MONOCOTYLEDONS

CYPERACEAE; fruit an achene
 

Cyperus esculentus Africa and W. Asia; cultivated	tiger, chufa, bush, rush or Zulu nut; earth almond	perennial, stoloniferous herb, stolons terminating in a tuber; tuber rich in starch, sugar and fat, eaten raw or roasted, in confectionary, made into flour or juice served as a beverage - "horchata de chufas" in Spain, source of the edible "chufa oil", also used in soap-making; cultivated in warm climates for its edible tubers and for feeding pigs.	Howes, 1948; Hedrick, 1972; Saunders, 1976; Menninger, 1977; Purseglove, 1985; Mabberley, 1987
Cyperus rotundus pantropical weed	nut grass	perennial stoloniferous herb bearing root tubers; root tuber eaten raw	Hedrick, 1972; Saunders, 1976
Eleocharis dulcis Old World tropics	Chinese water chestnut	perennial, stoloniferous herb; cultivated in China, etc. in flooded fields which are drained for harvesting the tubers or corms which constitute the chief crunchy white vegetable in chop suey, etc., exported fresh and canned	Rosengarten, 1984; Mabberley, 1987

 

IRIDACEAE; fruit a loculicidal capsule
 

Gynandriris sisyrinchium Mediterranean to Afghanistan

Spanish nut

iris-like with spring-flowering corms, corms eaten; grazed by sheep

Hedrick, 1972; Townsend and Guest, 1985

 

NYMPHAEACEAE; fruit berry-like
 

Euryale ferox N. India to China	fox or gorgon nut; prickly water lily	aquatic herb, pulpy fruit with 8-15 black, globose seeds; cultivated by Chinese for 3000 years; seeds eaten raw before fully ripe, nutty flavour, roasted or boiled when mature; fruit pulp, stems and rhizome also edible		Hedrick, 1977; Menninger, 1977; Mabberley, 1987
Nelumbo lutea North America, Caribbean	American lotus; water chinquapin	aquatic rhizomatous herb; seeds and rhizome edible	Hedrick, 1972; Mabberley, 1987
Nelumbo nucifera warm Asia to Australia; cultivated	sacred lotus; water cinquapin; water or rattle nut; Egyptian bean	aquatic rhizomatous herb with white, 1-seeded carpels embedded in flat-topped, fleshy receptacle which at maturity dries and ripe seeds rattle within; revered by Buddhists; unripe seed eaten raw (lotus nut or seed), ripe seed roasted or boiled after removal of bitter, green embryo; rhizome source of Chinese arrowroot; cultivated as an ornamental seed contains 68% carbohydrates (starch), 17% protein, 2.5% fat, rich in vitamin C	Howes, 1948; Hedrick, 1977; Menninger, 1977; Rosengarten, 1984; Mabberley, 1987; Macrae et al., 1993

 

PALMAE; fruit usually a fleshy or fibrous drupe, rarely more or less dehiscent
 

Acrocomia aculeata Martinique, Dominica	mucujá; macaúba; gru gru nut	solitary, spiny, pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; kernel edible, source of an edible oil; pulp oily, sweet, edible, used in cooking and soap; nuts fed to pigs; palm cabbage eaten; leaves used for browse, thatch and basketry; trunks for posts	Howes, 1948; Hedrick, 1972; FAO, 1986; Menninger, 1977; Johnson, 1983; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987
Acrocomia lasiospatha Caribbean, Brazil	macaw; mucuja	pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; fruit with thin, edible pulp; nut oily and bitter, esteemed locally	Hedrick, 1972; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987
Acrocomia totai N.E. Argentina, Paraguay	gru gru; mbocarya; Paraguay palm	pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; kernels an important source of oil, used locally for cooking, soap and as an illuminant	Menninger, 1977; Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987
Aiphanes minima Central America	coyor	solitatry, spiny, pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; kernel thick, white, edible, similar to that of coconut; thin, sweet pulp edible	Menninger, 1977; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987
Areca catechu tropical cultigen; cultivated in S. and S.E. Asia	betel or areca palm; bungaa; jamba; pinang	solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; masticatory, sliced endospern of ripe or unripe seeds (nuts) chewed in a wad of betel pepper (Piper betle, Piperaceae) with lime, a mild narcotic containing arecaine, causing salivation, dulling of appetite and reddening of saliva; palm cabbage eaten; leaves for thatch; leaf sheaths for hats and containers; seed used as a vermifuge and in veterinary medicine; fruit source of tannin and dye; cultivated as ornamental	Howes, 1948; Hedrick, 1972; Menninger, 1977; Johnson, 1983; Rosengarten, 1984; Purseglove, 1985; Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987
Areca laxa Andaman Islands		pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; used as substitute for betel nut	Hedrick, 1972
Arenga pinnata Malesia from W. India to Hainan, Philippines and Papua New Guinea; widely cultivated in the tropics	black sugar palm; sugar plum; toddy palm; areng palm; ejow; gomuti; kaong	solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, monoecious feather palm; immature kernels cooked and eaten in Philippines, boiled and marketed as a sweetmeat; male spadix tapped for palm sugar, jaggery, palm wine or toddy, distilled for arrak; palm cabbage eaten raw or cooked; stem pith source of sago; leaf sheath source of good fibre; leaves for thatching; split petioles for basketry	Miller, 1964; Hedrick, 1972; Menninger, 1977; FAO, 1984; Purseglove, 1985; Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987
Astrocaryum aculeatum Amazonia	star nut palm;  tucumá	solitary, spiny, pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; mesocarp thin, edible, contains 15-75% oil; kernels hard and inedible, contain 37% edible oil, used commercially, residue used as cattle feed; leaf fibres marketed commecially, used for hammocks. Potential oil crop	Hedrick, 1972; Menninger, 1977; FAO, 1986; Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987
Astrocaryon jauari South America	jauari; awarra	solitary, spiny, pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; kernel source of edible oil; leaves used for thatch	Johnson, 1983
Astrocaryum murumuru Amazonia	muru-muru or murumuru	spiny, pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; kernel chief source of edible oil in Pará, Brazil, used commercially; leaf fibres used for hammocks	Hedrick, 1972; Menninger, 1977; Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987
Astrocaryon tucumoides N.E. South America	awarra	spiny, pleonanthic monoecious, feather palm; kernel source of edible oil used commercially; leaves used for matting	Menninger, 1977; Mabberley, 1987
Astrocaryon vulgare tropical America	tucuma	spiny, pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; mesocarp edible, rich in vitamin A; kernels source of edible oil, excellent for cooking and soap-making, used commercially; leaf fibres used for fishing lines and nets, hammocks, strongest fibre in Amazonia, possibly commercially viable. Plant often of disturbed areas therefore probably easily domesticated	Purseglove, 1985; Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987; Prance, 1994
Attalea oleifera Brazil		solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; extremely hard nut; kernels source of a cooking oil	Menninger, 1977; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987
Bactris gasipaes Amazonian Peru; unknown in the wild, widely cultivated in South America, especially for palm hearts, introduced in S. E.Asia	peach palm; palm chestnut; pejibay(e); pejivalle; pupuha	suckering, spiny, pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; starchy fruit pulp dry and mealy, edible; boiled kernels edible; kernels a commercial oilseed; fruit regarded as the most nutritionally balanced of tropical foods; palm hearts an important export; fruit residues fed to livestock; leaves for thatching; wood for long bows and floor slabs, source of cellulose for cellophane paper and rayon. Potential for improvement as an oil crop.	Howes, 1948; Hedrick, 1972; National Academy of Sciences, 1975; Menninger, 1977; Johnson, 1983; Purseglove, 1985; FAO, 1986; Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991; Clay and Clement, 1993; Clement and Villachica, 1994
Bactris major Caribbean	prickly plum; black roseau	spiny, pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; nut marketed as "cocorotes", cultivated as an ornamental	Hedrick, 1972;  Mabberly, 1987; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987
Borassus aethiopum Tropical Africa	African fan palm; deleib palm	solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, dioecious, fan palm; fibrous pulp eaten raw of cooked; germinating radicle of buried nut cooked as famine food; palm cabbage eaten; sap source of toddy; leaves used for thatch and basketry	Menninger, 1977; Johnson, 1983; Purseglove, 1985; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987
Borassus flabellifer India to Myanmar; cultivated	palmyra, toddy or wine palm; siwalan	solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, dioecious, fan palm; fruit pulp roasted and eaten, seedlings edible; inflorescence sap source of sugar and toddy; timber for rafters, leaves for thatch, basketry, writing paper, etc.; fibre exported	Hedrick, 1972; Menninger, 1877; Johnson, 1983; Purseglove, 1985; Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987
Caryota cumingii Philippines	pugahan	hapaxanthic, monoecious, feather palm, leaves bipinnate with fish-tail leaflets; seeds used as substitute chewing gum; sap source of palm wine and alcohol, stem source of sago; palm cabbage eaten; soft petiole fibre used for tinder, cauking and stuffing pillows; petioles for basketry; leaves used for thatch; timber slats used for flooring; cultivated as an ornamental	FAO, 1986; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987
Caryota mitis Indo-Malesia	fishtail palm	hapaxanthic, monoecious, feather palm, leaves bipinnate with fish-tail leaflets; mesocarp toxic with numerous oxalate crystals, immature kernel edible; fruits used as a masticatory after leaching macerated fruit; palm cabbage eaten, sap source of wine, stem source of sago; leaves used for thatching, leaf sheath source of fibre; cultivated as an ornamental	Menninger, 1977; Johnson, 1987; Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987
Caryota obtusa var. aequatorialis Malaysia	giant mountain fishtail palm	solitary, hapaxanthic, monoecious, feather palm, leaves bipinnate with fish-tail leaflets; mesocarp toxic with numerous oxalate crystals, kernel edible; fruits used as a masticatory after leaching macerated fruit	Whitmore, 1972; Menninger, 1977; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987
Cocos nucifera western Pacific, now pantropical coasts; cultivated	coconut	solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; fruit 1-seeded drupe; fibrous mesocarp (husk) yields fibre coir for doormats, matting, cordage, coir-dust a peat substitute in horticulture; endocarp hard, woody, 3-pored with adherent seed; endosperm hollow, edible, containing ca. 500 ml of refreshing coconut milk which is also used in plant physiology experiments, dried endosperm (copra) used in confectionery (desiccated coconut), also important source of oil for margarine, soap, etc., residue used in stockfeed; apical buds of over mature trees used for tinned palm hearts; axis tapped for toddy which, when evaporated yields jaggery (palm sugar), when fermented, produces arrak and may be further fermented to vinegar; leaves for basketry, thatch, etc.; timber (porcupine wood) for building.	Howes, 1948; Hedrick, 1972; Menninger, 1977; Johnson, 1983; Rosengarten, 1984; Purseglove, 1985; Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987
Copernica prunifera N.E. Brazil	wax or carnauba wax palm	solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, hermaphrodite, fan palm; immature kernels edible; leaf wax used commercially in shoe polish, gramaphone records, candles, etc.; leaves for basketry, etc.; trunk for wood	Menninger, 1977; Johnson, 1983; Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987
Elaeis guineensis tropical Africa; cultivated	African oil palm	solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; pericarp and kernel processed commercially for edible oil, pulp and kernel eaten, an important source of vitamin A; sap used to make wine and alcohol; shell used for fuel and road surfacing; palm heart eaten; leaves for thatch, weaving; petiole for fencing	Howes, 1948; Kedrick, 1972; Menninger, 1977; Johnson, 1983; Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987; Hartley, 1988; Falconer, 1990; Peters et al., 1992
Elaeis oleifera Central and South America	American oil palm	solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, feather palm; nuts source of edible and industrial oil; germplasm source for hybrids with E. guineensis for disease restistance etc.	Johnson, 1983; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987; Hartley, 1988
Eugeissona utilis S.E. Asia; locally cultivated	bertam palm	suckering, dioecious, feather palm; fruit edible; starch from trunk a staple food of some natives; leaves for thatch	Johnson, 1983; Mabberley, 1987
Gastrococcus crispa Cuba	corojo; belly palm	solitary, heavily armed, pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; fruit with hard shell; kernel edible, appreciable quantities of oil; leaf fibres for cordage; cultivated as an ornamental	Menninger, 1977; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987
Hyphaene compressa East Africa		solitary, spiny, pleonanthic, dioecious, fan palm; fibrous flesh of fruit eaten, seed kernel of unripe fruit eaten, also the part of germinating seedling just below ground; endocarp a substitute vegetable ivory used for buttons; palm heart eaten; leaves used for thatch, matting, baskets, cordage, paper and fuel	Uhl and Dransfield, 1987; Peters al., 1992
Hyphaene coriacea East and South Africa, Madagascar		clustered or solitary, spiny, pleonanthic, dioecious, fan palm; fibrous flesh of fruit eaten, seed kernel of unripe fruit eaten, also the part of germinating seedling just below ground; endocarp a substitute vegetable ivory used for buttons; palm heart eaten; leaves used for thatch, matting, baskets, cordage, paper and fuel	Uhl and Dransfield, 1987; Peters et al., 1992
Hyphaene petersiana tropical Africa	gingerbread palm	solitary or rarely clustered, dioecious fan palm; pulp and seeds eaten raw, germinating seeds eaten; seed kernel of unripe fruit eaten, also the part of germinating seedling just below ground; endocarp formerly a substitute source of vegetrable ivory for buttons; palm heart eaten; leaves used for thatch, matting, baskets, cordage, paper and fuel	Menninger, 1977; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987; Peters et al., 1992
Hyphaene thebaica Sudan and Egypt	doum or dum palm	solitary, armed, pleonanthic, dioecious, fan palm; fibrous mealy mesocarp (husk), which tastes of gingerbread and seed kernel of unripe fruit eaten, also the part of germinating seedling just below ground; endocarp a substitute vegetable ivory used for buttons; palm heart eaten; leaves used for thatch, matting, baskets, cordage, paper and fuel	Howes, 1948; Hedrick, 1972; Menninger, 1977; Johnson, 1983; Purseglove, 1985; Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987; Peters et al., 1992
Jessenia bataua tropical South America	batawa; chapil; jagua; mille pesos; palma de leche; palma patavona; patauá; serje; ungurauy; yagua	solitary, unarmed (except for short fibres on upper parts of leaf sheath) pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; kernels eaten mainly by the poor; thin, oily pulp edible, made into a wine, mesocarp oil used for food, soap and cosmetics, residue fed to pigs; leaves used for thatching; leaf sheath and petiole source of soft and stiff fibres. Managed in the wild	Menninger, 1977; FAO, 1986; Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987 Clay and Clement, 1993; Clement and Villachica, 1994
Jubaea chilensis coastal Chile	Chilean wine-palm; coquito; honey-palm; little, pigmy or monkey coconut	massive, solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; nuts - "little cokernuts" or "coquitos" used in Chilean confectionery, occasionally marketed, source of an edible oil; massive bole formerly felled and tapped for sap (up to 300 litres) which is reduced by boiling for treacle (palm honey) and palm wine; leaves used for basketry; cultivated as ornamental; occasionally exported	Howes, 1948; Uphof, 1968; Hedrick, 1972; Usher, 1974; Menninger, 1977; Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987
Livistonia cochinchinensis S.E. Asia		solitary, pleonanthic, hermaphrodite, fan palm; ripe fruits eaten in N. Vietnam; cultivated as an ornamental	Uphof, 1968; Menninger, 1977; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987; Braun, 1984
Livistonia saribus Indo-Malesia		solitary, pleonanthic, hermaphrodite fan palm of swamp forests; endosperm macerated in vinegar or salt solution and eaten in S.E. Asia	Uphof, 1968; Menninger, 1977
Lodoicea maldivica Seychelles	double coconut coco de mer	robust, solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, dioecious fan palm; fruit large, requires six years to ripen; immature fruit at 10-12 months with sweet, translucent, jelly-like, edible kernel; mature endocarp a vegetable ivory, hard and inedible, used for bowls, etc.; leaves used for thatch and plaiting, down from young leaves for stuffing pillows; wood used for pallisades, troughs; cultivated as ornamental	Hedrick, 1972; Menninger, 1977; Purseglove, 1985; Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987
Manicaria saccifera tropical America	busso, monkey cap or sleeve palm	solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm of fresh water swamps; seeds a source of oil - "ubusou"; palm source of sago in Venezuela; leaves used for thatch and sails; spathe used for a hat	Menninger, 1977; Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987
Mauritia flexuosa N. South America, Trinidad	tree of life; buriti; guagara muriti; ta or temiche palm	massive, solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, dioecious, fan palm; farinaceous kernel eaten; mesocarp used to make ice cream, refreshing drink and oil; pith source of sago, sap source of palm wine; leaves for thatching and fibre for cordage, petiole source of cork; trunk for rafts and dug-out canoes; roots medicinal. Palm of local importance as "tree of life"	Hedrick, 1972; Menninger, 1977; Johnson, 1983; FAO, 1986; Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987; Clay and Clement, 1993
Maximiliana maripa N.E. South America, Trinidad	cucurite; huacava; inaja; incham; kokerite	masive, solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; outer husk provides a saline flour used for seasoning food; pulp edible, yellow and sweet, made into drinks; kernel toasted and eaten, source of an edible oil; palm cabbage eaten; leaves used for thatch, basketry and matting, peduncle bract as a container; cultivated for landscaping kernels 4.7% moisture, 59.3% oil, 19.3% protein	Hedrick, 1972; Menninger, 1977; FAO, 1986; Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987
Medemia argun N. Sudan, S. Egypt	argun	robust, solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, dioecious, fan palm; germinating fruit eaten; an endangered species	Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987
Nypa fruticosa India to Australia; mangove swamps; cultivated locally	nipa palm	suckering fan palm; immature seeds edible, too hard when mature, pulpy immature kernels eaten raw, mature kenerls pounded and eaten; inflorescences tapped for sugar; leaves used for thatch, cigarette papers, basketry, matting	Hedrick, 1972; Menninger, 1977; Johnson, 1983; Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987
Orbignya cohune Central America	cohune nut; corozo	solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; egg-sized, hard-shelled fruit with kernel tasting like coconut but more oleaginous and the oil superior, unripe kernel used as cooking "milk"; young leaves edible; endocarp used as fuel; subsistence oil crop; leaves used for thatch, rachis for light construction	Howes, 1948; Hedrick, 1972; Purseglove, 1985; Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987; Clay and Clement, 1993; McSweeney, 1995
Orbignya cuatrecasana Colombia	táparos	solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, monoecious,feather palm; seeds edible	Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987
Orbignya martiana Amazonian Brazil	babassu or babacu palm	solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; fruit formerly exported now processed locally for oil	Purseglove, 1985; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987
Orbignya oleifera South America	babassu or babacu palm	solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; fruit source of an edible oil, oil exported; leaves used for thatch	Uhl and Dransfield, 1987; Clay and Clement, 1993
Orbignya phalerata Amazonia from the Guianas to Bolivia	babassu or babacu palm; coco de macaco; palmaguassú;	solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; hard-shelled fruit; kernels important source of palm kernel oil; source of shade, fibre, timber, fuel and medicine	Menninger, 1977; FAO, 1986; Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987; Pinheiro and Frazão, 1995
Orbignya speciosa South America	babassu or babacu palm	solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; fruit source of an edible oil, oil exported; leaves used for thatch	Johnson, 1983; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987
Orbignya spectabilis Central Brazil	babassu or babacu palm	solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; fruit formerly exported now processed locally for oil	Purseglove, 1985; Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987
Parajubaea cocoides Ecuador, S. Colombia; mountains	Quito palm	solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; mesocarp sweet, fleshy, eaten raw; kernels source of oil; cultivated as an ornamental; potential for development	Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987; National Research Council, 1989
Parajubaea torallyi S. and central Bolivia	janchicoco	solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic,  monoecious palm; mesocarp sweet, fleshy, eaten raw; kernels source of oil; fruit as animal feed; palm hearts eaten; leaf fibre for cordage and basketry; leaf midrib for fuel, petiole for local construction; cultivated as an ornamental; potential for development	Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987; National Research Council, 1989
Phytelephas aequatorialis Panama to Peru and W. Brazil; riverine	vegetable ivory; coroso; corozo; tagua	solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, dioecious, feather palm; immature pericarp and endosperm provides refreshing drink and at a later stage eaten; very hard; mature cellulose endosperm used as vegetable ivory for buttons, carvings, ornaments, etc.	FAO, 1986; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987
Phytelephas macrocarpa Panama to Peru; riverine	ivory nut; tagua	solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, dioecious, feather palm; young seed provides refreshing drink and at a later stage eaten; very hard, cellulose endosperm used as vegetable ivory for billiard balls, chessmen, buttons, etc.	Hedrick, 1972; Menninger, 1977; Johnson, 1983; Purseglove, 1985; Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987
Raphia farinifera S. tropical Africa, Madagascar; cultivated	raphia palm	suckering, armed, hapaxanthic, monoecious, feather palm; boiled kernels eaten, yellow, oily pulp edible and source of raphia butter, oil used in cooking, also as illuminant, lubricant and pomade; young leaves formerly important source of raffia, older leaves source of raffia wax	Hedrick, 1972; Menninger, 1977; Purseglove, 1985; Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987
Raphia vinifera West Africa	bamboo or wine palm	armed, hapaxanthic, monoecious, feather palm; pulp and seed eaten; sap source of palm wine; palm cabbage eaten; leaves for thatch, matting, etc.	Hedrick, 1972; Purseglove, 1985; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987; Peters et al., 1992
Salacca zalacca S.W. Java, S. Sumatra; widely cultivated in S. E. Asia and Queensland	salak palm; snake fruit	creeping and tillering, armed, dioecious, feather palm; pulp sour-sweet, eaten raw, candied or pickled, canned; kernels sweet, edible, sometimes pickled; leaves for thatch and matting; petiole bark for matting; grown for hedges	Hedrick, 1972; Menninger, 1977; Johnson, 1977; Purseglove, 1985; Mabberley, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991
Scheelea butyracea tropical America	oil or wine palm	solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; oil seed; sap source of palm wine; cultivated as an ornamental	Hedrick, 1972; Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987
Scheelea macrocarpa tropical America	yagua palm	solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; fruit edible but kernels hard and rarely eaten, source of oil; cultivated as an ornamental	Menninger, 1977; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987
Scheelea magdalenica tropical America	mamarron	solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; fruit edible but kernels hard and rarely eaten	Menninger, 1977; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987
Scheelea martiana tropical South America	chopaja; maripá; uricuri; urucuri; urucurizeiro	solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; starchy/oily mesocarp cooked and eaten; seeds ground to a flour; pericarp used for smoking rubber latex	FAO, 1986; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987
Serenoa repens E. USA	saw palmetto	suckering, rhizomatous, more or less stemless, hermaphrodite, fan palm; kernels formerly an important food of native Americans; palm cabbage edible	Saunders, 1976; Menninger, 1977
Syagrus cocoides tropical America		pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm with leaves appearing 3-ranked; kernel source of pururima oil	Menninger, 1977; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987
Syagrus coronata arid Brazil; limited cultivation	nicuri plum; ouricuri or licuri palm	solitary, pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; kernel sometimes eaten; palm kernel oil - "urucury wax" edible, also used in soap and as substitute for carnauba wax	Howes, 1948; Johnson, 1983; Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987
Syagrus edulis N.E. Brazil		pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; nuts delicious	Menninger, 1977; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987
Veitchia joannis Fiji; introduced South America		solitary feather palm; kernels slightly astringent, readily eaten, especially by children; cultivated as an ornamental	Menninger, 1977; Braun, 1984
Washingtonia filifera Colorado Desert, California	Californian fan palm	robust, tall, solitary, pleonanthic, hermaphrodite, fan palm, fruit a 1-seeded berry; pulp thin and sweet, seed large, eaten fresh, dry or ground into a meal by native Americans; leaf fibre used for basketry; source of building materials; palm grown as a street tree	Hedrick, 1972; Saunders, 1976; Menninger, 1977; Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987
Washingtonia robusta Mexico	Mexican fan palm	robust, tall, solitary, pleonanthic, hermaphrodite, fan palm, fruit a 1-seeded berry; fruit edible	Hedrick, 1972; Saunders, 1976; Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987

 

PANDANACEAE; fruit berry or drupe
 

Pandanus brosimos New Guinea; highlands	screw pine	cultivated for its edible, oil-rich seeds	Purseglove, 1985; Verheij and Coronel, 1991
Pandanus conoideus New Guinea	karuka	screwpine; oily seeds edible	Verheij and Coronel, 1991
Pandanus dubius		screwpine; seeds edible; leaf fibres used for basketry	Verheij and Coronel, 1991
Pandanus julianettii  New Guinea; highlands	screw pine	dioecious screwpine; multiple fruit large, dense, up to 16 kg, individual fruits readily separated, up to 10 x 1.5 cm; pulp sweet coconut flavour, eaten raw or smoked, kernel eaten raw or normally roasted, source of oil	Menninger, 1977; Purseglove, 1985; Verheij and Coronel, 1991; Macrae et al., 1993
Pandanus luzoniensis Philippines	alas-as	arborescent screwpine, multiple fruit, subglobose, 9.1 cm in diameter, individual fruits 3-4 x 2-2.6 cm, seeds (nuts) 1-10; seeds eaten boiled or roasted; decoction of prop root medicinal; grown as ornamental 5.89% fat, 12.1% protein, 36.9% fibre	FAO, 1984

 

ZOSTERACEAE: fruit a small drupe or irregularly dehiscing
 

Zostera marina Atlantic and Pacific coasts of North America and Eurasia

water nut; eel or sea grass; grass wrack; alva or ulva marina

submerged marine grass-like herb, ripe, seed-bearing portion floats to surface and is harvested; threshed grain eaten by Seri Indians of Baja California, grain with economic potential for development; dried leaves used for packing glass, pillows, etc.; plant use for compost

Hedrick, 1972; Menninger, 1977; Felger and Moser, 1985; Mabberley, 1987; Irving et al., 1988

 

GYMNOSPERMS

ARAUCARIACEAE; female cones large, more or less globose, disintegrating when seeds mature
 

Araucaria angustifolia S. Brazil, N. Argentina	Brazilian or Paraná pine	seeds large, edible, marketed in Rio de Janeiro; important timber tree	Howes, 1948; Hedrick, 1972; Menninger, 1977; Mabberley, 1987
Araucaria araucana Chile; introduced and cultivated	Chilean pine; monkey puzzle	evergreen tree, seeds - "Chile nut" eaten fresh, boiled or roasted, also distilled for spirit. Eighteen good-sized trees will provide a year's sustenance; cultivated as an ornamental	Howes, 1948; Hedrick, 1972; Menninger, 1877; Mabberley, 1987
Araucaria bidwillii Queensland	bunya-bunya pine	large tree, cones large, seeds starchy, up to 6 x 2 cm; seeds edible, sold in supermarkets, eaten roasted or boiled by Aborigines, flavour of chestnuts, also stored until germinating and then eaten; good timber and cultivated as an ornamental and street tree	Howes, 1948; Hedrick, 1972; Menninger, 1977; Mabberley, 1987; Tow, 1989; Lazarides and Hince, 1993

 

CUPRESSACEAE; cones woody, leathery or berry-like
 

Juniperus californica Californian desert	Californian juniper	evergreen tree or shrub; fruit eaten by Indians	Saunders, 1976; Mabberley, 1977
Juniperus communis north temperate region	juniper	evergreen shrub with sweet, aromatic fruit; edible, used to flavour gin, liqueurs and meat dishes; cultivated as an ornamental	Kedrick, 1972; Mabberley, 1987
Juniperus deppeana var. pachyphlaea S.W. USA	check-barked or alligator juniper	evergreen tree; fruit eaten by native Americans	Kedrick, 1972; Saunders, 1976; Menninger, 1977
Juniperus occidentalis  California	western juniper	fruit eaten by native Americans	Menninger, 1977
Juniperus osteosperma arid S.W. USA	Utah juniper	evergreen tree or shrub; fruit eaten by native Americans	Kedrick, 1972; Saunders, 1976

 

CYCADACEAE; female cones leafy, toothed to deeply lobed with large, naked seeds terminally
 

Cycas media Australia	Australian nut palm	seeds first leached to remove toxic substances before cooking and eating; boiled seeds a staple diet of the Aborigines	Menninger, 1977; Mabberley, 1977
Cycas pectinata E. Himalyas		dioecious, palm-like tree; seeds first leached to remove toxic substances before cooking and eating; stem pith source of sago; young leaves as vegetable; ornamental	Verheij and Coronel, 1991
Cycas revoluta Japan		seeds first leached to remove toxic substances before cooking and eating; sago from pith used for flour and bread	Hedrick, 1972; Menninger, 1977; Mabberley, 1977
Cycas rumphii Malesia to Pacific	sago palm	dioecious, palm-like tree; seeds first leached to remove toxic substances before cooking and eating; stem pith source of sago; young leaves as vegetable; ornamental	Hedrick, 1977; Menninger, 1977; Mabberley, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991
Cycas siamensis Myanmar, Thailand, Indo-China, Malaysia		dioecious, palm-like tree; seeds first leached to remove toxic substances before cooking and eating; stem pith source of sago; young leaves as vegetable; ornamental	Verheij and Coronel, 1991
Dioon edule Mexico		seeds foul smelling, yield a starch used as arrowroot, cooked and eaten	Hedrick, 1972; Menninger, 1977; Mabberley, 1987

 

GINKGOACEAE; female gametophyte pedunculate in leaf axil, 2 ovules, seed 1 by abortion
 

Ginkgo biloba E. China, cultivated elsewhere

ginkgo; maidenhair; Kew tree

dioecious tree, widely cultivated as an ornamental and street tree though female trees are objectionable because the fallen seeds stink of rancid butter. Ginkgo nuts eaten after first removing nauceous outer layer to leave female gametophyte, canned and marketed in USA, eaten roasted or in birds nest soup; also source of an edible oil which is also used fuel and can cause dermatitis in sensitive people. Peel source of insecticide

Howes, 1948; Hedrick, 1972; Menninger, 1977; Krochmal, 1982; Rosengarten, 1984; Mabberley, 1987; Bianchini et al., 1988; Li Penglai and Song Zexia, 1990

 
 
 

GNETACEAE; female stroboli bearing drupe-like fruit
 

Gnetum costatum Papua New Guinea		Dioecious tree; bitter fruits boiled and eaten;kernels nutritious; bast fibre for cordage kernels 40-45% starch, 8-10% protein	Verheij and Coronel, 1991
Gnetum gnemon incl. var. brunonianum Indo-Malesia; cultivated	gnetum; bago; melindjo	dioecious, evergreen tree, fruit ca. 2 cm long;; seeds eaten in Ambon roasted, boiled or fried, marketed locally; young leaves and inflorescences used as a vegetable; fibre from inner bark	Howes, 1948; Hedrick, 1972; Menninger, 1977; FAO, 1984; Mabberley, 1987; Verheij and Coronel, 1991
Gnetum indicum Philippines	kuliat	woody vine, fruit ovoid, 3.1 cm long, seeds 1; fruit eaten boiled or roasted; seeds boiled with sugar and eaten; bast fibre for cordage and baskets; cut stem source of water	FAO, 1984
Gnetum latifolium incl. var. funiculare Malaysia to Philippines		woody vine; fruit eaten boiled or roasted; seeds boiled with sugar or fried and eaten after removal of the inner, hairy seed-coat;	FAO, 1984; Menninger, 1977; Verheij and Coronel, 1991
Gnetum nodiflorum Amazonia	curucuda; itua	woody vine; fruit ellipsoid, 4-5 x 2.5 cm; roasted seeds chestnut-flavour, also ground to a flour; stem fibres for cordage, also used as a cellulose base for some paper	FAO, 1986
Gnetum tenuifolium Malaysia	dagum	slender liana; boiled seeds eaten; decoction of the roots drunk after childbirth	Menninger, 1977; Verheij and Coronel, 1991

 

PINACEAE; female cones usually 2 seeds per scale
 

Pinus albicaulis Rocky Mountains	whitebark, nut, scrub or alpine pine	seeds and inner bark eaten by native Americans	Menninger, 1977; Krochmal, 1982
Pinus armandii W. China	Armand or Chinese white palm	seeds commonly sold in markets and eaten	Howes, 1948
P. bungeana N.W. China; cultivated	lace-bark pine	seeds small, eaten in China; hardly in USA	Menninger, 1977
Pinus cembra Alps and Carpathians; cultivated	Swiss stone pine; Siberian ceder	seed wingless, edible, sole winter food of peasants in Siberia; leaves source of turpentine; timber tree	Howes, 1948; Hedrick, 1972; Mabberley, 1987
Pinus cembroides  S.W. North America; cultivated	single leaved or big cone pine; Mexican piñon nut	evergreen tree; seeds eaten fresh or lightly roasted by native Americans	Howes, 1948; Kearney and Peebles, 1951; Hedrick, 1972; Saunders, 1976; Menninger, 1977; Rosengarten, 1984
Pinus coulteri California	Coulter, Californa, nut or big cone pine	enormous cones, seeds large, edible	Howes, 1948; Hedrick, 1972; Krochmal, 1982
Pinus edulis S.W. North America	Nevada two- leaved, two- leaved, Rocky Mountain, Colorado or piñon pine	evergreen tree; seeds - "piñon nuts" important food of native Americans and Mexicans, eaten raw or roasted, marketed commercially; resin chewed for sore throats, also used for treating boils, sores and insect bites, hot resin for poulticing muscular pains, boiled needles with sugar for syphilis	Howes, 1948; Kearney and Peebles, 1951; Hedrick, 1972; Saunders, 1976; Menninger, 1977; Krochmal, 1982; Rosengarten, 1984
Pinus flexilis W. USA; cultivated	limber, Arizona or Rocky Mountain pine	seeds large, eaten by native Americans	Howes, 1948; Hedrick, 1972; Krochmal, 1982
Pinus gerardiana Himalayas, 300-400 m; cultivated	Nepal nut pine; chilgoza, chilghoza or noosa pine	seeds large, ca. 2.5 cm long; high protein "neoza nuts" marketed locally in India, stored for winter use, potential for export; grown for social forestry but has not adapted to European or North American climates	Howes, 1948; Hedrick, 1972; Menninger, 1977; Anthony et al., 1993; Rosengarten, 1984
Pinus koraiensis China, Korea, Japan; cultivated	Korean nut or cedar pine	seeds edible, exported from mainland China; cultivated as an ornamental	Howes, 1948; Hedrick, 1972; Menninger, 1977; Rosengarten, 1984
Pinus lambertiana S.W. USA	California sugar, sugar, big or giant pine	evergreen tree bearing cones ca. 50 cm long; seeds eaten by native Americans; resin cathartic	Howes, 1948; Menninger, 1977; Krochmal, 1982
Pinus monophylla Great Basin to Baja California; cultivated	single-leaf piñon, nut, one-leaf or stone pine	evergreen tree; seeds edible, eaten roasted or made into cakes by native Americans, resin used to sweeten food	Kearney and Peebles, 1951; Hedrick, 1972; Saunders, 1976; Menninger, 1977; Krochmal, 1982; Rosengarten, 1984
Pinus monticola S.W. USA	western white, silver or Idaho pine	seeds edible	Merringer, 1977
Pinus nelsonii Mexico	Nelson pinyon pine	seeds edible	Howes, 1948; Menninger, 1977
Pinus pinea N. Mediterranean and Portugal; cultivated	pignolia; stone, parasol or umbrella pine	evergreen tree; seeds with wings small or absent; seeds, pignolias, eaten as dessert nut and in confectionery, cultivated and marketed commercially; broken kernels source of an oil; cultivated as an ornamental	Howes, 1948; Hedrick, 1972; Menninger, 1977;  Rosengarten, 1984; Mabberley, 1987; Bianchini et al., 1988;
Pinus ponderosa Pacific North America	western yellow, bull or ponderosa pine	seeds small, edible	Howes, 1948; Kearney and Peebles, 1951; Meninger, 1977
Pinus pumila E. Asia; cultivated	Japanese dwarf stone pine	seeds eaten locally	Rosengarten, 1984
Pinus quadrifolia Baja California	Parry's or four-leaved nut pine	evergreen tree; seeds eaten by native Americans	Howes, 1948; Hedrick, 1972; Saunders, 1976; Menninger, 1977
Pinus roxburgii Himalayas	chir or emodi pine	seeds eaten in times of scarcity; source of terpentine, charcoal for Chinese fireworks	Howes, 1948; Hedrick, 1972; Mabberley, 1987
Pinus sabiniana California (Great Valley and Coast Ranges)	digger, bull or gray pine	evergreen tree up to 25 m tall, cones up to 20 cm long, containing up to 180 seeds, cones require only 2 years to develop and produce seed compared to 3 years for the Italian stone pine, P. pinea; seeds eaten by native Americans; timber source of fuelwood, pit props and oleoresin; pitch for treating burns and sores, bark infusion for consumption	Howes, 1948; Hedrick 1972; Saunders, 1976; Menninger, 1977; Krochmal, 1982; Farris, 1983; Mabberley, 1987
Pinus sibirica N.E. Russia eastwards to 57° E	Siberian stone pine	seeds eaten locally	Rosengarten, 1984
Pinus torreyana California	Torrey, del mar, lone or soledad pine	seeds ca. 2.5 cm long, edible	Howes, 1948; Hedrick 1972; Menninger, 1977; Krochmal, 1982; Mabberley, 1987

 

TAXACEAE; fruit usually a 10-numerous seeds
 

Torreya grandis China		seeds eaten and used medicinally	Howes, 1948; Menninger, 1977
Torreya nucifera China and Japan	Japanese torreya; kaya nut	evergreen tree; seeds eaten, also source of seed oil used for cooking in Japan; regarded mildly laxative and anthelmintic; cultivated as an ornamental	Howes, 1948; Hedrick, 1972; Menninger, 1977; Mabberley, 1987

 

ZAMIACEAE; female cones determinate, scales more or less peltate bearing 2(-3) ovules on adaxial margins
 

Encephalartos hildebrandtii		husks of ripe seed dried and ground to a flour, broken kernels dried, ground to a flour and leached, then dried and stored; stem pith source of sago	Menninger, 1977; Peters et al., 1992
Lepidozamia hopei Queensland	arumba	treated nuts used for flour by Aborigines	Menninger, 1977; Lazarides and Hince, 1993
Macrozamia riedlii West Australia	zamia	nut with volatile toxin removed by roasting	Menninger, 1987; Lazarides and Hince, 1993
Macrozamia spiralis New South Wales	Queensland nut	seeds eaten if soaked and pounded or baked, source of good quality arrowroot	Mabberley, 1987
Zamia chigua  New Granada		seeds boiled and mashed before eating	Menninger, 1977
Zamia floridiana Central America	seminole bread; coontie; comptie	seeds edible	Menninger, 1977