J. W. B. SISAM
J. W. B. SISAM is Dean, Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto, Canada, and a member of the FAO Advisory Committee on Forestry Education.
A basic curriculum for universities in developing countries
This paper is written within the context provided by that of Hardy Shirley which deals with the broad subject of professional education in forestry (see page 5). It is unnecessary therefore to discuss in detail here matters which, while relevant to the present topic, have been covered fully by Shirley. While his presentation is comprehensive and long-term, the concern here is with the specific problem of designing a course of study that may be immediately useful in helping to qualify individuals for the practice of forestry in newly developing countries. With this in mind, the curriculum dealt with here aims at the first academic degree (mostly Bachelor of Science in Forestry) and, in keeping with this and the points made by Shirley (1964) which specifically relate to curriculum, the proposed program is of a general nature leading to two "areas of concentration" in the final year. It does not other wise provide for elective courses, leaving specialization until the postgraduate years, and it is intended to make fairly intensive use of the students' time. As agreed at an earlier meeting of the FAO Panel on Education in Forestry and strongly supported by the evidence set out in Shirley, 1964, it is understood that the pro gram will be established at university level.
The immediate purpose of the basic curriculum is to serve those countries that are establishing programs of professional education in forestry with assistance through FAO. Undoubtedly these countries will have considered the various questions raised in the early part of Shirley's paper and arrived at answers for those relevant to the plans being made and to the associated "commitment of land, public funds, and the people." In these countries, the programs of professional education in forestry, sponsored by government and supported by the United Nations Special Fund, are to be given within established universities or colleges in close association with agriculture. As conditions will vary from one country to another, it has been suggested that the basic curriculum may be subject to some modification; this suggests that it might be used more as a guide to program planning than for direct application.
In view of this and of the generality in the title of this paper, of the growing demand for forestry education at the professional level from developing countries and of the undoubtedly wide range of relevant conditions in terms, for example, of education standards and forestry development, it is felt that some appraisal should be made here of the objectives and minimum standards to be attained in professional training and the extent to which modification of a basic curriculum is justified.
As stated in the plans of operation, 1 it is the aim of the various training programs being established under the United Nations Special Fund to qualify men at a high professional level for practice in the countries in question: the content and standard of the curriculum to be used should be commensurate with that objective.
1 A plan of operation is the tripartite agreement between the co-operating government, the United Nations Special Fund and FAO, outlining the scope, organization and sequence of operation of a project.
Elsewhere it has been suggested (Sisam, 1962) that the professional forester (in contrast to the technician or ranger) is, in general, "responsible for the study and evaluation of technical matters and their economic implications, for the planning of procedures and their supervision until a routine is established, and for advising on and formulating policy - in other words for investigation, planning, and control." Weck (1962) has pointed out that "the senior forest officer needs to be extremely versatile if he is to discharge his professional duties efficiently." This must be especially true in a country where forest policy and practice are in the making, where there is as yet little public support for forestry, and where indeed little is known of the forest resource. Under these conditions the forester will soon be tested by his ability to appraise situations in the field, organize surveys, analyze data, develop plans for management and direct their application, and plan and supervise harvesting operations. He will also be responsible for the planning and direction of research activities and for the training of subordinate staff; indeed only as such staff becomes available will he be able to devote the necessary time to the planning of forest policy and gaining its acceptance through effective negotiation with those in authority.
Within this complex pattern, foresters and the profession of forestry may easily come under criticism unless the practitioners are welt qualified and of good judgement. Such criticism may be summed up as inability
(a) to deal with practical problems and apply in the field the principles taught in the lecture room;(b) to relate the forest enterprise to economic and social values;
(c) to gain public support for forest policy and its implementation.
While qualification for meeting the many and varied responsibilities of a practicing forester should improve as progress is made with the successive steps in training and education as outlined in Shirley (1964), it must be kept in mind that in terms of professional qualification the basic curriculum will provide the foundation for the whole structure, and its standards must accordingly be clearly established and maintained. The first aim of a new school or a school serving a newly developing country must surely be adequate qualification for the general practitioner.
Among the conditions that vary considerably from one country to another and may influence both qualification and the practice of forestry one must include the political, economic, and cultural background of the people, the level of primary and secondary education, the economic importance of the forest resource, and the existence and status of forestry in government and industry
The importance of some of these conditions to the success of a program of education at the processional level must be obvious and is emphasized by Weck (1962 in a paper entitled "The professional school," prepared for the Fifth World Forestry Congress. The purpose of that paper, somewhat similar to the present one was "to outline a model (curriculum) with respect to the problems of a country just embarking on an educational program in forestry, recognizing that it will be the responsibility of the forest school to prepare men who can become administrative and policy leaders in their country as well as land managers." In his paper Weck states that it is not feasible to design a curriculum for universal application and establishes definite criteria for the use of the model he has prepared. These, in addition to the objective quoted above, are:
(a) the requirements for admission to be established at a definite and relatively high level;(b) the countries in which the program is to be use, to have a forest service with "a cadre of technically well-trained executive foresters or rangers, upon whose proficiency the senior forest officer can depend." In other words, this program is for use only in countries with high standards of education and a well-established forest service but lacking the means locally for the education of staff at the professional level.
It is possible that in some of the developing countries the conditions stipulated by Weck could be satisfied, though in many others this would not be true. The problem then is to decide the minimum level at which standards are acceptable for professional training and qualification. In this connection two principles are suggested, one general and one specific.
1. In any country, the education of a forest officer should be at a level comparable with that of members of the other professions.2. As a basic curriculum is intended to represent certain standards of education, it can be subject to modification from one country to another only in the matter of technology and emphasis in application, not in the fundamentals or overall requirement.
The possibility of carrying out successfully an educational program of specified content and standard will obviously depend to a large extent on the qualifications required for admission. In the present context, the primary concern is with the academic qualifications for admission to a four-year undergraduate course in forestry at the university level, whether these are accomplished prior to entering the university or after ward. AS suggested above, they should be at the same general standard as for admission to other professional courses at the university in question and such as will ensure a good preparation in mathematics and the natural sciences. Specifically for the four-year course proposed they should not be less, for example, than the school certificate or ordinary level examination in the United Kingdom.
In some countries where standards of education are generally low and only a small minority will qualify for university education, it may be found that for reasons of status or prestige these candidates will L be less interested in forestry than in the more "glamorous" professions of low, medicine and teaching. This is a problem that has to be solved by improving the ethos of the forestry- profession - not by lowering its standards.
In addition to academic qualifications, the personal attributes of an individual are often of special significance in forestry. It has been pointed out by various writers that the selection of candidates for professional forestry training should take into account leadership qualities and maturity of outlook in order that as graduates and forest officers they may enjoy the respect and confidence of the people and gain their support for the development of forest policy and programs. With this in mind, Weck suggested the possibility of recruiting army officers for forestry training, while in New Zealand with much the same objective there has been developed a selection and training program which involves a preliminary year of practical experience, and the taking of a B.Sc. degree by successful candidates who then undergo special education in forestry (Entrican, 1957). This program provides a broad education, a background that makes employment in a number of fields possible, and a maturity of outlook on the part of the candidate when he is engaged in forestry education.
It may be concluded that in any case academic standards for admission must be set and adhered to, and personal qualities given due consideration if professional training programs are to give the best results. Where the standard of general education is far below that required, it is not reasonable to try to superimpose a program at the university level.
If conditions within a country are such that a full degree course is not justified but the demand for trained personnel is urgent, there are a number of alternatives that may be considered. Some of these have been discussed by Mobbs (1962) with particular reference to the British forestry schools and to those countries which are, or were until recently, part of the British Commonwealth.
An approach that has been carried out successfully in the Philippines is that of establishing a strong course at the ranger school level and then, by working in close association with a professional school in another country - in this case the State University College of Forestry at Syracuse University, New York - to develop a course for professional qualification.
There might also be some value in providing a short course along the lines of that suggested by Mobbs to train people who have qualified at the university level in other disciplines in which employment opportunities are limited.
There appears to be a need for a thorough and realistic appraisal of the textbook needs in these countries for which educational programs are planned. At present almost all the textbooks that set forth the principles of forestry are illustrated by examples from the temperate regions, particularly Europe and North America. What seems to be needed are basic university texts in silviculture, mensuration, management, and other subjects written specifically for use under tropical conditions. No doubt the needs could readily be established in detail through consultation with those who have had experience in teaching forestry in the tropical countries. The coverage is perhaps better for some subjects than others as, for example, in botany and wood structure. However, as textbooks are required in all of the areas of professional practice, developed more for the use of the student than the practitioner and in terms of tropical forest conditions, an objective survey of the present situation should be undertaken.
Organization
It cannot be too strongly emphasized that the professional forestry curriculum must have a strong foundation in the physical, biological and social sciences, and mathematics. The social sciences contribute not only to the student's general education, but to his understanding of the environment within which the management and administration of the natural resources must be carried on.
Next in importance is the need to develop continuity of subject matter and understanding from the basic sciences to the principles of professional practice, these to be studied in theory and in their practical application with the aid of a strong field program.
Some opportunity in the final year for each student to undertake under staff direction a research project that will help to develop his special interests and aptitudes should prove rewarding; but most important, as the culmination of the course and as a means on the one hand of interrelating the different professional subjects and on the other of integrating lecture and field work in both theory and practice, is the preparation of a detailed plan of management for a specific forest area.
Other points worth consideration are:
1. close co-operation between members of staff in order to avoid serious gaps and unnecessary duplication in subject matter;2. careful evaluation of teaching methods, teaching aids, and course content to ensure the best use of the time available;
3. the possible introduction of combined courses, bringing together either two complementary sciences (e.g., physiology and anatomy), the basic principles of a science and their forestry application (e.g., ecology and silviculture), or the complementary phases of an applied subject (e.g., mathematics in statistics and forest mensuration): these combinations will usually involve the co-operation of two members of the university staff, at least one of whom would be from forestry.
Curriculum content
Bearing in mind the minimum requirement for admission to the four-year undergraduate course, as noted above, it is important that the first two years of the curriculum meet the requirements for a strong foundation in science and mathematics. While it is understood that this part of the course will usually be given through a college or department of science or of agriculture, nevertheless it may be useful to outline the subjects considered most important in the preparation for the final two years in forestry and forest products. In three instances reference to forestry material is included for the sake of perspective and emphasis. It is recognized, however, that in many cases the first two years of a four- or five-year course leading to a degree will be common for all students interested in a number of allied disciplines.
The first and second years are identified by Roman numerals.
1. Suggested subjects for the first two years
Physics
I. Survey of general field including mechanics, properties of matter, heat, light and electricity; theory and experimentationII. Statics as a prerequisite for timber physics and forest engineering
Chemistry
I. Introduction to chemical theory; physical chemistry with experimentationII. Organic chemistry, its scope and nature; some important classes of organic compounds which occur in animals and plants; colloidal chemistry; lectures and practical work
Botany
I. Introduction to the biology of the plant, including elementary morphology and physiology; systematic botany with practice in identifying the higher plants with special emphasis on field identification and recognition of economic timber species by bark and foliageII. Plant ecology - the plant environment, including soil-plant relationships; the ecology of production; ecological site factors and their effect on specific vegetation; succession and other changes in ecosystems
Zoology
I. The nature of the animal organism; elementary principles of zoology
Geology and soils
I. Introduction of geology; the main classes of minerals and rocks; study of landforms and their origin with special reference to rapid physiographic changes and to the effect of vegetation on landform evolution; the geological and climatic basis of water resources and their conservationII. The chemical, physical and biological properties of soil: the relation of soils with land- forms and local climates; soil formation; the classification of soils; the interrelations between tree growth and soil
Economics
II. Basic economic theory; the principles of economics with special reference to their application in dealing with problems in developing countries
Mathematics
I. Algebra, trigonometry and geometry as an extension from high school mathematics and to the level prerequisite for applied subjects.II. Introduction to the calculus: application of derivatives, integrals and simple differential equations; analytical geometry of two and three dimension
Metereology and hydrology
II. The principles of heat transfer by conduction, radiation, turbulence and distillation; the nature of evapo-transpiration; the influence of forests on these and related phenomena such as air and soil temperatures, soil moistures, run-off and wind velocity; principles and functions of common meteorological instruments
2. Curriculum for third and fourth years in forestry and forest products
The suggested curriculum is arranged on the basis of two terms per academic year, each of approximately 4 ½ months in length; the time per subject is shown c as so many lecture and laboratory (0-0) hours per week. In general, examinations would be held at the end of each academic year, and all academic requirements a for that year would normally have to be cleared before c proceeding to the next higher year. This presents a c somewhat simpler administrative problem than the American semester and credit system, and so may have some advantages at least in the early stages of development.
In view of the minimum requirements for admission referred to above, the forestry and primary forest products portion of the curriculum should preferably be three years, making a total for the whole course of five academic years. This has in fact been suggested for some of the programs on which reports have been received. With the two-plus-two-year professional curriculum, the lecture-free time during the summer should be used entirely for organized and directed field work. This is discussed in some detail later on.
As mentioned earlier, the curriculum represents a general course with no elective subjects other than the division in the final year between forestry and primary forest products. The program provides a fairly heavy load of formal lectures and laboratory periods which may be an advantage, depending on the earlier training and maturity of the students, in providing a closer association between staff and students, a fact that may have special significance when textbooks and other works of reference are inadequate.
Most of the subjects suggested will be found in the majority of curricula offered in professional forestry, though there is perhaps greater emphasis here on the subjects of surveying, inventory, photogrammetry, logging, and land classification than would be found in a curriculum for a highly developed country. These subjects represent part of the development process in which the forester will become directly involved. However, there should certainly be provision for some modification of certain applied subjects in order to serve more effectively the requirements of different countries, one of which may, for example, be mainly concerned with the creation of a forestry estate, while another will be fully involved in the development of existing resources requiring emphasis on management and utilization processes rather than afforestation. Among the subjects that may have to be included or given greater emphasis to meet local requirements are watershed management, pasture development and management, industrial organization, hunting and fishing.
No provision is made in the basic curriculum for subjects in the liberal arts or humanities (other than those representing the social sciences), as it is felt that this can best be done with reference to local conditions. The selection should be carefully made with a view to the broadening of the students' knowledge and understanding of the people with whom he works and the society in which he lives. The inclusion in the curriculum of two or three unrelated and uninteresting subjects from the liberal arts may have less than no educational value.
Not included here, but probably required in varying degrees from country to country, is the use of language as a means of communication - primarily the language of the country in question, but also perhaps one or ether of the languages more commonly used internationally.
In the area of primary forest products little is as yet known of many species of forest trees growing in the tropics; education and research will have to go forward together. It is with this in mind that the final year's program in forest products includes subjects that may be useful in qualifying either for industrial employment or research.
It will be noted that the common third year curriculum gives greater emphasis to prerequisites for forestry than for forest products. As it is a common year this is inevitable. The curriculum for forest products is confined to the study of primary forest products utilization, excluding specialization in wood-based pane: products and in pulp and paper industries. It is suggested, however, that wherever possible the course content as, for example, in forest protection, economics and statistical methods, include material useful as a background for timber utilization as well as for timber production.
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(a) CURRICULUM FOR THIRD (PROFESSIONAL) YEAR |
||
|
Subject and description |
Hours per week |
|
|
1st term |
2nd term |
|
|
Silviculture |
(2-0), |
(2-0) |
|
Foundations: forest genetics and ecology, including auto-ecology of a number of representative species |
|
|
|
Forest engineering (including logging or harvesting operations) |
(2-0), |
(2-0) |
|
Methods and organization of felling, extraction, and transport of timber, including light and heavy equipment; road location and construction; bridges and culverts; erosion control and river training |
|
|
|
Surveying ² |
(1-0), |
(1-2) |
|
General principles of surveying; surveying with steel tape and transit and level: a topographic survey with the tape and transit; use of these instruments in surveying closed figures and traverse lines; plotting by coordinates and computing areas |
|
|
|
Morphology and anatomy |
(2-2), |
(2-2) |
|
Developmental morphology and anatomy of trees with emphasis on the xylem and its development |
|
|
|
Mensuration, inventory and statistical methods |
(2-2), |
(2-2) |
|
A combined and integrated course given in 3rd and 4th years: tree measurement and timber estimating; regression techniques applied in the construction of volume tables; methods of measuring and estimating the growth and yield of trees and stands: systematic and random sampling; sampling 1 and assessment of regeneration (emphasis on techniques evolved for tropical use); statistical control and analysis; planning large-scale inventory |
|
|
|
Photogrammetry and air photointerpretation |
(1-2), |
(1-2) |
|
Terrestial photogrammetry, stereoscopic vision and measurement, radial e triangulation and mapping; the principles and practice of aerial photographic interpretation directed toward tropical conditions and problems |
|
|
|
Economics |
(2-2), |
(2-2) |
|
A combined course dealing with the application of economic principles; forestry and land-use economics; economics of enterprise: marketing, trade, investment |
|
|
|
Forest protection |
(2-2), |
(2-2) |
|
Forest pathology and entomology |
|
|
|
TOTAL |
(14-10), |
(14-12) |
|
(b) CURRICULUM FOR FOURTH (PROFESSIONAL) YEAR: FORESTRY |
||
|
Silviculture |
(3-0), |
(3-0) |
|
Applied silviculture with particular reference to regeneration, the afforestation of denuded land, the improvement of yield and quality control: illustrative material to be drawn from many sources; study of temperate methods followed by examination of tropical applications and systems |
|
|
|
Principles of land use |
(1-0), |
(2-0) |
|
Land classification, geographical patterns of land use and the underlying environmental, social, and economic factors; land-use planning with particular reference to local conditions and the interrelation of forestry and agriculture |
|
|
|
Forest management |
(2-0), |
(1-0) |
|
Principles of forest management and their application; preparation of working plans; examination and discussion of selected problems in management of tropical forests |
|
|
|
Wood technology |
(2-3), |
(0-0) |
|
Physical characteristics of wood; identification of commercial woods |
|
|
|
Mensuration, inventory and statistical methods |
(2-3), |
(2-3) |
|
Continuation of course from third year |
|
|
|
Utilization |
(0-0), |
(2-3) |
|
Grading of sawn timber and preservative treatments; sawmill operation. |
|
|
|
Political science and sociology |
(2-0), |
(0-0) |
|
Function and responsibility of government; human ecology and human relations |
|
|
|
Forest policy and administration |
(0-0), |
(2-0) |
|
The basis of policy, a survey of forest policy and its evolution in selected countries; the aims, organization and processes of forest administration; forest legislation |
|
|
|
Forest fire control |
(2-0), |
(0-0) |
|
Principles, planning and practice in the prevention, detection, presuppression, suppression and use of fire in the forest |
|
|
|
Accounting |
(2-0), |
(2-0) |
|
Basic accounting principles and procedures: preparation and interpretation of financial statements |
|
|
|
Working plan |
|
|
|
A comprehensive plan for the management of a selected area of forest with the object of giving the student some experience in the analysis of field problems and requiring him to apply and co-ordinate the knowledge gained in his formal courses |
(following completion of ourses in fourth year) |
|
|
Research project |
(0-0), |
(0-3) |
|
The study by each student of a selected project and the preparation of a report thereon |
|
|
|
TOTAL |
(16-6), |
(14-9) |
|
(c) CURRICULUM FOR FOURTH (PROFESSIONAL) YEAR: PRIMARY FOREST PRODUCTS |
||
|
Wood technology |
(2-3), |
(1-3) |
|
Physical characteristics of wood; wood-moisture relations; elementary chemical and mechanical properties; identification of commercial woods |
|
|
|
Timber mechanics and design |
(0-0), |
(2-2) |
|
Timber testing procedures; structural design of solid beams and columns; joint and truss analysis; design principles for plywood and laminated wood in timber structures |
|
|
|
Cellulose industries |
(1-0), |
(1-0) |
|
Manufacture of pulp and paper, rayon, cellulose plastics, etc. |
|
|
|
Microtechnique |
(0-0), |
(1-4) |
|
Preparation of wood for identification and wood quality studies; sectioning, staining and mounting; maceration; elementary photomicrography |
|
|
|
Wood chemistry |
(3-4), |
0-0) |
|
Chemical nature of cellulose, lignin, the hemicelluloses and extractives; chemical analysis of wood and its major constituents |
|
|
|
Utilization |
(3-2), |
(3-2) |
|
Manufacture, grading and treatment of lumber and other non-chemical forest products; the design and operation of sawmills and preservation plants; sawmill efficiency in relation to various factors including species and condition of timbers used |
|
|
|
Accounting |
(2-0), |
(2-0) |
|
(As above under section b) |
|
|
|
Plant study |
|
|
|
Critical evaluation and report on manufacturing plants comparable in content and time to working plan above. |
|
|
|
Research project |
(0-3), |
(0-3) |
|
(as above under section b) |
|
|
|
TOTAL |
(11-12), |
(10-14) |
² As surveying and forest engineering are given in the same year, they will have to be closely integrated.
In forestry as much as in any field of professional practice, theory must be interpreted and applied through practical training and experience. In the proposed curriculum this will be provided through laboratory exercises and some field work during the term, and by concentrated program of field work during the lecture summer periods.
While it is not proposed to give a detailed program of field work here, the following are suggested as the main areas to be covered:
1. Field exercises to acquaint the student with the use of tools, instruments and techniques for examining, measuring and analyzing forest conditions of various kinds, both qualitative and quantitative, and for carrying out various types of operations in the forest. Where measurements are involved, the degree of precision required will vary with conditions and objectives. The care of tools and instruments and safety precautions in the use of the former would be included. These exercises associated with a number of the subjects given in the curriculum and not only help the student to understand them individually but to relate them one to another as, for example, surveying to logging and air photo-interpretation to management.2. Tours both inside and outside the country for the purpose of studying and reporting on forests representing different floristic and ecological conditions and different kinds and intensities of management, and for those specializing in forest products, industrial plants of various kinds and related to different types of forest. It is possible that in the course of a tour of this sort detailed information may be acquired as the basis for the preparation of a working plan or plant study. Otherwise the collection and analysis of such data will have to be undertaken separately, probably for a local forest tract or industrial plant.
3. Employment in forestry or forest industry. This can be useful if it is under proper direction and gives the student an opportunity to learn the purpose of his job and how it fits into the over-all objective of the employer, whether it be government or industry. This can only be undertaken if the other aspects of field work noted above are fully accomplished
A basic curriculum is suggested for the last two years of a four-year university undergraduate course in forestry and primary forest products leading to the B. Sc. (Forestry) degree or the equivalent. Subjects that would be useful prerequisites in the first and second year of the course are also suggested.
The demand for forestry education in developing countries is expected to increase. There are a number of factors or conditions that vary from one country to another and will influence significantly the level at which forestry training is possible; these include the general standard of education, the kind and quality of the forest resource, and the extent to which forestry practice has been accepted.
In introducing a program of professional education in forestry, it must be recognized that certain standards of qualification and practice should be established and adhered to, and to this end only limited modification of the basic curriculum to meet local requirements is justified.
BUDOWSKI, G. 1962. Forestry training in Latin America. Proc. Fifth World Forestry Congress 2: 1199-1203.
ENTRICAN, A. R. 1957. Forest education and training in New Zealand. Proc. Seventh British Commonwealth Forestry Conference, Australia and New Zealand.
FIRAT, F. 1962. Criteria for determining a program of forestry education. Proc. Fifth World Forestry Congress 2: 1187-91.
MORES, E. C. 1962. Recruitment and education. Proc. Eighth British Commonwealth Forestry Conference, East Africa.
SISAM, J. W. B. 1962. Developing technical education programs. The ranger school. Proc. Fifth World Forestry Congress 2: 1210-24.
WECK J. K. J. 1962. The professional school. Proc. Fifth World Forestry Congress 2: 1224-29.
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RADIO ISOTOPES AND FORESTRY The Food and Agriculture Organization with the International Atomic Energy Agency is organizing in the Federal Republic of Germany from 12 May to 3 July 1965 an international training course on the use of radioisotopes and radiation in forestry research. The most widespread use of radioisotopes in forest industries is in "thickness" gauges for paper. Such gauges contain a beta-emitting isotope and a detector that measures the radiation that penetrates the sheet. The absorption of radiation is proportional to the amount of fiber in the path of the radiation, i.e., the basic weight, provided the composition of the sheet remains uniform. The most serious limitation of the technique is that variations in moisture content influence the results. Moisture meters (based on capacity measurement) are sometimes installed together with the thickness gauge. The instrument is generally mounted on a bridge scanning the whole width of the paper machine. A scanning cycle may be of the order of three minutes, so that the effect of adjustments made by the machine operator will show up within this period of time against 15 minutes using conventional tests. Thickness gauges generally cost $2,000 to $10,000. The investment is normally recuperated in two to six months and it has been estimated that it pays to install gauges on machines producing a minimum of 4,000 tons per year. Beta gauges are an important tool in attempts now being made in automation and computer control of paper machines. |
