The Indian Ocean tsunami of 26 December 2004 wrought far-reaching impacts on the coastal ecosystems and communities of the Asia–Pacific region. Based on field trips conducted in southern Thailand, Aceh, Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka, several issues with implications for coastal management are discussed and illustrated:
The tsunami brings into question two other pertinent issues: Whether present coastal zone management in the Asia–Pacific region is adequate to handle future tsunami threats, and whether the risk of tsunamis should also be considered within the overall risk management to global change.
Rehabilitation of the coastal zone affected by the tsunami requires that the balance between the environmental, social and economic values of the resources is maintained. An effective and efficient rehabilitation programme is required in order to ensure that any one value is not overexploited to the detriment of the other two values. This is particularly relevant to economic development, where perceived short-term gains can end up becoming long-term disasters.
Monitoring and controlling of the policies, rules and regulations that prescribe the framework conditions for rehabilitation are an essential component to ensure optimal and sustainable use of the available resources.
Multistakeholder participation will be used to define the framework conditions through which integrated approaches and processes can be used to achieve the overall goal.
In the Aceh and Nias context, the rehabilitation and reconstruction programme’s main issues concerned coordination among stakeholders, financial and technical resources, livelihoods and people’s welfare, priorities (for beneficiaries) and investment in the people/community.
Participation of the communities who live and depend on the coastal resources for their welfare and livelihoods is paramount for effectively addressing the above issues to achieve optimal and sustainable intergrated coastal management (ICM). Access to resources by communities must be included in the development and implementation process for sustainable ICM to build back better for Aceh and Nias.
The purpose of this technical assistance (TA) project from the Asian Development Bank (ADB) to the Department of Marine and Coastal Resources (DMCR) was to improve the legal and regulatory framework for coastal zone management (CZM) in Thailand, and to contribute to adequate field-level coordination of government and non-government agencies involved in post-tsunami rehabilitation activities in the coastal zone. Public consultations and TA steering committee meetings were convened to consider and comment on the draft. Participants in public consultations on working drafts of the law emphasized the need for the coordination mechanism to be strong but flexible, and for the local, provincial and national levels to be well-integrated with each other and with law enforcement agencies. The draft act would implement a constitutional guarantee of rights to information and participation in resource management; provide a framework within which the multiple government authorities operating in the coastal zone and marine areas can coordinate and harmonize their functions; and provide for resolving conflicts of jurisdiction among government authorities, as well as resolving disputes among stakeholders. The draft act would facilitate ongoing rehabilitation activities in the coastal provinces affected by the 2004 tsunami. The shared awareness of the complexity of the issues confronting effective CZM management in Thailand and the support for the draft created through this TA will contribute to the backing that will be required for its adoption.
Four international environment organizations: Wetlands International, WWF, IUCN and Both ENDS, initiated the Green Coast project to restore and manage coastal ecosystems to increase livelihood security for coastal communities in tsunami-hit regions.
Assessments of the tsunami impacts on the ecosystem and livelihoods were conducted by Green Coast partners in India, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia and Sri Lanka. These were built on the rapid assessments done by governments and NGOs in cooperation with UN agencies, and took full advantage of the surveys, satellite imagery and syntheses available.
Green Coast partners work within local communities, disbursing funds through NGOs and community-based organizations to work on ecosystem restoration. Forestry rehabilitation, including mangroves, and multiple species-based shelterbelt plantations in demonstration plots, provides protection to households as an alternative to the conventional Casuarina/palm tree shelterbelt.
The paper presents the results of the forestry rehabilitation experience gained by the Green Coast project partners over 12 months of implementation. The lessons learnt are useful in the formulation of coastal forest rehabilitation strategies that enhance overall ecosystem resilience and connectivity of forests with regard to their habitat service functions, including fisheries and coastal protection, and products such as fuelwood, nuts, fruits, or fibre.
This presentation provided information on land-use planning and examples from the Maldives. The presentation set out to define a “land-use plan,” to explore different dimensions of land-use planning, and to examine four key questions that need to be addressed in good planning practice.
Next, examples of land-use planning challenges, issues and initiatives in the Maldives were discussed. It was explained that the Maldives is a small island nation with about 300 000 people distributed over 195 inhabited islands that are between one to three metres above sea level; 69 islands were severely damaged by the 2004 tsunami. Coastal planning is, therefore, intertwined with the development and protection of islands. The Government of the Maldives has recognized that land-use planning is vital to the creation of sustainable and safe islands. The Ministry of Housing and Urban Development (MHUD) published national guidelines on how to prepare a land-use plan, along with a nationwide training programme to empower island people to prepare a land-use plan for their own islands.
It was suggested that coastal planning is like a necklace — different sectors acting like the beads and the land-use plan serving as the string that holds them all together. Finally, it was suggested that the relationship between “coastal planning and management” and “land-use plans” should be examined to identify overlaps in preparation and practice in order to improve integration and implementation on the ground.
Mangroves for the Future (MFF) aims to promote investment in coastal ecosystem conservation as development “infrastructure.” The initiative, running between 2007 and 2011 with a total funding target of US$62 million, provides a long-term response to address the critical state of ecosystems, livelihoods and coastal management in Indian Ocean countries. MFF builds a collaborative platform for different countries, sectors and agencies to work together towards a common goal: to conserve and restore coastal ecosystems as key assets which support human well-being and security. It seeks to match funding and other resources to the locations, actions and agencies where they are needed most.
Mangroves for the Future targets countries that are recovering from the Indian Ocean tsunami. Its “focal countries” are some of the worst-affected nations: India, Indonesia, the Maldives, the Seychelles, Sri Lanka and Thailand. The initiative will also initiate a dialogue and sharing of information and experiences with other tsunami-affected countries in the region that face critical ecosystems and livelihood issues, including Bangladesh, Kenya, Malaysia and Tanzania. Additional countries within the Indian Ocean region (Cambodia, China, Pakistan, the Philippines and Vietnam) will also, at a later stage, be brought into these dialogues. An ocean-wide approach will be promoted in the context of coastal management.
The impact of the tsunami on the people, infrastructure, environment and economy of Sri Lanka was very high when compared to other affected countries in relation to the size of the country, population, economy and the extent of devastated environment. Yet, Sri Lanka successfully handled the measures for evacuation, relief, restoration of infrastructure and livelihoods with the assistance of the international community.
The Government of Sri Lanka was unable to give priority to the environment in the first one or two months of restoration and rehabilitation. However, this situation was corrected subsequently. One such step was to recognize set-back areas in the coastal zone of the country after considering representations made by human rights group and the international community.
In April 2005, with the assistance of the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) and the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), a study was initiated by the Ministry of Environment and a detailed report was compiled. UNEP, assisted by CIDA, supported an island-wide programme of rapid environmental assessments (REA) of 480 sites for the Central Environment Authority (CEA).
A powerful methodology, which harnesses public participation and multistakeholder dialogue, is to promote the environmental sustainability of individual projects. This methodology has recently been underlined by the President of Sri Lanka through his endorsement of future mandatory strategic environment assessments (SEAs) for development activities.
Sri Lanka is in the process of utilizing scientific approaches based on the results of studies and surveys in such a way that coastal areas are developed with fisheries and other economic activities (including tourism and recreation) to bring benefits to coastal communities and ensure that the environment cohabits with development.
Participatory methods were applied to the development of a geographic information system (GIS) for integrated coastal management (ICM) in the province of Trang, in southern Thailand. The project was implemented by the Royal Thai Government’s Department of Marine and Coastal Resources (DMCR), the Southeast Asia START Regional Center (SEA START RC), the Sustainable Development Foundation (SDF) and the Save Andaman Network (SAN), between June and December 2006. It focused on 13 communities on the tsunami-affected Andaman Sea coast, some of which were situated inside the boundary of a marine national park. High resolution aerial photographs provided a base for stakeholder representatives to map the condition, use and management of natural resources. The project has shown that participatory information gathering and analysis is an excellent way to develop understanding, consensus and agreement between different stakeholders. It has highlighted the importance of trust building, common objectives, participation, information, capacity building, ecosystem approaches and multidisciplinary approaches for initiating multistakeholder collaboration on integrated coastal management activities.
A small coastal fishery town — Erimo, Hokkaido, Japan — has overcome difficulties and succeeded in regreening a desertified coastal region over the last 50 years. An overview of the case, why it has succeeded, lessons learned, challenges and conclusions were discussed.
A notable fact is that the volume of fishery production in the area has increased thirtyfold in 50 years; with the expanding plantation area, this provides a good rationale for intersectoral collaboration. Factors which contributed to success included: local fisherfolk’s strong support for the greening effort; developing an innovative planting technique utilizing washed-ashore kelp; and strong stakeholder commitment/collaboration. This is an excellent model of environmental restoration for environmental and social objectives with a significant contribution to the fishery sector.
The debate on environmental issues in coastal zone management cannot be separated from the issue of livelihood options and economic recovery. The role of tree shields (rubber, coconut, cacao and other fruit trees) in reducing the intensity of tsunami damage as well as loss of human lives is well recognized. However, the economic role of these tree crops, both before and after the tsunami, has received less attention in post-tsunami reconstruction and rehabilitation plans. Trees planted by coastal zone farmers who expect economic benefits are far more likely to survive and provide environmental services than trees planted in externally-led reforestation programmes. A focus on the types of trees and the way they will be managed is the key to the success of coastal zone management.
Recent studies in West Aceh indicated that prior to the tsunami, tree crops (mainly rubber, cacao and coconut in an agroforestry context) contributed over 40 percent to local livelihoods in West Aceh; this has diminished slightly due to the diversion of human resources to the current construction boom, predicted to last until 2008. The crucial role of tree crops in long-term recovery and development requires serious attention in all post-tsunami development plans. Recovery and improvements of market channels for these important tree crops are essential. Hence, "rebuilding a green infrastructure," an integrated system composed of tree crops to enhance the resilience of the coastal population, is advocated. Both "bioshields" and "economic shields" are possible with tree crops in coastal zone management. An ongoing project in West Aceh aims to promote fruitful dialogue between local communities and development partners (the government and NGOs) on coastal zone land-use planning based on sound scientific knowledge, local needs and future opportunities. Capacity building at both community and government levels to achieve longer term environmental and economic goals is planned.
