
308 |
| Kilinochchi |
312 |
4 975 |
509 |
420 |
11 917 |
1 256 |
1 046 |
| Jaffna |
260 |
4 963 |
2 145 |
1 103 |
45 525 |
1 862 |
149 |
| Mullativu |
463 |
517 |
- |
864 |
9 233 |
570 |
194 |
| Trincomalee |
1 491 |
1 401 |
- |
671 |
18 317 |
2 180 |
1 126 |
| Batticaloa |
1 421 |
2 196 |
- |
1 489 |
13 682 |
2 365 |
968 |
| Ampara |
292 |
127 |
357 |
1 398 |
7 235 |
1 171 |
894 |
| Hambantota |
539 |
318 |
444 |
1 099 |
4 488 |
1 526 |
200 |
| Matara |
6 |
- |
- |
191 |
- |
234 |
80 |
| Galle |
187 |
185 |
- |
485 |
1 144 |
783 |
561 |
| Kalutara | 70 |
- |
4 |
77 |
87 |
476 |
91 |
| Total extent | 8 687 |
23 819 |
7 606 |
11 800 |
158 017 |
18 839 |
9 754 |
Appendix 3. National fish production (1985–2004, in tonnes)
|
1985 |
1990 |
1995 |
2000 |
2003 |
2004 |
2005 |
||
|
Marine fishery |
Coastal |
140 270 |
134 130 |
157 500 |
175 280 |
163 850 |
154 470 |
63 690 |
|
Offshore |
2 400 |
11 670 |
60 000 |
84 400 |
90 830 |
98 720 |
66 710 |
|
|
Total |
142 670 |
145 800 |
217 500 |
259 680 |
254 680 |
253 190 |
130 400 |
|
|
Inland fishery |
32 740 |
38 190 |
18 250 |
36 700 |
30 280 |
33 180 |
32 830 |
|
|
Total production |
175 410 |
183 990 |
235 250 |
296 380 |
284 960 |
286 370 |
163 230 |
|
Appendix 4. Locations of well-known basin estuaries and lagoons in Sri Lanka
Appendix 5. Tourist growth trend in Sri Lanka
|
Year |
Tourist arrivals |
Tourist receipts, million Rs. |
| 1993 |
392 250 |
10 036.80 |
| 1994 |
407 511 |
11 401.60 |
| 1995 |
403 101 |
11 551.60 |
| 1996 |
302 265 |
9 559.10 |
| 1997 |
366 165 |
12 980.30 |
| 1998 |
381 063 |
14 868.00 |
| 1999 |
436 440 |
19 297.30 |
| 2000 |
400 414 |
19 162.20 |
| 2001 |
336 794 |
18 863.30 |
| 2002 |
393 171 |
24 202.00 |
| 2003 |
500 642 |
32 810.00 |
| 2004 |
566 202 |
42 058.60 |
| 2005 |
549 308 |
36 377.00 |
Appendix 6. Distribution of coral reefs in coastal waters of Sri Lanka
Appendix 7. Some of the major human, economic and social impacts of the tsunami
| Human | ➢ | People killed | 35 322 | ||
| ➢ | People injured | 21 441 | |||
| ➢ | Internally displaced |
516 150 |
|||
| Economic | ➢ | Value of lost assets | US$900 million | ||
| ➢ | Lost livelihoods | 150 000 | |||
| ➢ | Houses damaged | 98 000 | |||
| ➢ | Proportion of fishing fleet destroyed | 75% | |||
| ➢ | Extended salinized agricultural land | 23 449 acres | |||
| ➢ | Damage to tourism infrastructure | ||||
| Large hotels | 53 out of 242 | ||||
| Small hotels | 248 | ||||
| Related small enterprises |
210 |
||||
| Social | ➢ | Widowed, orphaned/affected elderly and disabled | 40 000 | ||
| ➢ | Health facilities damaged | 97 | |||
| ➢ | Education facilities damaged | 182 | |||
| ➢ | Universities | 4 | |||
| ➢ | Vocational training centres | 15 | |||
| ➢ | Schoolchildren affected |
200 000 |
|||
Appendix 8. Institutional structure of the Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources
Appendix 9. The Department of Coast Conservation
Appendix 10. The coastal zone (Coastal Conservation Act No. 57, 1981)
Bibliography
Coast Conservation Department (CCD). 1990. Coastal Zone Management Plan, Sri Lanka. Colombo, CCD.
CCD. 1997. Revised Coastal Zone Management Plan, Sri Lanka. Colombo, CCD.
CCD. 2004. Revised Coastal Zone Management Plan, Sri Lanka. Colombo, CCD.
Coastal Resource Management Project (TA No.3034-Sri). 1998. Interim report. December 1998.
Government of Sri Lanka (GOSL). 1981. Coast Conservation Act No.57 of 1981.
GOSL. 1988. Coast Conservation (Amendment) Act No. 64 of 1988.
GOSL & Development Partners. 2005. Post tsunami recovery and reconstruction. Joint report of the Government of Sri Lanka and development partners.
Ministry of Disaster Management. 2005. Road map for disaster risk management. Disaster Management Centre, Ministry of Disaster Management.
Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources & FAO. 2006. Strategy and programme for post tsunami reconstruction and development of the marine fisheries sector.
Niras Port Consult. 2005. Tsunami damage assessment report — break waters of fishery harbours, coastal structures from Hambantota to Colombo.
Olsen, S., Sadacharan, D., Samarakoon, J.I., White, A.T. & W. Wickramaratne. 1992. Coastal 2000: recommendations for a resources management strategy for Sri Lanka’s coastal region. Vols I and II. CCD.
Samaranayake, R.A.D.B. 2003. Review of national fisheries situation in Sri Lanka. World Fisheries Center Publication.
Sri Lankan Parliament Select Committee on Natural Disasters. 2005. Report 2005.
1 Director of Coast Conservation, Coast Conservation Department, Sri Lanka.
