Shanxi is an inland province in the middle reach of the Yellow River in China. Average annual precipitation is only about 500 mm and is unevenly distributed both temporally and spatially. Around 60 percent of the total annual precipitation is concentrated in the summer. The province is severely affected by frequent droughts, occurring in nine out of ten years. After recent rapid socio-economic development, water competition among different users and uses is becoming increasingly intense. Currently, average water availability per capita in Shanxi Province is 381 m3, about 17 percent of the national average; average water availability per mu of cultivated land is 180.3 m3, about 11 percent of the national average. Irrigated agriculture is the biggest water consumer, accounting for 56 percent of aggregate water diversions, and it is criticized for abuse of crucial water resources.
Improvements in irrigation water use efficiency and water productivity have been achieved through the adoption of water-saving irrigation, infrastructure upgrading and management reform in recent years. Room exists for further significant improvement in terms of both agriculture water management and overall water resource development and management. Proposed agriculture restructuring requires quality irrigation services. Sustainable development calls for better protection of the water environment and ecosystems. Integrated river basin water resource management demands more balanced consideration of management objectives at different levels. To address all of these issues systematically and comprehensively, the provincial government intends to formulate a new provincial water strategy based on local conditions and national and international experiences. Water resource management and irrigation modernization are the two major concerns of the new strategy.
The FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (FAO RAP) has been assisting in formulating national water visions and strategies, advocating irrigation modernization concepts and disseminating relevant technologies and tools in Asia for about ten years. It has initiated a technical cooperation with Shanxi Province on irrigation modernization since 2006, including the introduction of new concepts and technologies; adoption and improvement of practical tools; pilot studies at selected irrigation schemes; and local capacity building. To provide timely and quality inputs for the formulation of a new provincial water strategy, the International Forum on Water Resources Management and Irrigation Modernization in Shanxi Province had the following objectives:
Better understand local conditions and learn from national and international experiences on water resource management and irrigation development in arid and semi-arid areas.
Facilitate in-depth discussion on crucial water issues, especially irrigation development and constraints, water pollution, groundwater management and protection of the water environment.
Recommend suitable options for enhancing the implementation of integrated river basin water resource management, upgrading water delivery services (especially irrigation services), facilitating sustainable socio-economic development and improving rural livelihoods in Shanxi Province.
1.2 Execution
The forum was held in Taiyuan and Yuncheng Cities, Shanxi Province from 22 to 24 November 2006. A one-day plenary meeting and subtheme meetings were held in Taiyuan City on 22 November; one-day field visits to representative irrigation systems around Yuncheng City were conducted on 23 November; and one-day group discussions and plenary meetings took place in Yuncheng City on 24 November. It was well-attended by approximately 260 participants, including 13 international delegates from FAO, UNESCO, ICID, the United States, France, Islamic Republic of Iran, Tunisia and India; 20 senior national officials and experts including two department directors-general from the State Council, two vice-ministers and three department directors-general from the Ministry of Water Resources, China; two vice-provincial governors, the Secretary-General and all department directors-general of Shanxi Provincial Government; directors-general of all prefecture water conservancy bureaus in Shanxi Province; directors-general of all management bureaus of large-scale irrigation schemes in Shanxi Province; as well as experts from universities and institutions. The Ministry of Water Resources, China rendered great support to this event. Shanxi Water Resources Department made considerable efforts with regard to forum preparation and implementation.
In total, 26 addresses and technical presentations were delivered — two opening addresses, 14 contributions from domestic leaders and experts and ten papers from international participants. The topics were multidisciplinary in scope and encompassed different levels, they included:
Theories, policies and measures for water resource management.
Calculation of the carrying capacity of regional water resources.
Issues related to socio-economic development and water rights in the upper reaches of transboundary rivers.
The negative impacts caused by groundwater overexploitation and relevant countermeasures.
Water for ecologies in water-stressed areas.
Studies on the indices of rational exploitation and utilization of rivers.
The establishment of a water-saving society.
The establishment of water resource information and monitoring system.
Agricultural irrigation modernization.
Agricultural water harvesting.
The information presented was relevant to the specific conditions in Shanxi Province, and was well-received by the participants and national and local governments. Discussions revolved around "hot" topics such as better understanding of the hydrological cycle at the river basin level; better management of groundwater resources; implications and relationships related to different water source and irrigation development systems; and technical methods and managerial options for irrigation modernization. The topics and activities of each session are summarized hereunder:
1.2.1 Session 1: Opening
The forum was formally opened by Mr Liang Bin, on behalf of Mr Yu Youjun, the Governor of Shanxi Province and Ms Jiang Han on behalf of Ms Victoria Sekitoleko, FAO Representative for China, Mongolia and DPR Korea.
The three keynote addresses provided overviews on the status, trends and options for water management and irrigation development at global, national and provincial levels. Prior to the subtheme meetings, four plenary papers were delivered that dealt exclusively with the irrigation situation in China (Table 1).
Table 1. Keynote addresses and plenary presentations
Keynote addresses
Establishing a holistic water-saving society to promote the sustainable development of Shanxi Province. Hu Siyi
Key trends affecting irrigated agriculture and policy options. Jean-Marc Faurès
Water projects and ecological protection. Suo Lisheng
Plenary presentations
Irrigation development policies in China. Li Daixin
Development and modernization of irrigation schemes in China. Zhanyi Gao
Construction of new countryside and related water issues. Li Xirong†
Water resource management and agricultural irrigation in Shanxi Province. Pan Junfeng
† Paper presented at the forum but not provided for inclusion in this proceedings.
1.2.2 Session 2: Subtheme meetings
Subtheme Meeting I on "Options for strategic and policy innovations at the river basin level" dealt with strategic and policy issues related to water resource management and irrigation modernization at the river basin level. Subtheme Meeting II on "Options for technical and material improvements at the system and farm level" addressed technical and material issues related to water resource management and irrigation modernization at system and farm levels (Table 2).
Table 2. Subtheme meetings
Subtheme I
Technical issues in modernizing farm irrigation systems: Some experiences in Mediterranean countries. Bruno Molle
Integrating urban and rural plans and promoting the development of rural areas. Zhang Zhongfa
Pathways for realizing water conservancy in irrigation systems. Shahbaz Khan
Concepts and practices for optimal regional water resource allocation. Dong Zengchuan
Water and irrigation management in the water-stressed Zayandeh–Rud and Karkheh River Basins, Islamic Republic of Iran. Nader Heydari
Water resource allocation in China and implications for the local environment. Pei Yuansheng
Water management strategy and irrigated area modernization: The Tunisian case. Lebdi Fethi
Ideas on irrigation modernization. Sun Xihuan
Subtheme II
The impacts of water-pricing reform on agricultural irrigation in China. Li Yangbin
Technical options at the system level: Canal lining and canal operation control. Herve Plusquellec
Modern management practices at Jiamakou irrigation project. Zhang Xuehui
A rapid appraisal procedure to assess the performance of irrigation systems: Lessons from the FAO Regional Irrigation Modernization and Management Training Programme in Asia. Thierry Facon
Participatory management and water users' associations. Feng Guangzhi
Modernization of irrigation canals: The Uttar Pradesh Water Sector Restructuring Project, India. M.K. Goyal
Pumping stations in water resource management and irrigation modernization. Dou Yisong
The complexity of PLC-based canal automation. Charles M. Burt
Karnataka Neeravari Nigam Ltd. — a corporate model and growth engine in water resource development. D. Satya Murty
1.2.3 Session 3: Field visits
The participants split into three groups to visit different types of irrigation systems in Yuncheng City:
Group 1, the surface water irrigation group, visited the Jiamakou Irrigation Scheme, a large-scale surface water canal irrigation system at the middle reach of the Yellow River, which has practised modern irrigation management in recent years. It pumps Yellow River water to a 70-m elevation on the Loess Plateau to irrigate apple trees and crops. Participants visited its information centre, pumping stations and selected management units at different canal levels. The scheme's high water productivity, effective management system and efficient water measurement and pricing impressed the participants.
Group 2, the groundwater irrigation group, visited the Zhangdian high efficiency groundwater irrigation plot in Pinglu Country, which carries out sprinkler, hose and pipe irrigation on 200 ha of fruit and vegetable fields. It demonstrates ways in which to improve water productivity and conserve groundwater resources in overexploited groundwater areas; it is one of the water-saving irrigation models that has been developed in Shanxi Province in recent years. The participants were very interested in the interaction between irrigation water use and groundwater table change and the management approach.
Group 3, the water-harvesting irrigation group, visited the rain-water harvesting irrigation plot in Yanhu, where 875 small water-harvesting irrigation systems have been built in the last four years on 100 ha of irrigation area. It combines rain-water harvesting, storage and small-scale, low-cost and high efficiency irrigation facilities and serves as a technical window for agricultural development in traditional rain-fed areas. The plot's technologies have been disseminated in northwest and southwest areas of China.
1.2.4 Session 4: Group discussion
Three major discussion topics were assigned to each group for each type of irrigation system: Current status and future trends; strategy and objective for modernization; measures and options for modernization. Separate group discussions and plenary group reporting after analysis of each topic produced discussion subjects for each type of irrigation system and for cross-cutting issues:
Discussion subjects for surface water irrigation systems:
Current status and constraints
The potential of surface water resources has not been fully exploited due to inadequate water control and storage facilities.
The capacity of current surface irrigation systems has not been fully realized due to malfunction and poor performance.
Irrigation services cannot meet the requirements of agricultural development due to outdated concepts and technologies.
Lack of investment obstructs the progress of irrigation upgrading and modernization.
Low irrigation water price impacts negatively on system operation.
Measures and options
Policy reform on water rights, water pricing, irrigation investment and water source protection.
Institutional reform for facilitating irrigation modernization.
Finalize and empower WUA systems to facilitate farmers' participation.
Dissemination of worthwhile experiences such as the exercise in Jiamakou.
Develop and adopt practical technologies for irrigation modernization.
Adopt suitable tool-kits for appraisal and benchmarking of system modernization.
Study the implications of water-saving irrigation on the local environment and ecosystems.
Discussion subjects for groundwater irrigation systems:
Current status and constraints
Groundwater resources are overexploited and severely degraded.
Water supply is inconsistent and irrigation costs are increasing due to depletion and damage to the groundwater aquifer.
Lack of capacity in effective groundwater resource management and control.
Lack of investment in irrigation upgrading and modernization.
Measures and options
Mobilize resources for the modernization of groundwater irrigation.
Enforce compulsory water-saving irrigation in overexploited groundwater areas.
Delineate prohibited and restricted areas for groundwater exploitation.
Promote groundwater resource monitoring, evaluation and planning.
Conduct restrictive control of well development and groundwater exploitation.
Integrate water options with agronomic options to promote land and water productivity.
Study the implications of water-saving irrigation on the groundwater table and local ecosystems.
Discussion subjects for water-harvesting irrigation systems:
Current status and constraints
Major potential in water-harvesting irrigation.
Lack of awareness on the major potential of water-harvesting and deficit irrigation systems.
Incomplete ideas on and limited equipment for water harvesting and deficit irrigation.
No stable funding channel for water-harvesting irrigation.
Insufficient study on the implications of water harvesting on river runoff and river basin IWRM.
Measures and options
Raise awareness on the major potential of water harvesting and deficit irrigation systems.
Promote development of water harvesting and deficit irrigation.
Formulate sector development plans based on the integrated river basin water resource plan.
Formulate and improve management rules and technical standards on design, construction, operation and management of water harvesting and deficit irrigation systems.
Complete technical and equipment systems for water harvesting, storage and deficit irrigation.
Conduct technical training, piloting and demonstration.
Study the implications of water harvesting on river runoff and groundwater recharge.
Discussion subjects for cross-cutting results:
Major water issues now confronted by Shanxi Province
Prolonged droughts vs. limited water control and storage capacity.
Limited water resources vs. inefficient water use especially in irrigation and severe water pollution and damage mainly due to coal mining.
New requirements on irrigation services from a diversified agriculture economy vs. aged irrigation infrastructure and outdated technologies and management.
Uneven development of water resources which has resulted in rapid depletion of the groundwater table and degradation of the water environment.
Measures and options
Strengthen the integrated river basin water resource management strategy.
Integrate agricultural water management into integrated water resource management.
Promote more balanced and conjunctive water use; suppress groundwater irrigation, stabilize and moderately extend surface irrigation; develop water-harvesting deficit irrigation.
Innovate irrigation thinking and technologies; replace irrigation rehabilitation with irrigation modernization, water use efficiency with water productivity; adopt new ideas on the balance of management objectives at multi-scales and the multiple roles of irrigation systems.
Conduct sector assessment to review current irrigation policies, technical standards and college curricula and propose a systematic irrigation modernization plan.
Mobilize resources for the implementation of irrigation modernization.
Build local capacity on irrigation modernization.
Highlight the protection of the environment and ecosystems.
1.2.5 Session 5: Conclusion
After the presentations, field-visits and in-depth discussions, common consensuses were reached among the forum participants on relevant issues related to water resource management and irrigation modernization. The forum conclusions were debated and adopted by a plenary session as reported in Part 2.
1.2.6 Session 6: Closing
Mr Liu Wei Jia, Assistant Provincial Governor and Mr Thierry Facon, Senior Water Management Officer of FAO RAP — on behalf of Shanxi Provincial People's Government and FAO respectively — presided over the official closing of the forum.
2. Conclusions
Located in the Loess Plateau of China, Shanxi Province is famous for its rich coal resources, and is also the most important energy and heavy chemical industry base in China. It faces severe water shortage problems, with total annual water resources amounting to 12.38 billion m3; averaged in multiple years, water availability per capita and per cultivated mu is only 381 m3 and 180 m3 respectively, accounting for 17 and 11 percent of the national average level. Shanxi has made remarkable achievements in water resource management and agricultural irrigation development, and has accumulated valuable experience. Modern irrigation management at Jiamakou Irrigation Scheme and the construction of its pumping station provide good references to medium- and large-scale irrigation schemes in the Yellow River Basin in China as well as in other countries in Asia and the Pacific region. High efficiency groundwater irrigation in Pinglu Country and the water-harvesting system in Yanhu District are also very relevant to Shanxi's condition and valuable reference points for other countries. Still, continuous efforts and innovative options are needed, as water shortage has become one of the major constraints to socio-economic development in Shanxi Province, and there is still ample room for further improvement. The forum concluded that it is an important strategic issue (and a difficult task) for Shanxi Province to address local water stress effectively via science and technology and to break through water restriction bottlenecks. Considering physical water scarcity and the domination of irrigation water diversion in aggregate water diversion, water resource management and irrigation modernization are the two most important issues among other agendas.
2.1 Water resource management
For many years, Shanxi has been taking initiatives on water resource management. Shanxi formulated the first provincial regulation and established the earliest provincial system on water resource management in China. It is the first province in China to collect water resource management fees and apply permission for water withdrawal. These measures have promoted socio-economic development in the last 20 years and contributed to the establishment and improvement of the national water resource management system. Despite all of these achievements, the current water resource management status is not so cheerful. Confronted with physical water scarcity, challenged by heavy water competition and damaged by coal mining, there is still much to be done with respect to water resource management. The forum recommended that:
A strategy for integrated water resource management at the river basin level should be developed to better realize equitable, productive and sustainable water use.
Development, allocation and conservation of various water resources, including surface water, groundwater and rain water should be better integrated and balanced from the perspectives of the hydrological cycle and river basin water resource management to harmonize human and environmental co-existence.
Rights to water should be secured and promoted for poor farmers and marginal groups, similar to rights to food; the concept of environment flow should be better understood and incorporated into water management systems.
The forum suggested that based on achievements and experiences, Shanxi should conduct more in-depth and intensive research, practice and exchanges on the theories, methods and techniques of sustainable water resource management. During the next five to ten years, Shanxi should focus on:
The construction of water source projects that are technically and economically feasible.
Better management and control of groundwater resources.
Development and utilization of rainwater, floodwater, springs and small streams.
Optimal allocation of water resources under provincial guidelines for integrated river basin water resource management.
Maintaining reasonable water allocation to the environment and ecosystems.
Trying to increase surface water supply.
Reducing groundwater exploitation.
Controlling the increase of total water diversion to a reasonable rate.
Better protection of crucial water resources.
Promoting wastewater re-use.
Improving water productivity.
Constructing a holistic water-saving society.
2.2 Irrigation modernization
Faced by the aforementioned challenges and constraints as well as deteriorated irrigation infrastructure, and sustainable development strategy competing against outdated irrigation concepts and notions, the forum recommended that:
During the next five to ten years, Shanxi should significantly increase its investment in irrigation modernization (technical upgrades in engineering infrastructure and capacity building among irrigation management institutions) to promote water productivity for agriculture, protect food security, enhance local environments and foster rural livelihoods.
A sector assessment is needed to review the current status of irrigation development; identify challenges and opportunities; and propose options and activities.
Systematic action is needed to update relevant knowledge, college curricula and technical standards related to irrigation design, construction and management according to cutting edge irrigation concepts and technologies.
Local capacity building is urgently needed to upgrade the skills of local experts and technicians. Different areas may focus on different fields based on typological classification, such as completion and modernization of large- and medium-scale irrigation systems in surface water irrigation areas; adoption and dissemination of modernized, high productivity irrigation facilities and technologies in groundwater irrigation areas; and development and improvement of water-harvesting irrigation systems in the eastern and western mountain areas.
Development and modernization of all of these irrigation systems shall be incorporated into integrated river basin water resource management. The internal relationship and implications of water resource use of different irrigation systems shall be fully considered and incorporated into integrated river basin water resource plans. Recommendations on detailed measures and options for promoting the modernization of different types of irrigation systems in Shanxi Province over the next five to ten years are summarized in Table 3.
Table 3. Measures and options for promoting irrigation modernization in Shanxi Province in the next five to ten years
M E A S U R E S
A N D
O P T I O N S
C u r r e n
s t a t u s
Surface water irrigation
Groundwater irrigation
Water-harvesting irrigation
Effective surface water irri-gation area: 0.66 million ha; accounting for 52.6% of total effective irrigation area, and 17.4% of total cultivated land area;
Surface water actually irrigated area: 0.81 million ha; accounting for 64.3% of its effective irrigation area; and 32.7% of total actually irrigated area;
Annual surface water diver-sion for irrigation: 1.52 billion m3; accounting for 46% of total irrigation water diversion, and 60% of total surface water diversion;
Total number of large- and medium-scale irrigation sys-tems: 176; serving effective irrigation area: 0.7 million ha; of which actually irrigated area: 0.29 million ha.
Effective groundwater irri-gation area: 0.6 million ha; accounting for 47.4% of total effective irrigation area, and 15.7% of total cultivated land area;
Groundwater actually irrigated area: 0.55 million ha; accoun-ting for 91.8% of its effective irrigation area and 67.3% of total actually irrigated area;
Annual groundwater with-drawal for irrigation: 1.77 billion m3, accounting for 54% of total irrigation water diversion, and 45% of total groundwater diversion;
By the end of 2005, pipe irrigation area amounted to 0.43 million ha; sprinkler and micro-irrigation area amounted to 0.18 million ha, mostly in groundwater irri-gation area.
Annual rainfall resource in Shanxi amounts to 78.5 billion m3, of which 65 billion m3 evaporated; some could be utilized by suitable water harvesting and storage;
Rain-fed agriculture area in Shanxi amounts to 2.53 million ha, accounting for 67% of total cultivated land, mostly in dry mountain areas;
Normal irrigation is not possible or feasible in most of the rain-fed areas due to hydrological and geological constraints; a possible way out is water harvesting + deficit irrigation;
Currently, some 174 000 water-harvesting systems developed in Shanxi; total annual water harvesting capacity: 6 million m3; irrigating crops over 11 121 ha.
M a j o r
c o n s t r a i n t s
Insufficient surface water supply due to lack of surface water sources projects, water competition climate change and watershed degradation;
Poor performance of existing irrigation systems due to incomplete and deteriorated infrastructures, outdated technologies and improper management;
Lack of investment for irrigation upgrading and modernization;
Low irrigation water price; the executed water price only accounts for 50_80% of the irrigation cost.
Unsecured water supply and increasing irrigation cost due to damage of groundwater aquifer by coal mining and overexploitation;
Weak capacity on integrated assessment, dynamic moni-toring and effective control of exploitation of groundwater resources;
Lack of investment in irriga-tion upgrading and moderni-zation;
Outdated farming style which warrants the adoption and dissemination of high pro-ductivity irrigation methods and technologies.
Lack of awareness on the major potential for water-harvesting and deficit irri-gation systems on improving food security and poverty alleviation;
Incomplete theories, yet to be normalized techniques and limited availability of suitable equipment for water har-vesting and deficit irrigation;
No stable funding channel is available for water-harvesting irrigation so far;
Insufficient study on the implications of water har-vesting on river runoff and river basin IWRM.
Table 3. Measures and options for promoting irrigation modernization in Shanxi Province in the next five to ten years (continued)
M E A S U R E S
A N D
O P T I O N S
C r o s s - c u t t i n g i s s u e s
Surface water irrigation
Groundwater irrigation
Water-harvesting irrigation
Incorporating all kinds of irrigation water use into river basin IWRM to judge water allocations, productivity — implications (and for the local environment and ecosystems);
Promoting more balanced and conjunctive water use; compressing groundwater irrigation, stabilizing and moderately extending surface irrigation; developing water-harvesting-deficit irrigation;
Innovating irrigation notions, theories and technologies; replacing irrigation rehabilitation with irrigation modernization, water use efficiency with water productivity; adopting new ideas on balance of management objectives at multi-scales and multiple roles of irrigation systems;
Conducting sector assessment to review current irrigation policies, technical standards and college curricula and propose a systematic irrigation modernization plan;
Mobilizing resources for the implementation of irrigation modernization, including increasing government investment, attracting commercial investments and encouraging private investments;
Building up local capacity on irrigation modernization through technical training, field piloting and demonstration;
Highlighting protection of the environment and ecosystems; harmonize human and environmental co-existence.
L e g a l
&
p o l i c y
Initiate water rights systems, establish a water market mechanism, realize optimal allocation and utilization of surface water resources;
Formulate policies for compensating occupation of agriculture water sources by industry and domestic users;
Formulate financial and investment policies; mobilize resources for development of water source projects and irrigation modernization;
Reform the water pricing system to create an enabling environment for sustainable operation of surface water irrigation systems.
Formulate and enforce strict rules and regulations on groundwater resource man-agement and protection;
Formulate policies for compensating occupation of agriculture water sources by industry and domestic users;
Formulate financial and investment policies; mobilize resources for modernization of groundwater irrigation;
Enforce compulsory water-saving irrigation in ground-water overexploited areas;
Adjust water prices to improve water productivity; facilitate a shift from groundwater to surface water use.
Raise awareness on the major potential of water harvesting and deficit irrigation systems to improve food security and alleviate poverty;
Protect the property rights of privately invested water harvesting and deficit irrigation systems to inspire farmers' participation;
Establish formal and stable investment channels for the development and moderniza-tion of water harvesting and deficit irrigation systems;
Incorporate water harvesting and deficit irrigation into local water conservancy develop-ment plans.
Table 3. Measures and options for promoting irrigation modernization in Shanxi Province in the next five to ten years (continued)
M E A S U R E S
A N D
O P T I O N S
I n s t i t u u t i o n a l & m a n a g e r i a l
Surface water irrigation
Groundwater irrigation
Water-harvesting irrigation
Deepen institutional reform to implement the principles of irrigation modernization such as equity, transparency, high productivity, user-oriented, participation and decentraliza-tion etc.;
Improve management rules and procedures to highlight the concept of services;
Complete and empower WUA systems to facilitate farmers' participation;
Disseminate Jiamakou's experiences in system management, water pricing and water fee collection;
Conduct regular appraisals and benchmarking.
Complete and improve the groundwater management institutional system to better implement water exploitation permission regulations;
Establish and complete groundwater monitoring, evaluation and information systems to provide a scientific base for groundwater exploi-tation and protection;
Delineate prohibition and restricted areas for ground-water exploitation;
Conduct regular appraisals and benchmarking to improve performance and moderniza-tion of groundwater irrigation systems.
Formulate a feasible sector development plan based on an integrated river basin water resource plan;
Establish and complete relevant technical extension and service systems at different levels;
Formulate and improve management rules and techni-cal standards on design, construction, operation and management of water-harvesting and deficit irrigation systems;
Conduct information cam-paigns to raise awareness on water harvesting and deficit irrigation.
T e c h n i c a l
Develop and adopt practical technologies on pipe system control and canal operation;
Improve the capacities on dynamic data sensing, monitoring, collecting and processing;
Improve water measurement at canals and pipe systems for better water pricing;
Study and develop water-saving schedules adopted to local conditions;
Adopt suitable tool-kits for appraisal and benchmarking of system modernization;
Study the implications of water-saving irrigation on the local environment and ecosystems.
Develop and adopt suitable technology on groundwater resource monitoring, evalua-tion and planning;
Study practical methods on effective control of well development and groundwater exploitation;
Adopt typological methods to select suitable irrigation models for different farming systems;
Combine irrigation options with suitable agronomic options to promote land and water productivity;
Study the implications of water-saving irrigation on the groundwater table and local ecosystems.
Strengthen studies on theories and technologies for deficit irrigation under local con-ditions;
Develop and disseminate practical techniques on design, construction,operation and management of water-har-vesting and deficit irrigation systems;
Research and produce suitable equipment and tools for water harvesting, storage and deficit irrigation;
Conduct technical training, piloting and demonstration;
Study the implications of water harvesting on river runoff and groundwater recharge.
