FAO IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE PAPER 43
Water lifting
by
P.L.
Fraenkel
Director
Intermediate
Technology Power Limited
Reading,
UK
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS
Rome, 1986
|
FAO IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE PAPER 43 Water lifting by |
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS | |
| The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. |
M-56
ISBN 92-5-102515-0
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. Applications for such permission, with a statement of the purpose and extent of the reproduction, should be addressed to the Director, Publications Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy.
© FAO 1986
1.1 Scope and purpose of this paper
1.2 The increasing importance of irrigation
1.3 Irrigation and the "Energy Crisis"
2. WATER LIFTING FOR IRRIGATION
2.1 General principles of water lifting
2.1.1 Definitions of Work, power, energy and efficiency
2.1.2 Efficiency of components: the importance of matching
2.1.3 Irrigation system losses
2.1.4 Flow through channels and pipes
2.1.5 Suction lift: the atmospheric limit
2.1.6 Drawdown and seasonal variations of water level
2.2 Outline of principles of small-scale irrigation
2.2.1 Irrigation water requirements
2.2.2 Nett irrigation requirement
3. REVIEW OF PUMPS AND WATER LIFTING DEVICES
3.1 Principles for moving or lifting water
3.2 Taxonomy of water lifts and pumps
3.3 Reciprocating and cyclic direct lift devices
3.3.1 Watering cans, buckets, scoops, bailers and the swing basket
3.3.2 Suspended scoop, gutters, dhones and the counterpoise- -lift or shadoof
3.4 Rotary direct lift devices
3.4.1 Bucket elevators, Persian wheels and norias
3.5 Reciprocating displacement pumps
3.5.1 Piston or bucket pumps: basic principles
3.5.2 Double-acting piston pumps and plunger pumps
3.5.4 Reciprocating pumps and pipelines
3.5.5 Reciprocating borehole pumps
3.6 Rotary positive displacement pumps
3.6.2 Progressive cavity (Mono) pumps
3.6.3 Archimedean screw and open screw pumps
3.6.5 Paddle wheels, treadmills and flashwheels
3.7 Reciprocating inertia (joggle) pumps
3.8.1Rotodynamic pumps: basic principles
3.8.2 Volute, turbine and regenerative centrifugal pumps
3.8.3 Rotodynamic pump characteristics and impeller types
3.8.4 Axial flow (propeller) pumps
3.8.7 Multi-stage and borehole rotodynamic pumps
3.10 Impulse (water hammer) devices
4.1 Prime-movers as part of a pumping system
4.2.1 Human beings as power sources
4.4 Internal combustion engines
4.5 External combustion engines
4.7.1 Background and State-of-the-Art
4.8.1 Background and State-of-the-Art
4.8.2 Principles of solar energy conversion
4.9.1 Background and State-of-the-Art
4.9.2 Use of turbines for water lifting
4.10 Biomass and coal (the non-petroleum fuels)
4.10.1 The availability and distribution of fuels
5. THE CHOICE OF PUMPING SYSTEMS
5.1 Financial and economic considerations
5.1.1 Criteria for cost comparison
5.2.1 Status or availability of the technology
5.2.2 Capital cost versus recurrent costs
5.2.4 Skill requirements for installation, operation and maintenance
Back Cover
LIST OF TABLES
1 Irrigated areas of the world 2 Suggested maximum flow velocities, coefficients of roughness and side slopes for lined and unlined ditches and flumes 3A. Average conveyance efficiency B. Average farm ditch efficiency C. Average application efficiency 4 Average intake rates of water in mm/hr for different soils and corresponding stream size 5 Taxonomy of pumps and water lifts 6 Specifications of Chinese 'dragon spine' water lifts 7 Relative merits of materials for pumps 8 Review of pumps and water lifts 9 Cost attributes of prime movers 10 The calorific values of various staple foods 11 Power capability of human beings 12 Camparison of various water lifts in Bangladesh 13 Power and drawbar pull of various animals 14 Comparison of different petroleum-based engine fuels 15 Comparison of small I.C. engines 16 Power in the wind as a function of wind speed in units of power per unit area of wind stream 17 Variation of air density with altitude 18 Comparison between different rotor types 19 Calculation of windpump output using "binned" windspeed data combined with performance data 20 Factors affecting windpump system efficiency 21 Efficiency of hydro-powered systems 22 Typical sizes and prices of Chinese turbine pumps 23 Comparison of irrigation costs in China 24 Some performance data of small turbine pumps 25 Hydram input capacity 26 Hydram performance 27 Power density in water currents as a function of water velocity 28 Land requirements in Brazil to produce grain for food or for fuel alcohol 29 Principal crop residues in developing countries 30 Typical cereal crop residues 31 Photosynthetic carbon production rates 32 Relative heat value of various fuels 33 Potential biomass values of selected crops 34 Biogas yield from various feedstocks 35 Quantities of excreta from various species 36 Principal operating parameters for farm biogas digesters 37 Sizing example to run an irrigation pump on biogas 38 Present value factors up to 25 years 39 Annualization factors up to 25 years 40 Analysis of unit water costs for four types of irrigation pumping systems 41 Cost and performance assumptions used for comparison of alternative pumping methods LIST OF FIGURES
1 Typical pump installation 2 Key components of an irrigation system 3 The concept of an hydraulic gradient 4 Determination of head friction losses in straight pipes 5 Head loss nomogram calculated for rigid PVC pipes using Blasius formula 6 How pipeline and efficiency vary with flow 7 Effects of various physical conditions on the elevation of water surfaces in wells 8 Factors affecting system hydraulic efficiency 9 Energy flow through typical irrigation system 10 Hydraulic power requirements to lift water 11 Relationship between power, head and flow 12 Relationship between energy, head and daily output 13 Nomogram for calculating power needs for a given area, depth of irrigation and head 14 Rate of growth as a function of soil moisture content 15 Example of a crop coefficient curve for corn planted in mid-May at Cairo, Egypt 16 Typical curves showing relationship between head, flow, speed and efficiency 17 The scoop used as a simple hand tool 18 The swing basket in use 19 Scoop with a rope support 20 Dhone as used in Bangladesh 21 Counterpoise lift 22 Self-emptying mohte with inclined tow path 23 Persian wheel 24 Noria 25 Zawaffa type Persian wheel 26 Sakia or tympanum 27 The fathi is the optimum design of sakia 28 Basic principles of positive displacement pumps 29 Hand pump with single-acting, bucket piston 30 Piston pump for use in borehole 31 Crank operated piston pump 32 Different types of reciprocating displacement pumps 33 Vertical section through a borehole pump 34 Typical pump valve 35 Piston pump connected to a pipeline 36 Three methods for isolating reciprocating pumps from pipelines 37 Hydraulic shock absorber can serve as an alternative to an air chamber 38 Schematic cross-section through a borehole 39 The Vergnet hydraulic foot-pump 40 Cross-section of a diaphragm pump 41 Schematic drawing of the IRRI foot-operated diaphragm pump 42 Commercial portable double acting diaphragm pump 43 Detail of the New Alchemy Institute (USA) tyre pump 44 The Humphrey pump: a liquid piston internal combustion engine and pump combined 45 A flexible vane pump 46 The Permaprop tooth pump 47 Progressivity cavity or 'Mono' pump 48 An Archimedean screw 49 Cross-section through an open screw 50 Hydrostatic pressure pumps 51 Paddle-wheel or tread-wheel 52 Water ladder or Chinese 'dragon spine' pump 53a. Chinese Liberation wheel chain and washer pump 53b. A view of a hand-operation Liberation pump 54 Flap valve pump 55 Joggle pump 56 Early types of centrifugal pumps 57 The relationship between pressure and velocity through both a jet and diffuser 58 Centrifugal pumps 59 Typical rotodynamic pump characteristics 60 Axial flow (or propeller) pump 61 Surface mounted mixed flow pump 62 Submerged mixed flow pump 63 Portable axial flow pump (IRRI) 64 Typical surface mounted pedestal centrifugal pump 65 Surface mountd centrifugal pump installation 66 Below-surface (sump) centrifugal pump installation 67 Various types of centrifugal pump impellers 68 Effect of direction of curvature of vanes of centrifugal pump impellers 69 Combining centrifugal pumps in series or parallels 70 Multi-stage submersible electric borehole pumps 71 Schematic of complete electric submersible borehole pumping installation 72 Direct-coupled air-cooled diesel engine and pump installation with hand-operated diaphragm pump for priming 73 Self-priming centrifugal pump 74 Schematic of a surface-suction jet pump 75 Borehole jet pump installation 76 Air lift pump (schematic) 77 Syphon arrangements 78 Cross-section through a qanat 79 Animal-powered Chinese Liberation pump mechanism uses steel components 80a. Typical head and discharge capacities for different types of pumps and water-lifting devices 80b. Discharge 80c. Discharge 81. Linkages between energy resources and appropriate prime movers 82A. How diminishing returns eventually defeat the benefits of seeking increased efficiency beyond certain levels 82B. The influence of efficiency on costs 83 Illustration of how correct speedmatching of a prime mover to a pump can be more important than the efficiency of the prime mover 84 Two stage speed reduction transmission used in China to connect an electric motor to a chain and washer pump 85 The number of people required to provide a specified quantity of water at different lifts 86 Rope and bag water lift from a dug well 87 Relative performance of the swing basket and the dhone 88 Nomograph for calculating hand pump discharge 89 Rotary drive hand pump 90 Power pump 91 The number of oxen required to provide a specified quantity of water at different lifts 92 Cross-section view of a mohte 93 Circular mohte utilizing two buckets with flap-valves in the bottom 94 A bullock-driven Persian wheel of the conventional chain and bucket type 95 Camel-driven Persian wheel showing over-head drive mechanism 96 Animal-powered Chinese Liberation pump 97 The back-axle from a car used as an animal-driven power transmission for an Archimedean screw pump 98 Open flywheel low-speed single-cylinder diesel engine 99 Belt-driven 3 cylinder Lister diesel engine coupled to a centrifugal pump via multiple "V" belts 100 Principle components of a small engine pumping system and their efficiencies 101 Effect of increasing the suction head on the output of a typical engine pump set 102 Schematic arrangement of a condensing steam engine 103 Rider-Ericsson hot air pumping engine 104 The four main types of electric motors 105 Direct coupled electric motor and centrifugal pump 106 Electric motor powered, belt-driven piston pump 107 Wooden indigenous windmill pump for pumping sea water into salt pans on the Island of Sal, Cape Verde 108 All-steel 'American' farm wind pump 109 Gearbox from a typical back-geared 'American' farm windmill 110 Chinese chain windmill 111 Thai windpump 112 'Cretan' type of windmill used on an irrigation project in Southern Ethiopia 113 2 kw Dunlite wind electricity generator 114 55 kw Windamatic wind electricity generator 115 Typical farm windpump installation configurations 116 IT windpump, made in Kenya as the ' Kijito' and in Pakistan as the 'Tawana' 117 Savonius Rotor vertical-axis windpump in Ethiopia 118 Typical Troposkien shaped Darriens vertical-axis wind turbine 119 Turks and Caicos islands vertical-axis sail rotor 120 The power (A) and torque (B) of a wind rotor as a function of rotational speed for different wind speeds 121 T he power coefficients (above) and the torque coefficients of various types of wind turbine rotor plotted against tip-speed ratio 122 The trade-off between starting windspeed and output for differently loaded wind pumps 123 The operating characteristics of a windpump showing how the power output and matching efficiency vary with windspeed 124 Typical windpump storm protection method in which rotor is yawed edge-on to the wind 125 Annual mean wind speeds 126 Typical presentation of long term wind data as monthly averages 127 Wind rose 128 Wind velocity-frequency histogram 129 Manufacturers' performance data for the Kenyan-made 'Kijito' windpump range based on the IT windpump 130 Example of how to calculate the energy output of a windmill 131 Feasible options for solar-powered pumping systems 132 Losses in a typical solar thermodynamic pumping system 133 Construction of a silicon photovoltaic cell 134 Examples of solar pump configuration 135 Performance characteristics of silicon photovoltaic cells 136 Schematic arrangements of a photovoltaic solar pumping system 137 Losses in a typical solar photovoltaic pumping system 138 Solar energy availability compared with crop irrigation water demand 139 World map giving average annual Clearness Index for solar distribution 140 Flow measurement with rectangular weir 141 Method of stream gauging without the need to build a weir 142 Some of the main types of hydro turbine for low, medium and high heads 143 Single stage high lift turbine pump 144 Multi-stage high lift turbine pump 145 Turbine pump fitted with extension drive shaft 146 Typical turbine pump installation 147 Schematic diagram of hydram installation 148 Traditional European hydram design 149 South-east Asian type of hydram 150 Low-cost hydraulic ram using standard pipe fittings 151 Bamboo water wheels, Vietnam 152 Chinese type of small-scale Noria 153 Water wheel driven coil pump 154 Cut-away view showing general arrangement of a Plata pump installation 155 IT river current turbine pump 156 Routes for processing biomass fuels 157 2 kw Ricardo steam engine 158 The three main types of gasifier 159 Small producer gas irrigation pumping system 160 Fixed dome biogas digester 161 Biogas digester with floating gas holder and no water seal 162 Chinese two-wheel tractor running on biogas and being used to pump digester slurry on to the field 163 Step-by-step procedure for a cost appraisal of a water pumping system 164 Human and animal power: output cost versus scale 165 Diesel and kerosene pumping sets 166 Windpumps at various mean windspeeds 167 Solar pumps at various mean insolation levels 168 Hydrams 169 Mean values of the results of Figs. 164-168 plotted with linear scales on the same axes for daily hydraulic requirements of 1 000 m3 m 170 Expected range of unit energy costs for three levels of demand