Karanja seed

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I. GENERAL

COMMON NAME OF THE OIL

Karanja Seed Oil

BOTANICAL NAME

Pongamia glabra

FAMILY

Leguminaceae

OTHER NAMES OF THE OIL

Pongam oil, Honge oil

HABITAT

Pongamia is widely distributed in tropical Asia. The tree is hardy, reasonably drought resistant and tolerant to salinity.

MAJOR PRODUCING COUNTRIES

East Indies, Philippines, India

YIELD AND DESCRIPTION

The Karanja tree is of medium size, reaching a height of lam. The tree bears green pods which after some 10 months change to a tan colour. The pods are flat to elliptic, 5-7 cm long and contain 1 or 2 kidney shaped brownish red kernels. The yield of kernels per tree is reported between 8 and 24 kg. (Bring)).

The kernels are white and covered by a thin reddish skin. The composition of typical air dried kernels is: Moisture 19%, Oil 27.5%, Protein 17.4%. The oil content varies from 2739%. The oil contains toxic flavonoids including 1.25% karanjin and 0.85% pongamol. After refining, and removal of these flavonoids, the oil still produced retarded growth in rat feeding studies. (Mandal). In the 1970's India was producing 4000-6500 tans of oil per annum.

MAIN USES

As a lighting oil, in pharmacy particularly for skin problems, in tanning and soaps. Soap made from crude oil tends to darken due to a component, Isolonchocarpin, which gives a wine red colour in the presence of alkali. In rural areas the leaves are used to prevent infestation of grains. The cake after oil extraction may be used as a manure. The presence of a hypotensive principle and a substance producing uterine contraction has been reported (Bring)).

Much research has been carried out on secondary processing of Karanja oil to overcome some of its shortcomings. All parts of the plant have also been analyzed due to its reported medicinal importance (Bring)).

Karanja oil, like Neem oil, has been widely tested for piscidal, insecticidal, nematicidal and bactericidal activity.

 

II AGRICULTURAL ASPECTS

CULTIVATION

Essentially the Karanja tree occurs naturally although its use for reforestation in dry waste land in Karnataka, India has been reported (Bring)).

HARVESTING PERIOD

As required.

HARVESTING METHODS

The most common method involves climbing the tree and beating off the pods with sticks.

 

III POST HARVEST PRE-TREATMENT, PROCESSING, STORAGE

PRE-TREATMENT

The dried pods are struck with hammers and sticks to open them after which the seeds are winnowed out.

 

IV PROCESING

OIL EXTRACTION

Carried out in Ghanis and small expellers. The oil is dark in colour with a disagreeable odour and difficult to refine.

MAJOR FATTY ACID COMPOSITION OF OIL

Oleic acid 71.3%

Linoleic acid 10.8%

(Hilditch)

EQUIPMENT

Harvesting sticks, hammers, ghanis, oil expellers.

 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BRINGI, N.V., "Non-Traditional Oilseeds and Oils in India", Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. PVT. Ltd.. New Delhi, India pp 143-166. 2.

HILDITCH, T.P. "The Chemical Composition of Natural Fats", Chapman & Hall Ltd., 1949. p.188 3.

MANDAL, B., MAJUMDAR, S.G., MAITY, C.R., "Chemical and nutritional evaluation of Pongamia glabra oil and Acacia auriculaeformis oil", J. American Oil Chemists Society, 11984, Vol. 61, No 9, p. 1447-1449

Neem

I. GENERAL

COMMON NAME

Neem

BOTANICAL NAME

Mellia azadirachta

FAMILY

Meliaceae

OTHER NAMES

Margosa, Veppam, Cho do, Nilayati nimb.

HABITAT

Dry tropical forests

MAJOR PRODUCING COUNTRIES

India, Sri Lanka, Burma, Pakistan, Tropical Australia, Africa

YIELD AND DESCRIPTION

The Neem tree is a large glabrous evergreen growing up to 60 ft high. It bears an ovoid fruit, 2cm by 1cm, that has a pericarp containing a resinous substance with a garlicky odour. Each seed contains one kernel. The seed kernels, which weigh 0.2g constitute some 50-60% of the seed weight and 25% of the fruit. The fat content of the kernels ranges from 33-45% (Ecky). The fruit yield per tree is 37-55 kg.

It is estimated that India alone has a theoretical potential to produce 350,000 tons of oil per annum. Production in the late 1970's was 30,000 tons but this dropped dramatically to 14,000 tons in 1979.

MAIN USES

Soaps, medicinal, insecticide and repellent. Neem twigs find use as tooth brushes. In recent years the insecti cidal and anti-feedant properties of Neem oil have prompted a considerable amount of research. Some Neem based insect repellents are now commercially marketed.

Neem oil is usually opaque, bitter and inedible but it has recently been shown that it can be processed into a non bitter edible oil with 50% oleic acid and 15% linoleic acid. Rat feeding studies on this refined oil indicated that it was suitable for use as an edible oil (Rumkini).

The bitter cake after extraction of oil has no value for animal feeds although it has been reported that after solvent extraction with alcohol and hexane a meal suitable for animals is produced.

 

II AGRICULTURAL ASPECTS

CULTIVATION

Normally occurs as a natural forest tree

HARVESTING PERIOD

June-August in India

HARVESTING METHODS

No information identified

 

III POST HARVEST PRE-TREATMENT, PROCESSING, STORAGE

PRE-TREATMENT

It has been found that between 2 - 5 months after harvesting the oil content of neen seeds rises to a maximum. The main problem is that neem is a forest product, making collection difficult.

Its harvest also coincides with the monsoon in India, making drying difficult. After collection the fruits are depulped, usually manually, although small mechanical pulpers are available. In some areas the fruits are buried for a few days to facilitate pulping.

The pulped seeds are then either sun dried or piled in heaps and turned periodically (Bringi). Small artificial tray driers are also used.

The dry seeds are de-corticated, usually manually. Hand and powered decorticators have been developed by the Khadi & Village Industry Commission of India as has a machine that processes dry fruit right through to kernels.

The importance of good drying and storage to extraction efficiencies in ghanis where yields can fall from 35% oil to 20% has been demonstrated (Bring).

 

IV PROCESSING

OIL EXTRACTION

Neem seeds are usually crushed prior to extraction in ghanis. Whole dried fruits may be directly passed to expellers. Good quality kernels (50% oil) yield 40% oil in ghanis. In expellers whole dried fruits, depulped seeds and kernels, yield 4-6%, 12-16% and 30-40% oil respectively (Bring)). The cakes, which contain 7-12% oil are sold for solvent extraction.

MAJOR FATTY ACID COMPOSITION OF OIL

Palmitic acid 19.4%

Stearic acid 21.2%

Oleic acid 42.1%

Linoleic acid 14.9%

Arachidic acid 1.4%

(Bringi)

Neem oil is unusual in containing non-lipid associates often loosely termed as "bitters" and organic sulphur compounds that impart a pungent, disagreeable odour.

EQUIPMENT

Depulpers. Driers, Ghanis, Expellers, Solvent Extraction plants, Decorticators

NOMENCLATURE OF PRODUCTS

Neem oil, Neem insecticides

 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BRINGI, N.V., "Non-Traditional Oilseeds and Oils in India", Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. PVT. Ltd.. New Delhi, India pp 118-142.

ECKEY, E.W. Vegetable Fats and Oils, Reinhold Publishing Corp, 1954. p 559

RUMKINI, C., "Chemical and nutritional evaluation of Neem oil", Food Chemistry, Vol 26, No.:2, p.119-124

Papaya

I. GENERAL

COMMON NAME

Papaya

BOTANICAL NAME

Carica papaya

FAMILY

Caricaceae

OTHER NMAES

Papaw, Lechosa, Mamon.

HABITAT

Tropical to sub-tropical

MAJOR PRODUCING COUNTRIES

Native to S. America, now widely distributed throughout the tropics.

YIELD AND DESCRIPTION

The short lived, rapidly growing papaya is in reality not a true tree having no lignified tissues. Papaya starts to bear fruit at 9-14 months but although it can live for up to 25 years the normal productive life is only 3 years. The trunk reaches a height of 3-8 m and is covered with conspicuous scars from leaf petioles. Papaya occurs as male and female plants. The fruits vary in colour from green-yellow to almost red. The size of fruit varies, some varieties from Venezuela can be 60-100 cm long and weigh up to 10 kg. but more common varieties have fruits 15-30 cm long. The average number of fruits per plant is 50 and yields can reach 30-50 t/Ha.

The small black seeds which comprise about 15% of the fruit weight are attached in 5 rows to the interior wall of the fruit. They are some 5 mm in diameter. About 20 dry seeds/g (Purseglove). The seeds contain oil, 25.3% has been reported from Florida varieties and 28.8% from Senegal (Ecky, Mensier). The oil is pale yellow and almost odourless and flavourless.

The protein content of the defatted seed is 44.4% (Godin). The oil contains mainly unsaturated fatty acids. 70.7% is reported (Godin). Results from rat feeding trials that caused enlarged livers and kidneys indicated that the oil may contain toxic components that would make it unsuitable for use in human foods (Godin).

MAIN USES

The main uses of papaya are as a fresh fruit and for the production of drinks, jams etc. Green papaya also finds use in pickles and chutneys. Native Indian tribes are reported to use the seeds a" a treatment for worms, and the leaves to wrap meat in to make it tender. Papayan produces this effect (Brucher). The seeds also find use as counter irritants and to promote abortion (Purseglove).

It has been suggested that oil extraction from the seeds could improve the viability of industry in countries where papaya is cultivated for papain production and processing (Marfo). In Hawaii for example the seeds constitute 22% of the waste from papaya puree plants and oil extraction has been examined as a possible method of utilization (Marfo).

The green fruit is also a commercial source of the proteolytic enzymes papain and chymopapain, the former finding use in a wide range of industries, particulary brewing for haze removal, the latter in medicine.

Traditionally the enzyme is obtained by making cuts in the trunk and fruits and collecting the exuded latex. World demand for papain varies from 200-400 l/annum (Brucher).

 

II AGRICULTURAL ASPECTS

CULTIVATION

Normally propagated by seed and then grown on until sex can be determined on flowering. They are then thinned to provide one male plant per 25-100 female (Purseglove).

HARVESTING PERIOD

Varies according to country of production.

HARVESTING METHODS

Both hand and mechanised harvesting are used. In Hawaii mechanised harvesting able to handle 50 tons/day has been developed. The fruit is then rapidly sprayed and wax applied to control decay (Brucher).

DISEASES AND PESTS

A serious disease is "bunchy top" transmitted by the white fly Bemisia tabaci. Leaf mosaic virus is also transmitted by various aphids and leafhoppers (Brucher). Pythium, collar and foot rot are common diseases.

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Arachnose. Mites Tetranychus, Tenuipalpus and Hemitarsonemus are serious pests in Hawaii.

 

III POST HARVEST PRE-TREATMENT, PROCESSING, STORAGE

PRE-TREATMENT

The seeds will normally be available after fruit processing, either scraped by hand from the opened fruit or removed by a pulper finisher.

 

IV PROCESSING

OIL EXTRACTION

No information encountered on methods used.

MAJOR FATTY ACID COMPOSITION OF OIL

Oleic 79.1%

Palmitic 16.6%

(Mensier)

EQUIPMENT

No information on oil processing equipment.

 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BRUCHER. H., Useful Plants of Neotropical Origin and their Wild Relatives, pp 222-227, Springer-Verlog, 1989.

CHAN, H.T., JR.; HEU, R.A.; TANG, C.S.; OKAZAKI, E.N.; ISHIZAKI, S.M., "Composition of Papaya seeds", Journal of Food Science, Vol 43, No.:1, p.255-256, 1978.

ECKEY, E.W., Vegetable Fats and Oils, Reinhold Publishing Corp, 1954. p 697.

GODIN, N.J., SPENSLEY, P.C., Oils and Oilseeds, Crop and Product Digests No.1., Tropical Product Institute, 1971.

MARFO, E.K., OKE, O.L., AFOLABI, O.A. Nutritional evaluation of papaw (Carica papaya) and flamboyant (Denolix regia) seed oils. Nutrition Reports International, 1988. v.37, no2, pp 303-310.

MARFO. E.K., OKE. O.L., AFOLABI, O.A., Chemical composition of papaya (Carica papaya) seeds., Food Chemistry., 1986. (22). No 4, pp 259-266.

MENSIER, P.H. Dictionaire de Huiles Vegetales, Editions Paul Lechevalier. Paris 1949.

MIRALLES, J.; "Recherche de nouvelles ressources en huiles vegetaLes", Oleagineux, 1983 ,Vol 38 (12), p.665-667. MIRALLES. J, "Recherche de nouvelles ressources en huiles vegetales", Oleagineux, 1983. Vol.38 (12). p 665-667 PURSEGLOVE, J.W., Tropical Crops: Monocotyledons, Longman, 1985 pp 45-51

Tonka bean

I. GENERAL

COMMON NAME

Tonka Bean

BOTANICAL NAME

Dipteryx odorata

FAMILY

Leguminacea

OTHER NAMES

Gaiac de Guyane, Camaru, Sarrapia (Mensier)

HABITAT

Tropical

MAJOR PRODUCING COUNTRIES

Guianas, Venezuela

YIELD AND DESCRIPTION

The tonka bean is the seed of a large tree which produces purple flowers. The seeds are almond shaped and some 3-4 cm long with a dark brown skin and a pale interior. The kernel contains up to 46% oil on a dry basis. The bean contains .

MAIN USES

The oil is used in perfumery and as a flavouring material. The beans are placed for 24 hrs in rum or alcohol after which time crystals of coumarin appear on their outer surface. This was the coumarin of commerce but has now been replaced by synthetics. Tonka extracts have found use in the American tobacco industry to impart a particular aroma.

 

II AGRICULTURAL ASPECTS

CULTIVATION

No information identified

HARVESTING PERIOD

No information identified

HARVESTING METHODS

No information identified

 

III POST HARVEST PRE-TREATMENT, PROCESSING, STORAGE

PRE-TREATMENT

No information identified

 

IV PROCESSING

OIL EXTRACTION

No information identified

MAJOR FATTY ACID COMPOSITION OF OIL

Palmitic acid 6.1%

Stearic acid 5.7%

Oleic acid 59.6%

Linoleic acid 51.4%

(Echy)

EQUIPMENT

There is a lack of identifiable information on agricultural aspects, harvesting, pre-treatment, oil extraction and commercial application.

 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ECKEY, E.W. Vegetable Fats and Oils, Reinhold Publishing Corp, 1954. p 502-503

MENSIER, P.H., Dictionaire de Huiles Vegetales, Editions Paul Lechevalier, Paris 1949.

Tung

I. GENERAL

COMMON NAME OF THE OIL

Tung Oil

BOTANICAL NAME

Aleurites fordii, A .montana

FAMILY

Euphorbiaceae

OTHER NAMES OF THE OIL

China Wood Oil, Lumbang oil, Noix d'abrasin

HABITAT

A. fordii grows well in cooler climates but will survive sub-tropical conditions. A. montana prefers a more tropical climate.

MAJOR PRODUCING COUNTRIES

China, Argentina, Paraguay, Brazil, USA.

YIELD AND DESCRIPTION

The deciduous Tung tree bears a globular to pear shaped fruit 3-5cm in diameter which changes from green to brown when ripe. A. fordii starts to bear after 4 years and continues fruiting to 40 years. The fruit contains 1-15 nuts or seeds, although 5 nuts per fruit is most common. The nuts are about one inch long and one inch wide and contain an oil rich kernel enclosed by a thin shell (Ecky). The kernel makes up 60% of the seed weight and has an oil content of between 40-60%, depending on the moisture content. The oil content of the air dried fruit lies between 14.7 and 19.5%.

The USA began to produce tung oil as a commercial crop in the early part of this century. Average yields in the USA are 0.5 tons/acre (Ecky). World production was 100,000 tons (1971) and 121,000 tons (1972) (Plank).

MAIN USES

Tung oil, which has good drying pro perties is used in paints, varnishes etc. It also finds use in the pro duction of linoleum, resins and chemical coatings. It has been used in motor fuel in China (Ecky). The seed cake after oil extraction is used as a fertilizer and cannot be used for animal feed as it contains a toxic protein (Godin).

 

II AGRICULTURAL ASBECTS

CULTIVATION

Grown from seed or grafted cuttings. A special plate to adapt a corn planter has been developed for sung. Seeds are planted at 8" intervals. A fully mechanised transplanter has been investigated (Godin). Selection and orchard trials in China have demonstrated that oil yield" can be increased by 41-101% (Wu).

HARVESTING PERIOD

Depends upon region of cultivation

HARVESTING METHODS

In China the fruit is harvested from the trees before maturity while in the USA it is allowed to ripen and fall to the ground from where it is mechani cally gathered.

 

III POST HARVEST PRE-TREATMENT, PROCESSING, STORAGE

PRE-TREATMENT

When the fruit falls from the tree its moisture content is about 65%. It should be allowed to dry in the orchard to 25% the safe level for storage. The dried fruits are mechanically de-hulled (Ecky). In China the fruits are kept moist in piles to loosen and soften the hulls, after which the nuts are removed by hand and sold, usually without drying.

 

IV PROCESSING

OIL EXTRACTION

Traditional methods of oil extraction in China involve drying over slow fires followed by milling in primitive stone mills. The meal is then steamed over hot water for a short while before being moulded into large cakes which are then pressed in a wedge press. The pressed meal is usually re-pressed after further grinding and heating (Ecky).

In the USA the fruits are mechanically de-hulled and after drying passed to continuous oil expellers. The efficiency of extraction depend'; on the moisture content of the nuts and the percentage of shell present. The best yields are obtained with 4.2% moisture and 20% shell.

The crude oil is filtered, but is not usually subjected to alkali refining.

MAJOR FATTY ACID COMPOSITION OF OIL

Palmitic acid 5.5%

Oleic acid 4.0%

Linoleic acid 8.5%

Eleostearic acid 82.0%

(Ecky)

EQUIPMENT

De-hullers, driers, wedge presses, expellers. Information on oil extraction methods currently in use is required together with production, market and usage data.

 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ANON. "World Production of the Major Vegetable Oilseeds and Oils"., Tropical Products Quarterly. Vol 14, No.:1, p 5-6, 1973

ECKEY, E.W., Vegetable Fats and Oils, Reinhold Publishing Corp. p 563-575

GODIN & SPENSLEY, Oils and Oilseeds, Crop and Product Digest No.1. Tropical Products Institute, 1971. pp 164-170

MENSIER, P.H., Dictionaire de Huiles Vegetales, Editions, Paul Lechevalier. Paris 1949

A comprehensive bibliography " Abstract Bibliography of the Chemistry and Technology of Tung Products 1858-1950" has been compiled by PLANK. R.W., PACK. F.C., SKAU. D.B. in 4 vols, with 2800 references exists.

WU, G.C., "Successful selection and breeding of six varieties of Aleurites fordii including Zhetung selection No 7 and superior family No 5", Forest Science and Technology (Linye Keji Tongxun), 1985, No.2 (I), p25.

Ucuuba

I. GENERAL

COMMON NAME

Ucuuba

BOTANICAL NAME

Virola surinamensis, V.sebifera

FAMILY

Myristicacea

OTHER NAMES

Muscadier du Para, Yagamadou, Ocuba,

HABITAT

Tropical swampy forests

MAJOR PRODUCING COUNTRIES

Brazil, Guianas

YIELD AND DESCRIPTION

V. sebifers trees are of medium height with regular branches. At an early age the trees begin to bear spherical fruits that split easily and enclose a seed with a thin delicate shell. Inside the seed lies a kernel, 8-12mm in diameter, which makes up 82-88% of the seed weight. A typical tree can produce 60-90 litres of oil each year (Ecky).

The seeds of V. surinamensis are somewhat different and average 15mm in diameter and have a dark green to black furrowed brittle shell. The kernel comprises 86% of the seed weight and contains 65-76 % fat. The yellow-brown aromatic smelling oil from both varieties is very similar.

Other related species such as V. otoba, which grows in Colombia and Peru, yields a fat similar to ucuuba which is known as Otoba butter or American Nutmeg Butter.

MAIN USES

Virola fat has been used traditionally in candle manufacture. Native tribes also use the seeds, impaled on sticks, as candlelights (Brucher). The fat and pulverised kernels find use in tradi tional medicines. Ucuuba has been proposed as a potential source of isopropyl myristate, used in cosmetic manufacture.

 

II. AGRICULTURAL ASPECTS

CULTIVATION

The trees grow wild

HARVESTING PERIOD

No information identified

HARVESTING METHOD

As many of the trees grow close to rivers the seeds tend to fall into the water and are collected as they float downstream.

 

III POST HARVEST PRE-TREATMENT, PROCESSING, STORAGE

PRE-TREATMENT

No information identified

 

IV PROCESSING

OIL EXTRACTION

No information identified

MAJOR FATTY ACID COMPOSITION OF OIL

Lauric acid 15.0-17.6%

Myristic acid 72.9-73.296

Palmitic acid 4.4- 5.0%

Oleic acid 5.1- 6.3%

(Ecky, Hilditch)

EQUIPAMENT

NOMENCLATURE OF PRODUCTS

There is a lack of identifiable information for the following areas: Harvesting period; Post-harvest treatment and storage; equipment and nomenclature of products.

 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BRUCHER, H. Useful Plats of Neotropical Origin and their Wild Relatives, Spinger-Verlog, 1989. p 126

ECKEY, E.W., Vegetable Fats and Oils, Reinhold Publishing Corp, 1954. pp 410-413

HILDITCH, Chemical Contribution of Natural Fats. p 259


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