Root Causes of Forest Encroachment: A Critical Analysis for Bangladesh

0262-B1

M.S. Iftekhar^[1], A.K.F. Hoque and M. Rafiqul Islam

Abstract

Conversion of forests is a major land use change in recent years. Tropical countries, characterized by huge population pressure and poverty, are major contributors to this conversion. Bangladesh, being one the most densely populated country and having diminishing forestland, has one of the lowest per capita forestland holdings. This paper looks at conversion of forestland by individuals. The socio-economic causes of encroachment and its pattern have been analysed. Limited land and unemployment have been identified as the major causes of encroachment and, if no measures are adopted within the next four decades, all the forests may be encroached upon.

1. Introduction

Bangladesh is one of the poorest countries with a low resource base and a huge population. National income is very low - per capita GDP in 2000 was only about 314 US$. The economy of the country is based mainly on agriculture. Due to huge population, low per capita land holding and very highly skewed distribution of lands (10% people hold 40% of land and 60% are landless) lead to overexploitation of natural resources (ADB 2000), including the forest resources.

Bangladesh has 11% of the landmass designated as forest (ADB 2002) but the actual tree cover is estimated at around 8-9%. Although the contribution of forests to the national economy is reasonable (2.6% in GDP), yet they play important role in maintaining quality of local and national environment. Forestry sector provides employment to 2% of the labor force (Anon 1997). In addition these forests are rich in biodiversity and abode of many endangered species.

In 1999 per capita forestland in the country was 105 m² (FAO 2001). The existing forests are decreasing at rate of 9000 ha per year (FAO 1999). The main causes of forest degradation are encroachment (Flint 1994, Capistrano and Kiker 1995, Rasheed 1995, Kamal et al. 1999, Salam et al. 1999, ADB 2002, FAO 2002); illegal logging (Rasheed 1995); increased demand for fuelwood (Flint 1994, Rasheed 1995, ADB 2002) and unplanned development activities (Ahamed 1998, FAO 2002). Forests are encroached by individuals, group of individuals and institutions (Contreras - Hermosilla 2000). In different South Asian countries agriculture, population pressure, cash cropping, human settlement, pasture, road construction and shifting cultivation have been identified as the main causes of encroachment (Mather 1990, Collins et al.1991, Thapa and Weber 1995, Saxena et al. 1997). In Bangladesh, similar investigations to find the causes of encroachment, have not been reported.

1.1 Objective of the study

Thus the primary objective of the study is to obtain an insight into the encroachment of forests. Specific objectives are-

1. to find out the encroachment pattern by the individuals or group of individuals in the forests of Bangladesh

2. To gather information about the causes of encroachment.

2. Materials and methods

2.1 Selection of the study area

Forests of Bangladesh are of 3 types - hill, sal (Shorea robusta) and mangrove forest. Encroachment was reported in hill and sal forests (FMP 1993). So the sample units were taken from 12 Forest Divisions operating in these forests by adopting multistage sampling technique. Four (30%) forest divisions, two representing sal forests (Tangail Forest Division (TFD), Rangpur Forest Division (RFD)) and two representing hill forests (Chittagong Forest Division (CFD) and Cox’s Bazar Forest Division (CoFD)) have been randomly selected (Fig. - 1). From each division one range (administrative unit) has been selected randomly. Using the list of the encroachers maintained at the Range Office in each range, 10% of the encroacher families were selected randomly for interview (Table -1).

Table - 1: Sample units in brief

The similar sampling techniques have been used by various authors (e.g., Kaoneka and Solberg 1994 in Tanzania; El Tayeb et al. 1991 in Sudan; Sunderlin and Resosudarmo 1999 in Indonesia; etc.) to study forest encroachers.

2.2 General description of the study area

A general description of the study area is presented in the Table - 2.

Table - 2: General description of the study area

Fig. - 1: Study location map

2.3 Data acquisition and analysis

Respondents were interviewed with pre-formulated questionnaire. Pre-testing of the questionnaire was done through a reconnaissance survey in TFD. The final survey was done in the November and December of 2000. For analysis MS EXCEL, SPSSwin version 6 have been broadly used.

3. Result and discussion

3.1 Socioeconomic condition of the encroachers

3.1.1 Demographic characteristics

The average age of the settlers is below 30 years and 35% of the population is less than 10 year old. The literacy rate among the settlers in RFD (20%) and CFD (30.3%) is lower and that for CoFD (24.29%) is higher than the statistics for respective civil districts and the rate in TFD (29.59%) is more or less same (Table - 2). Marriage percentage is the highest in the settlers of CFD followed by TFD, RFD and CoFD (Table - 3).

Table - 3: Some demographic characteristics of the settlers.

All households have higher household size than national average (5.6; BBS 2000). The settlers’ population is in immature state. In future more pressure will be exerted on forestland even though there might be no encroachment.

3.1.2 Present and past occupation

Overall wage labor is the highest ranked followed by agriculture indicative of lack of arable land in the forest areas. This shows deviation from the national statistics (54.4% people are engaged in agriculture, BBS 2000). But a substantial number of encroachers became peasant after encroachment. In CFD and TFD agriculture was ranked first (Fig. - 2). In the lean period, the laborers and peasants earn their livelihood by cutting trees from the adjacent forest. Businessmen are relatively rich and sometimes they do not live in the encroached area, rather lease out the land.

Fig. - 2: Past (Pa) and present (Pr) occupation of the head of the encroachers’ family

3.1.3 Income

Among the settlers average monthly family income is the highest in TFD (Taka 4833 ± 2491) followed by CFD (Taka 4625 ± 2935), RFD (Taka 3873 ± 3598) and CoFD (Taka 3271 ± 1175). Large portion (45.95%) earns below 3000 taka per month. Income distribution has similarity with occupational distribution. In TFD and CFDs majority of the settlers is peasant and they have higher monthly income. Though the rich may benefit largely from forests, the poorer households depend on forests for larger share of their income.

3.1.4 Land holding

Most of encroachers have less than 0.5 ha land. In RFD all the encroachers have land less than 0.3 ha (0.1± 0.12), which indicates lack of available forestland for encroachment. In CFD some encroachers have more than 1 ha land (Fig. - 3). There is significant difference (F = 33.37; d.f. = 3, 562; P = 7.35^-20) in the size of encroached land of the settlers in the forest divisions (for LSD test, MSE = 33.37, p = 0.05). In CFD the settlers have more land per household than the national average while in other divisions settlers have less, indicative of huge competition for land among the encroachers.

Fig. - 3: Distribution of encroached land among the settlers

3.2 Encroachment pattern

3.2.1 Duration of illegal occupation

The mean duration of illegal occupation is highest in TFD (21.09 ± 13.72) followed by CFD (18.38 ± 8.27), RFD (13.06 ± 9.72) and CoFDs (9.94 ± 6.97). The temporal pattern of illegal occupation of forestland varied significantly among the forest divisions (F = 43.06; d.f. = 3, 562; p = 4.64^-25) and LSD test (MSE = 82.75, p = 0.05) showed that settlers in all these divisions have significant difference among themselves.

For CoFD and RFDs the regression co-efficients of the linear trendlines of the migration pattern were 9.31 (R² = 0.8145) and 3.50 (R² = 0.8201) and were well fitted. Whereas six order polynomial equations describe migration patterns for CFD and TFD (for CFD, y = -0.0371x⁶ + 1.2033x⁵ - 15.034x⁴ + 90.577x³ - 269.96x² + 372.45x - 179.22; R² = 0.9633 and for TFD y = -0.0097x⁶ + 0.2503x⁵ - 2.4225x⁴ + 11.256x³ - 27.627x² + 38.101x - 15.667; R² = 0.9251) well. People are coming in the forests at a much larger rate in CoFD and RFDs than in the other two divisions (Fig. - 4).

Fig. - 4: Migration pattern of the encroachers

Large portion of the encroachers came to the forests quite recently- 42.39% and 45.29% came in the sal and hill forests respectively in last ten years. In Chittagong region majority of the encroachers came in 1980’s when the rehabilitation of destitute plainlanders in the Chittagong region was policy of the government. In CoFD refugees from neighboring Myanmar constitute a substantial portion of the encroachers.

3.2.2 Rate of encroachment

For calculating the Encroachment Rate (ER), cumulative encroachment rate has been used. From Fig. - 5 it is observed that encroachment rate is highest in CFD (ER = 1.88 hayr^-1, R² = 0.95) followed by TFD (ER = 1.53 hayr^-1, R² = 0.97), CoFD (ER = 1.46 hayr^-1, R² = 0.78) and RFD (ER = 1.88 hayr^-1, R² = 0.90). Compounding the present rate of encroachment it is estimated that the total area of sample range in CFD will be encroached within next 10 year. Whereas the corresponding figure for CoFD and TFD are 20 years and for RFD is 60 years. Extrapolating the values for the hill forests and sal forests it is observed that within next 23 years total area of the hill forests will be encroached and the corresponding figure for sal forest is 34 years.

Fig. - 5: Encroachment rate in the forest divisions

3.2.4 Causes of migration

Taking all forest divisions together, lack of land appeared to be the main cause of migration. Population pressure is the main reason behind lack of land as large household size (5.6; BBS 2000) leads to low per capita landholding (0.76 ha; BBS 2000). Lack of employment ranked second. From Fig. - 2 it can be seen that unemployment rate has been much reduced after encroachment. Land grabbing by local elite ranked second in CFD and RFDs. River erosion is a major cause of population movement in TFD. Insecurity and political pressure were mainly responsible for encroachment in CFD and CoFDs. In CFD and CoFDs some people came into the regions from nearshore areas and offshore islands driven by floods and cyclones.

Fig. - 6: Causes of migration of the encroachers

The direct causes are influenced by many factors and have complex relationships Fig. - 7.

Fig. - 7: Encroachment model showing the relationship between direct and latent causes

Population pressure and poverty are the main two factors stimulating forestland encroachment. Forests provide new areas for agriculture and a range of subsistence products. With increasing population, more families search land for agriculture or look for fuelwood or timber. Larger number of people also means more labor is available for agricultural activities. Forest encroachment results in forest degradation and forest degradation results in land degradation, and this leads to agricultural stagnation and even a lowering of productivity, which in turn promotes further encroachment and completes the vicious cycle. Different government development initiatives (like, construction of Kaptai hydroelectric dam, Bangladesh Airforce base, roads and highways etc.) directly lead to conversion of forestland. Forest Department’s inefficiency and lack of effective integration of local people in forest management enhance encroachment. Open market economy most often fails to realize the full benefit of the forest and encourage realization of it. Thus it encourage the conversion of forestland into other economically lucrative land uses.

4. Concluding remarks

Encroachment is occurring in all the forest divisions at different rates. At the current rate the entire forests in the country will be encroached within next four decades. Population pressure and poverty are the main underlying causes of people’s movement into the forests. River erosion and political pressure aggravate these. Country’s overall economic condition along with exhaustive pressure on the natural resources deters any ambitious program by the government to restore the degraded land.

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