Part 7 - Statistical annex

Some key issues- a compilation of statistical information

References

Part 7 - Statistical annex

The following data, notes and quotes were compiled in the FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific from sources in Bangkok- ESCAP, FAO, the Asian Institute of Technology and Kasetsart University-prior to the Round Table. Additional data were provided by participants, and later by FAO during the finalisation of the guidelines. These are appended here to provide information to assist users in country and regional analyses.

Some key issues- a compilation of statistical information

WOMEN

Table I Education

	Adult literacy1 f as %m	Ratio of female to male enrollments2 (x 100) 1985-1987
Country		First level3 level	Third level
Indonesia	85	93b	74	48
Vietnam	91	91	..	31 bd
Malaysia	81	98	96	80
Philippines	99	94	99	119
Thailand	94	93b		.

Sources: ¹UNICEF 1994:50, 2UN, 1991.

Notes: ..

.. data unavailable.

^b 980/84.

^d Including correspondence courses.

³ UNESCO defines education at the primary level as usually beginning between the ages of 5 and 7 and lasting for about five years. Education at the second level is defined as beginning at about age 10-12 and lasting for about three years in the first stage, and as beginning at about age 13-15 and lasting for about four years during the second stage. Education at the third level, including universities and colleges, is defined as beginning at about age 17-19 and lasting at least three or four years.

Quotes:

"Studies in Malaysia, the Republic of Korea and Thailand, and more recently in Bangladesh, Indonesia, Nepal, Pakistan and several Latin American countries, have shown that farmers with schooling are more productive than similarly situated farmers without education" (UNICEF, 1 994:42).

"Other studies have shown that the economic returns from investments in primary education exceed those of any other kind of investment" (UNICEF, 1994:42).

"In particular, the education of girls has been shown to be one of the most basic determinants of fertility decline. Educated women usually have more opportunities, more awareness of family planning possibilities, and are more likely to discuss and decide with their partners how many children to have and when. They are also more likely to marry late, to postpone the first pregnancy, to leave more time between births, and to have fewer children in total" (UNICEF, 1°94:43).

"In the Philippines, women who never went to school have on average six children each. If they stay in school for seven years it drops to only two" ( Power, 1992:21).

Comments:

· In all countries of the Region, female literacy rates are lower than for males, although in the Philippines the difference is negligible. There is a clear, positive correlation between literacy and fertility.

· Higher enrollment of females in secondary school in Malaysia and the Philippines probably reflects male-female population ratio, or a temporary closing of past gaps.

· Women continue to have lower literacy rates and lower enrollment levels than men at the secondary and tertiary education levels.

· Public awareness and adult education programmes are less accessible to women because of their double and triple work burdens in and outside the home, even where radio, television, and print media are available. How, therefore, should programmes be designed to reach women?

Table 2 Communications Media Available

Country	No. of radios per 1,000 people	No. of televisions per 1,000 people	Daily newspaper circulation per 1,000 people
Malaysia	429	1 48	140
Vietnam	108	39	9
Thailand	185	112	72
Indonesia	147	60	28
Philippines	13	48	54

Source: UNDP, 1993:166,199.

Table 3 Women in Politics and Decision Makers in Government

	Parliamentary seats occupied by women (%)		Women decision makers in government, 1987 (%)
Country	1975	1987	All ministries	Ministerial level
Malaysia	3.2	5.1	1.5	0
Indonesia	7.2	..	1.3	4.9
Philippines	..	..	11.1	10.0
Thailand	1.1	3.5	3.3	0
Vietnam	..	17.7	0	0

Source: UN, 1991:41.

Note: .. data unavailable.

Comments:

· Indicates women's lack of participation and influence in the decision-making process.

· No Asian country has achieved a critical mass of women in politics, although in a few countries women politicians are making a difference.

· Where women have been represented beyond mere tokenism, significant changes have been made. In the Philippines, for example, women have raised the issues of population, the environment, the status of women, etc.

· The political decision-making process is overwhelmingly male dominated, with priority given to male concerns and male vested interests.

· Some centrally-planned economies reserve parliamentary seats for women, but have not given them any real power (Vietnam). The advent of "democracy" usually sees these seats lost to men.

Table 4 Distribution of GDP and Female Labour Force By Economic Activity

	Agriculture			Mining			Industry (excl. mining), transport			Services (excl. transport)
		% of labour force			% of labour force			% of labour force			% of labour force
Country	% of GDP	f	m	% of GDP	f	m	% of GDP	f	m	% of GDP	f	m
Indonesia 1980	24.8	53.8	57.0	25 7	0.4	0.9	22.1	12.8	16 5	27.5	33.1	25.6
Indonesia 1985	23.7	53.6	55.3	16 3	0.3	0.9	26.5	12.0	18.0	33.6	34.1	25.8
Malaysia 1986	26.2	32.5	29.7	10 8	0.3	0.9	30.8	21.7	28.7	32.3	46.5	40.6

Source: UN, 1991:93.

Note: The groups of economic activities shown are mutually exclusive. Percentages of GDP, female labour force and male labour force thus each total 100 for each country across the four groups.

Table 5 Women's Contribution in the Informal Sector to Industry and Services Production

	Industry (excl. mining)			Transport			Services (excl. transport)			Total
Country	% of fem. lab. forcea	% of prod. Informal	% of informal fem.	% of fem. labour forcea	% of prod. Informal	% of informal	% of fem. lab. forcea	% of prod. Informal	% of informal fem.	% of fem. labour forceb	% of prod. Informal	% of informal
Indonesia	1980 27 4	44.1	45.4	0.3	44.6	0.8	71.6	59.1	46.8	45.8	52 5	43.0
Malaysia	1986 30.6	13.1	53.7	1.6	20.5	2.8	67.7	22.7	42.6	67.2	18.6	43 2

Source: UN, 1991 93

Notes:

^a Excluding agriculture and mining.

^b Female labour force in industry, transport and services as percent of total female labour force in all branches of the economy.

Quote:

"Economically-active women are concentrated in low-productivity agricultural or service industries in developing regions. They are often forced to improvise their own economic opportunities, with few resources or support, in the informal sector" (UN, 1991:93).

Table 6 Labour Force By Status in Employment, 1980-87

	Employers/own-account		Employees		Unpaid family
Country	% of total	% female	% of total	% female	% of total	% female
Indonesia	44	26	25	30	28	67
Malaysia	29	29	54	31	10	54
Philippines	36	29	40	3 7	15	52
Thailand	30	27	24	3 8	43	65

Source: UN, 1991:110

Table 7 Economic Activity and Occupational Groups

	Occupational groups: Females per 100 males (in the 1980s)				Economically-active population aged 15 years and older
Country	Admin., managerial workers	Clerical, sales, service workers	Prod., transport workers, labourers	Agric., hunting, forestry workers	Female		Male		Women as % of total 1990
					1970	1990	1970	1990
Indonesia	7	86	36	55	36	37	88	83	31
Malaysia	9	49	28	61	37	44	83	82	35
Philippines	34	163	28	33	42	36	84	81	51
Thailand	26	126	43	93	75	68	87	85	45
Vietnam	..	..	..	..	71	70	88	86	47

Source: UN, 1991:106.

Notes: .. data unavailable.

Economic activity in the "formal" and "informal" sectors. The characteristics of the informal sector most often cited include simple technology, very little capital, no fixed place of business, few or no employees, quasi-legality or lack of registration, and little or no record-keeping.

Quotes:

"No definite distinction has been established in statistics between the formal and informal sectors, and the ILO and United Nations' concepts of labour force and economic production are applied without regard to "informal" sector characteristics. Statistical recommendations, however, do clearly distinguish economically-active persons working on their own account without employees and unpaid family workers from other economically-active persons. Therefore, for statistical purposes in the short term this is the definition used by the United Nations International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women (INSTRAW) and the Statistical Office of the United Nations Secretariat to identify women in the informal sector in Africa, Latin America and Asia. All persons working in the informal sector are also considered economically active" (UN, 1991:92).

Comments:

National statistics fail to include the "true" economic activities of women, which would include such activities as child-bearing, child care, housework, food preparation, family care and other unpaid housework..

Women's contribution to income and the economy of their countries cannot be denied. An increase in women's income has a positive effect on population growth. Low income has a negative effect on population growth, yet in statistics about economic activity, unpaid household work and child care are not included. Nor are fetching water and fuelwood, making handicrafts for home use, etc.

If the above excluded activities were included in the GDP, they would increase 25-30 percent according to most estimates (UN, 1991:90).

Table 8 Children Affected By Undernutrition and Maternal Mortality

		% of children suffering (1980-1992) from:
Country	% of infants with low birth weights1 1990	under weight with low		wasting(12-23 months) moderate & severe2	stunting(24-59 months) moderate and severe2	Maternal mortality rate. (1980-1991)
		moderate and severe	severe3
Indonesia	14	40	..	..	..	450
Philippines	15	34	5	14	45	100
Thailand	13	26x	4x	10	28x	50
Malaysia	10	..	..	..	..	59
Vietnam	17	42	14	12x	49x	120

Source: UNICEF, 1994:66.

Notes: I Low birth weight is less than 2,500 grams.

2 Moderate and severe: below minus two standard deviations from median weight for age and reference population.

3 Severe: below minus three standard deviations from median weight for age and reference population.

4 Number of deaths of women from pregnancy-related causes per 100,000 live births.

.. data unavailable. x Indicates data that refer to years or periods other than those specified in the column heading, and which differ from the standard definition or refer to only part of a country.

Comments:

· In comparison, in such developed countries as the United States, Canada and New Zealand, maternal mortality rates range from only 5-13.

Chronic undernutrition exists among those people whose estimated average daily energy intake over a year falls below that required to maintain body weight and support light activity.

Table 9 Deaths Per Year Per 1,000 Population

Country	Girls	Boys
Thailand	26.8	17.3
Philippines	21.9	19 1

Source: UN, 1991:60.

Quotes:

"In Eastern Asia, excluding China, 17-18 percent of women aged 15-49 are anemic. In pregnant women, this figure rises to 20 percent" (in the 1980s) (UN, 1991:59).

"In the Southeast Asia region, 100 million people have goitre, 100 million pre-school children are affected by xerophthalmia, and 616 million people suffer from iron deficiency or anaemia" (FAD/WHO, 1992:1 5).

"The Southeast Asian area is relatively free from starvation. Nutritional adequacy, however, is another story. There has been a significant increase in the number of undernourished people in the Region to approximately 400 million" (Dent et al, 1992:2).

"FAO and WHO estimated that during 1988-1990, 19 percent of the population in Asia and the Pacific were suffering from chronic undernutrition" (FAD/WHO 1992:6).

"The most severe affects of stunting are effected before a child's first birthday. Even if nutrition improves thereafter, the child is likely to suffer from below-normal growth and physical and mental development. This compromises the future of both the child and the nation" (UNICEF, 1994: 16).

"Nutrition affects the intellectual development, learning capacity and school performance of children. Growth retardation due to undernutrition affects the development of motor and mental functions, while severe undernutrition affects brain growth as well as activity levels. Results of 20-year follow-up testing of malnourished children from the 1970s indicate early irreversible damage to intellectual development resulting from malnutrition. Malnutrition in pre-school years leads to stunting. Hunger during the school day affects attention and learning capacity. Ill health and chronic malnutrition, especially anaemia, persisting during the crucial early years of education, can hinder learning capacity" (FAO/WHO, 1992:25).

Comments:

· Low birth weight has a negative correlation with maternal education levels.

· Maternal mortality is linked to the low status of women.

· Gender bias (against women) causes poverty (Worldwatch Institute, 1992).

Table 10 Water and Sanitary Facilities

	% of population with access to safe water1988-91			% of population with access to adequate sanitation 1988-91
Country	Total	Urban	Rural	Total	Urban	Rural
Indonesia	51	68	43	44	64	36
Malaysia	78	96	66	81	..	..
Philippines	82	85	79	69	78	62
Thailand	77	87	72	74	80	72
Vietnam	24	39	21	17	34	13

Source: UNICEF, 1994:68.

Comments:

As women are usually responsible for the collection of water, they have to walk further and are thus burdened with an additional workload.

Urban areas continue to lag behind rural areas in the provision of potable water and sanitary facilities.

Population

Table 11 Basic Demographic Indicators

	Population annual growth rate %(1980-92)	Crude death rate(1992)	Crude birth rate(1992)	Total fertility rate(1992)	Life expectancy at birth1 (years)
Country					male	female
Indonesia	2.0	9	27	3.1	62	65
Vietnam	2.2	9	29	3.9	62	67
Thailand	1.5	6	21	2.3	66	71
Malaysia	2.6	5	29	3.7	69	73
Philippines			4.0	63	67

Source: UNICEF, 1994:74.

1 ESCAP, 1993.

Notes: Total fertility rate = The number of children that would be born per woman, were she to live to the end of her child-bearing years and bear children at each age in accordance with prevailing age-specific fertility rates.

Crude death rate = Annual number of deaths per 1,000 population.

Crude birth rate = Annual number of births per 1,000 population.

Table 12 Prevalence of Contraceptive Methods for Couples with the Wife in Reproductive Age, By Method of Contraception (latest year available)

			Male methods			Female methods
Country	Year	Any method	Sterilization	Condom	Withdrawal	Sterilization	Pill	IUD	Others	% of male methods of any methods
Malaysia	1984	51.4	0.2	7.7	5.9	7.5	11.6	2.2	26.1	26.8
Vietnam	1988	53.2	0.3	1.2	7.0	2.7	0.4	33.1	8.4	16.0
Indonesia	1987	47.7	0.2	1.6	1.3	3.1	16.1	13.2	12.2	6.5
Philippines	1988	36.2	*	0.7	5.6	1 1.4	6.9	2.4	9.1	...
Thailand	1987	67.5	5.5	1.2	0.9	22.4	20.0	7.2	10.3	11.3

Source: Ono - Asaki, K., 1993: 106 tote: * included in female sterilization.

Notes:

"It is significant that almost without exception in-the poorer countries of Asia, fertility has Ellen most among groups who are most literate and with higher educational attainment. educational attainment is clearly also related to the status of women and their ability to engage productive employment outside of the home--factors which in turn determine decisions rout childbearing" (UN, ] 993).

Between 1975 and 1990, there was a decline in the total fertility rate in Thailand of 48 perrcent, in Indonesia of 33 percent, in the Philippines of 20 percent, and in Malaysia of 19 Percent" (Corazon, R.M., 1993).

Contraception is regarded as very much a woman's problem and male contraceptive measures e hardly used at all. One in three pregnancies end in abortion (there are one million per year). Women want small families, two or three children, which is not surprising in a country where omen marry late, the great majority are literate, and most are engaged in work outside the ome" (Kyanh district, Vietnam) (Power, J., 1992:152).

Comments:

Malaysia, Vietnam, Indonesia, the Philippines and Thailand view their fertility rates as still too high (Ono-Osaki, K., 1993: 106).

There is still a very high unmet demand for family planning (UNICEF, 1994).

The level of contraceptive use is overall quite low.

The level of male methods is very low, family planning responsibility is clearly vested in females.

Table 13 Rural/Urban Migration and Growth Rates

	Rural-urban migration F/100 m1965/75	Annual change in population(1985-1990) %
Country		Urban	Rural
Indonesia	104	4.3	0.7
Malaysia	..	4.4	0.9
Thailand	111	4.3	0.8
Philippines	..	3.9	1.6 .
Vietnam . .	..	3.8	1.9

Source: 1991:79.

Quotes:

"It is difficult to say how urbanization by itself affects child-bearing, but urban life's greater employment and educational opportunities may be more conducive to smaller families, as might the urban life style. Children may also cost more in urban environments. With higher costs of education, health and housing, the costs of rearing children go up and the children's contribution to the family economy goes down" (UN, 1991:61).

"Women living in urban areas in Vietnam tend to stay in school longer than those living in rural areas. In the study year, 52 percent of girls aged 15-19 years in urban areas were still in school as compared to only 16 percent of girls in rural areas" (Institute of Economic Research, 1 993: 1 30).

Conclusions:

· Urban populations have grown and continue to grow at a considerably faster rate than rural populations.

· Statistics do not usually differentiate between rural and urban child-bearing rates. Urban mothers, however, tend to have fewer children.

Table 14 Urban Population and Poverty

	Urban population % of total population		Female Headed3 Households	% of Population below absolute poverty level 1980-19894
Country	19801	19932		Urban	Rural
Indonesia	20	31	14.2	20	16
Vietnam	23	20	..	..	..
Malaysia	33	43	17.7	13	38
Philippines	36	43	11.3	52	64
Thailand	14	34	16.5	10	25

Sources:

¹ ESCAP, 1980.

² ESCAP, 1993.

³ UN, 1994.

⁴ UNICEF, 1994:74.

Notes:

..data not available.

Absolute poverty level: the income level below which a minimum nutritionally adequate diet, plus essential non-food requirements, is not affordable (main source: World Bank).

Environment

Table 15 Estimated Extent of Degraded Land (unit: 1,000 hectare)

Country	Density1 (persons per km2)	Arable and permanently cropped area(1989)	Irrigated land	Sat affected land	Estimated degraded area
Indonesia	99	21,260 (12%)	7,550 (4%)	2,200 (1%)	43,000 (24%)
Philippines	222	7,970 (27%)	1,620 (5%)	400 (1%)	5,000 (16.8%)
Thailand	114	22,126 (43%)	4,230 (8%)	3,200 (6%)	17,200 (33.7%)
Malaysia	58	4,880 (15%)	342 (1%)	500 (2%)	..
Vietnam	214	6,600 (20%)	1,830 (6%)	1,000 (3%)	15,900 (48.9%)

Sources: FAO, 1992: 10,14.

¹ESCAP, 1993.

Notes: Salt affected land includes irrigated and non-irrigated land.

Percentage of categories of land to total land area is shown in parenthesis

Quotes:

"In 1989, the proportion of arable and permanently cropped land to the Region's total la' area was 15 percent. The estimated proportion of land free from soil-related constraints agricultural production was only 14 percent. Although a number of countries may appear have some constraint-free land available, the Region as a whole seems to have reached - indeed passed - the safe limits for horizontal expansion of agricultural production.

This hypothesis is supported by the low average annual growth rates of both arable a' permanently cropped land and total agricultural land (including permanent pasture) recorded the Region over the last 28 years. These were 0.41 percent and 0.06 percent, respective! Although the ratio of agricultural population to total population declined from 72.8 percent 1961 to 58.8 percent in 1989, the agricultural population increased in absolute numbers As result, the ratio of arable and permanently cropped land to agricultural population has decline from 0.34 hectares/capita in 1961 to 0.26 hectares/capita in 1989. This is a direct indicator land scarcity. It contrasts sharply with land/man ratios in the rest of the world, which we 1.61 in 1961 and 1.60 in 1989" (Dent et al, 1992:1).

"Rough estimates of the evolution of food crop demands by the population forecast that A' as a whole should have an average food crop yield in equivalent cereals of 3.2 tons/hectare the year 2010 and 4.75 tons/hectare in 2030 to cover minimum food requirements. To achie such yields, the average available land will be 0.9 hectares/capita in 2010 and 0.6 hectares/capita in 2030. To maintain present average cereal production per capita between 1990 and 2030 in all other developing countries in Asia (without China) the average yield increase for the next 40 years should be 2.5 times higher than the yield increase observed between 1970 and 1990 (0.8 tons/hectare). This represents twice the efforts achieved during the Green Revolution" (FAO, 1993: 5).

"Population pressure in developing countries is rapidly reaching crisis level. Developing countries now produce only one-third of the world's carbon dioxide. By 2025, with the effect of rapid population, they could increase their share to two-thirds, a much higher level. Developing countries produce one-sixth of the world's CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons). By the year 2025 this could be one-third or higher" (Kitatani, K., 1991).

"We have to stop rigging the market in favour of destroying the environment. In many countries, it is government policy that energy, and especially electricity, remain very cheap. The result is that there is very little incentive to conserve it. The same goes for water, often paid for by generalized taxes rather than charged to the consumer according to the quantity consumed" (Holdgate, M., 1991).

Comments:

· Regarding the cost of repairing environmental damage: in 1993, the Port Authority of Thailand estimated that dredging of the Chao Phraya River for navigation purposes cost US$ 6 million per year. The Royal Irrigation Department estimates it costs US$ I per cubic metre a year to excavate, maintain, and rehabilitate silted canals. The cause of the flash floods which occurred in Southern Thailand in 1988 was attributed to deforestation. Costs were estimated at over 6,000 million baht (US$ 240 million) in property and service damage(FAO, 1992:437).

· In North East Thailand, the area affected by soil salinity quadrupled between 1971 and 1982 and now covers as much as 880,000 hectares (ESCAP, 1992:27).

· Dam Gajah Mungkur Reservoir in Central Java, Indonesia was expected to have a technical lifetime of 100 years, but because of serious erosion and siltation, its present age expectancy is calculated to be only about 25 years, a great and tragic loss (FAO, 1992:252).

Table 16 Best Estimates of Extent of Shifting Cultivation, 1991

Country	Population dependent on shifting cultivation	Total area affected by shifting cultivation (ha)
Indonesia	5,800,000	11,400,000
Malaysia	1,640,000	4,700,000
Philippines	850,000	3,500,000
Thailand	1,000,000	4,000,000
Vietnam	5,000,000	9,700,000

Source. Dent et al, 1992:6.

Quote:

'Shifting cultivation is perceived and used by different people in different contexts in widely different ways. It is, however, generally agreed that cultivation is neither permanent nor continuous. It is interrupted by a period of natural fallow. If the fallow period is of sufficient length it ensures adequate regrowth of vegetation and soil rehabilitation. Near-stability of land can be attained under shifting cultivation. The great weakness of any shifting cultivation system, however, is its inability to keep pace with an increase in population. These increases inevitably lead to increased deforestation and/or shortening of fallow periods which, in turn, result in degradation of the land, lower yield, and the spread of fire-resistant grasses at the expense of forest species" (Dent et al, 1992:5).

Table 17 Estimates of Forest Cover Area and Rate of Deforestation

	Land area	Forest cover		Annual deforestation 1981-90
	million ha	1980 million ha	1990 million ha	million ha	% per annum
Asia and Pacific	892.1	349.6	310.6	3.9	1.2
Continental Southeast Asiaa	190.2	8.4	75.2	1.3	1.6
Insular Southeast Asiab	244.4	154.7	135.4	1.9	1.3

Source: FAO,2 1993:25. Notes: a includes Cambodia, Lao, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam. b includes Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines.

Table 18 Forest Area Change During 1981-1990 in Southeast Asia

	Land area	Natural forest				Plantations
		Total 1990	Annual deforestation 1981-1990			Total 1990	Annual plantation 1981-1990
County ha	000 ha	000 ha		ha/000 capita	%	000 ha	000 ha	ha/000capita	%
Thailand	51,089	12,735	515	10.1	-3.3	756	42.0	0.8	8.5
Vietnam	32,549	8,312	137	2.3	-1.5	2,100	70.0	1.2	4.1
Indonesia	181,157	09,549	1,212	7.3	-1.0	8,750	474.0	2.9	8.1
Malaysia	32,855	17,583	396	25.5	-2.0	116	9.0	0.6	16.1
Philippines	29,817	7,831	316	5.7	-3.3	290	1.0	x	- 0.3

Source: FAO,2 1993:27.

Table 19 Area of Natural Forests and Plantations

	Natural forests		Plantations
	Forest cover		Area
Country	% land area	ha/capita	% land area	ha/capita
Thailand	24.9	0 2	1.5	.0136
Vietnam	25.5	0.1	6 5	.0313
Indonesia	60.5	0 6	4 8	0485
Malaysia	53.5	1.0	0.4	.0067
Philippines	26.3	0.1	1.0	.0046

Source: FAO,2 1993:26.

Notes: Plantations are defined as:

- forest stands established artificially by afforestation on land which previously did not carry forests; or

- forest stands established artificially by reforestation on land which carried forest within the previous 50 years, or within living memory, and involving the replacement of the previous crop by a new and essentially different crop.

Quotes:

Indonesia

"To meet increasing demands for space for life and food in Indonesia, over one million hectares of virgin forest must be cleared annually. Improper forest clearing and post clearing soil management practices in the past caused soil degradation. Some of these areas were abandoned and are now infested with alang-alang (Imperata cilindrica) It is estimated that approximately 14 million hectares of land, particularly outside Java, have been infested with alang-alang. Shifting cultivation practiced by local farmers may also increase the acreage of such land. Phosphorous is usually deficient in these soils and they are also low in other plant nutrients, such as N,K, and Mg." (FAO,¹ 1993:132).

"Every year about 50,000 hectares of agriculturally-productive land are transferred (converted) into non-agricultural land, while through land development programmes, there is an average of 30,000 hectares of newly-developed agricultural land. This newly-developed land is mostly marginal and productivity is quite low, particularly during the first two to three years of farming" (Yunan. S., 1992:250).

"Every year through the 'greening movement' and reforestation programmes, an average of 150,000 hectares of critical land is restored to productive land. In the same period, due to improper management and other practices 300,000-500,000 hectares of good land is transformed into critical or at least semi-critical land. This kind of condition has resulted in serious technical, social and economic effects, such as declining soil productivity, water shortages and declines in people's income" (FAO, 1992:255).

The Philippines

Table 20 Estimated Farm-Agricultural Area of the Philippines in 1960, 1971, 1980 and 1987

Year	Per capita arable land	Area (ha)	Change
1960		7,772,500
1971	0.127 ha1	8,493,700	+ 721,200
1980	0.093 ha2	9,725,200	+ 1,231,500
1987	.	9,675,000	- 50,200

Source: Recel, 1992:398.

Notes: ¹1970; ² in the 1980s.

Comment:

· At the same time that agricultural land is decreasing, urban areas increased to about one million hectares by 1988, an increase of about 16.55 percent from 1981 (Recel, 1992:398).

Table 21 Changes in Arable Land Area in the Philippines, 1960, 1971 and 1980

Year	Area	Change
1960	4,900,700
1971	4,645,000	- 255,700
1980	4,487,679	- 157,321

Source: Recel, 1992:398.

Quotes:

"Records from the Department of Agrarian Reform show that between 1988 and 1990, there have been 419 land conversions (land converted from agricultural use to other purposes), covering over 5,476 hectares of agricultural land. Encroachment on prime land pushes farmers further towards the hilly and uplands areas for survival. Consequently, prime agricultural lands as well as forest cover are irreversibly shrinking. As a result, forest lands have changed to grasslands, brushlands, and other extensive land uses that now occupy some 6.55 million hectares of former forest lands" (Recel, 1992:397).

"The food demand of the 60.5 million population in 1990 was estimated to be about 7.7 million tons of milled rice at the recommended per capita requirement of 127 6 kilogrammes per annum. Such rice requirement is estimated to be produced from at least 3.5 million hectares of irrigated rice lands under the average production level of 2.5 tons/hectare at a cropping intensity of 1.7 and 50 percent milling recovery" (Recel, 1992:398).

"At a population growth rate of 2.3 percent per annum, the estimated annual population increase of 1.85 million will also require an additional 110,684 hectares of irrigated rice lands per year under existing production levels. The available best land for irrigated rice comes to about 2.77 million hectares" (Recel, 1992:399).

"Additional pressures for land come from homeless families and a backlog of squatters" (Recel, 1992:399).

"The above factors show that the Philippines has reached the critical level of population growth where every incremental population growth exerts serious pressure on the available land, while agricultural land conversion as a result of population explosion and human and economic activities remains hopelessly unabated." (Recel, 1992:399).

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