by Dr. C. Chandrasekharan, Chief, Non-Wood Products and Energy Branch, Forest
Products Division, Forestry Department of FAO.
Issues Involved in the Sustainable Development of Non-Wood Forest Products
Introduction
Situation of Non Wood Forest Products in Africa
Constraints to the Development of Non-Wood Forest Products
Integrated Management of Natural Forests
Cultivation of Non-Wood Forest Products
Harvesting of Non-Wood Forest Products
Processing of non-wood forest products
Markets and marketing of non-wood forest products
Research and improvement of technology
Institutional support for development of non-wood forest products
Major areas of action
Conclusion
Selected references
by C. Chandrasekharan 2
[1 Paper prepared for the Expert Consultation on Non-Wood Forest Products for English-Speaking African Countries. This paper provides a global overview of issues involved in the development of non-wood forest products, relating it to the situation prevailing in Africa, wherever relevant. Arusha, Tanzania, 17-22 Oct. 19932 Chief, Non-Wood Products and Energy Branch, Forest Products Division, Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, Rome.]
ABSTRACT. Non-wood forest products play a crucial role in the daily life and welfare of the local population, as significant sources of food, fodder, fertiliser, (biomass) fuel, fibre, medicine, gums and resins, and organic construction materials. They provide raw material to support processing enterprises such as of rattan and bamboo furniture, essential oils, resin and pharmaceuticals. Small scale units of these are amenable to be linked to central refining and further processing units. Some of the non-wood forest products are internationally traded commodities used in food, flavourings, perfumes, medicines, confectionaries paints and polishes. At the local level they help to provide additional employment and income.
While non-wood products have been in use from time immemorial, some of them have moved to the status of intensively managed agricultural and horticultural crops, due to their obvious attributes. Others remained grouped as 'minor' products of forests, in spite of their real and potential value and heterogenous nature. This resulted in the benign neglect of most non-wood forest products reflected in serious lack of information on almost all aspects. However, there has recently bean a new and increasing awareness about the important contribution of non-wood products (and benefits) in ensuring sustainable forestry development. This has further been underlined in the deliberations and decisions of the UNCED.
A comprehensive strategy for development of NWFP, appropriately covering resource inventory and management, harvesting and processing, utilization and marketing, research and extension support and training and institutional arrangements is an urgent need.
There is a wide range of non-wood forest products and services differing in their source, nature, characteristics and utilization. Their conservation, management, utilization, trade and socio-economic roles present a complex array of problems and potentials. From time immemorial these products and services have contributed greatly to human welfare and progress.
Once designated as minor forest products (MFP), this very important group of forest benefits have recently been receiving increasing recognition and attention. Depending on the scope and coverage they are grouped and defined differently. The term non-wood forest products (NWFP) generally includes all tangible products other than timber, fuelwood and charcoal derived from forests or any land under similar use as well as woody plants. The term non-timber forest products (NTFP) includes all tangible products other than timber and includes wood energy (fuelwood and charcoal)3. The other term in use, non-timber forest benefits, includes, in addition to all tangible products other than timber, environmental and socio-cultural services.
[3 It is often contended that if oils and chemicals obtained by destructive distillation of wood is treated as non-wood forest product, then wood energy should also be so treated and the differentiation between NWFP and NTFP becomes redundant.]
No position is taken on which of the grouping is to be preferred, since it is an issue to be discussed. However, the emphasis given in this paper is on NWFP, due to the limitation of information on forest services and benefits.
A universally applicable classification of NWFP also presents a problem due to the diversity of and overlaps in their sources, properties, characteristics and uses. More than one classification is possible depending on the following criteria: group of organism from which products originate; specific parts of plants or animals yielding the products; manner of collection or harvest; properties (physical and chemical) of the products; and uses in industry and trade. (Some of the classifications seen used in literature and reports are given in Annex 1). A consistent system of classification for NWFP is essential for purposes of data collection and planning.
Non-wood forest products include a number of products under the broad categories of food and food additives, fodder, fibre and flosses, (biomass) fertilizer, phytochemicals and aroma chemicals, oils, latex, resins and other exudates, organic construction materials, decorative articles, and animal products. A large number of items of our everyday use such as medicines, perfumes, suntan lotions, nail polish, mouth wash, hair conditioners, toiletries, cheese, chewing gum, ice cream, soft drinks, juice drinks, peanut butter, edible nuts, breakfast cereals, culinary herbs, canned fish, dairy deserts, fancy bags, decorative buttons, chess pieces, golf balls, paints, corrosion inhibitors, fungicides and a host of others, contain varying proportion of NWFP.
Apart from the crucial importance of NWFP in the daily life and welfare of local communities in meeting their diversified subsistence needs as well as providing additional income and employment, many items of these products have social and cultural roots. Some of these products are among the oldest traded commodities whereas others are known only locally within traditional systems of use. Non-wood forest products support local craft production. Activities related to collection and primary processing of NWFP lend themselves suitable for equitable participation of women. They provide raw material to support processing enterprises such as essential oils, gum rosin and pharmaceuticals. Small scale units of these are amenable to be linked to central refining and further processing units. Processing of NWFP into consumer products can result in considerable value addition. They are in many cases an important source of foreign exchange earnings. Under natural conditions, non-wood products can be managed along with wood in an integrated manner, thus increasing overall productivity. Their proper management can support conservation of genetic wealth and variability. Some of them can also be grown as pure or mixed crops and under agroforestry systems. Often non-wood products can be harvested without cutting down trees or destroying forests. They are, therefore, environmentally more friendly. Overall, non-wood forest products have strong linkages and complementarities with component activities of environmentally sound and sustainable development of forestry.
In the UNCED Agenda 21 and Forest Principles (1992), NWFP has been identified as an important area requiring concerted action for capturing their potential for contributing to economic development and employment and income generation in an environmentally sound and sustainable manner.
The estimated area of tropical forest cover in Africa region in 1990 was about 528 million hectares of which some 350 million hectares are in Central and Tropical Southern Africa. These forests are rich in plant genetic resources. They are the home for multipurpose plants providing fruits, nuts, oil, resin, palm heart, beverages, perfumes, essential oil, medicinal extracts and materials for handicrafts and cultural products.
For millennia, forest dwellers in the region have thrived on products gathered or harvested from the forests. Over centuries of close relationship with the forests and nature, the people have discovered innumerable natural products, many of them of non-wood origin. Their knowledge about medicinal and food plants were particularly interesting and valuable. It has been suggested by several experts that the importance of non-wood products is comparable to that of wood products, for the wellbeing of the rural society in the African continent. However, statistical information to underpin this statement is sorely lacking. With few exceptions, the non-wood forest products have never been studied in depth, neither in respect of quantities produced nor of their socio-economic importance. Except for few case studies, the situation is marked by an almost total lack of information particularly of those products that are consumed locally.
Forest/tree foods are of particular importance to rural communities: Cola nitida (Cola), Cola cordifolia (wild cola), Adansonia digitata (Baobab), Balanites aegyptiaca (desert date), Spondias spp., Zizyphus spp. are only some examples of a large variety of food plants of the forest. They provide foods that supplement and complement traditional agricultural sources and contribute to household nutrition and food security. Wild leaves and fruits contain many essential vitamins. Seeds, nuts, roots and tubers supply fats and carbohydrates. Mushrooms, gums and saps provide protein and minerals, and wild animals from the forest often supply the major portion of meat consumed by people living in or near forest areas. Forest foods are also important because they are frequently available for longer periods or during "hungry" or "lean" seasons, thus ensuring that people have food supplies when traditional agricultural products are not available. For example, in Burkina Faso and neighbouring sahelian countries farmers plant or protect mango trees in their fields primarily to provide fruit during the planting season when other foods are scare. In Nigeria, traditional home gardens can contain more than 60 species of trees that provide food products. Children in lowland Kenya snack on forest foods that provide an important supplement to their diet. In West Africa the seeds from Parkia spp. provide a nutritious protein and fat-rich food called "dawadawa" in Nigeria.
Fodder is an important requirement in the rural areas, and there are large numbers of forest species which help to meet this requirement. In the arid areas, the multipurpose species as such as Acacia spp. and Prosopis spp. also provide fodder. In the Sahel, Acacia albida may account for 30 to 45 percent of the total livestock feed in the dry season.
Medicinal Plants, as a valuable NWFP, are important in all countries of the region. It is known that the indigenous people had developed complex and sophisticated knowledge systems about the use of a vast diversity of plants for medicinal purposes.
The origins of traditional herbal medicine predate all existing records, and the knowledge accumulated over thousands of years in different parts of the world is enormous. It is estimated that some 30 000 plant species have at one time or other been used in some culture or other for medicinal purposes. Even though some 75% of the world's population by and large depends on traditional natural medicine, particularly in developing countries, it suffered some set back with the introduction of allopathy. There is now a re-awakening of the importance of herbal medicine and it has resulted in a more scientific approach to the use of medicinal plants. Recent advances in the medical science, especially pharmacology, have been very closely connected to the knowledge of native people about the therapeutic value of plants.
A large number of medicinal plants are used in the traditional medicines in Africa, and they are known by different local names. Some examples are: Ocotea buccata, Curtisia pentata, Cryptocarya myrtifolia, Gnetum africanum, Rhabhia spp., Dacryoides spp., Xylopia spp., Thaumatococcus danielli. Ethnobotanical studies carried out throughout Africa confirm that plants make up the main constituent of traditional African medicines. With about 80 percent of Africa's population relying upon traditional medicines, the importance of the role of medicinal plants in the health care system is obvious.
Medicinal plants are at present obtained from both cultivated and wild sources. Some of the studies on the source of medicinal plants used in traditional and modern medicine indicate that the vast majority of them come from wild sources. Only a small percentage of the plant species has bean examined for pharmacological activity. Those which are yet to be studied may hold valuable secrets for preventing and curing human ailments. The destruction and degradation of natural habitats of medicinal plants, in the meanwhile, may seriously affect the future potential of this valuable resource. Policy and action in this regard are urgently needed.
Medicinal plants can support economic growth through activities related to growing, harvesting, processing and marketing of products. Given its direct relevance to health, social well-being and economic performance, the manufacture of products from medicinal and herbal plants is one of the most people-oriented industrial sectors. However, there are several constraints: inadequate policy measures and support infrastructure, restricted access to technology, lack of systematic research, scarcity of production units of scientific and commercial scale, lack of proper quality control, pharmacological evaluations and regulatory arrangements. These constraints call for action on many interrelated fronts.
Aromatic plants (which often are also medicinal plants), are the source of essential oils and aroma chemicals. Essential oils contain an aroma or an essence that stems from organic compounds known as Terpenoids. Essential oils, unlike fixed oils, are volatile, i.e. they are ethereal substances. This characteristic makes them suitable for perfumery, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals and food flavourings. Each type of essential oil contains several chemical compounds. There are a number of plants yielding essential oil, such as Eucalyptus spp., Tagetes glandulifera, Brachyleana hutchinsii and Cedrus spp., even though Africa does not figure prominently in their production and trade. However, this appears to be an area with potential.
Occurrence/cultivation of dye yielding plants, such as Bahia nitida (suitable for textiles) and Bixa orellana (suitable as food colourant), fibre yielding plants such as Ceiba pentandra and Agave sissalana, palms such as Raphia venifera and Borassus spp. providing fronds and leaves suitable for weaving into mats and other articles, tannin yielding plants such as Rhizophora spp. and Cassia spp., species of rattan suitable for furniture such as Calamus spp. and Erismosphata hookerii, different bamboos and several others indicates the scope and potential for developing NWFP in Africa.
In case of some plants which were not considered important as providing NWFP, new uses are being identified and products commercially developed. One such plant grown in abundance in the drier parts of Africa is neem (Azadirachta indica). A range of products including neem oil, neem soap and an insecticide (Azadarchtine), have been developed from the seeds of neem tree.
Development of non-wood forest products can go a long way in providing additional rural employment and household income, and thus contribute to a better livelihood to the rural people.
Apart from their traditional, cultural and socio-economic importance locally in a number of countries, NWFP is also an important source of export earning. For example, gum arabic from Acacia senegal is a very important source of foreign exchange for Sudan. Spices are an important item of export in Tanzania. Kenya exports Annatto seeds. Some countries in the region exports unprocessed cashew nuts, wild life products (e.g. crocodile skin), honey and wax. Quantitative information available is limited. However, it is sufficiently indicative of the vast potential.
In terms of foreign exchange earning, wild life tourism is very important to some of the Fast African countries. Potential for wildlife tourism and ecotourism exists in most countries of the region. However, it is an area requiring detailed planning and sizeable investment in infrastructure and facilities.
In spite of their indicated importance, the resources of non-wood forest products, have been dwindling at a fast rate.
The future of NWFP, in spite of its apparent scope and potential, would depend on the integrity and stability of the forest resource - not only as the land base, but also as the biological base. The estimated annual rate of deforestation, for the period 1981-90, in the Africa region is about 4.1 million hectares, equivalent to 0.7%. This is a serious matter with implications on sustainable forest management in the future, calling for appropriate policies and actions.
Globally, many products which figured prominently in the past have undergone a substantial decline in production and trade over the last 20 years. There are several factors constraining the sustainable development of NWFP, especially of those of purely forest origin.
- Due to overemphasis on timber production in recent times, non-wood products were neglected by foresters and policy makers leading to lack of attention on their scientific management and conservation.- Extensive gathering and inappropriate management regulations have often caused resource depletion. Gathering or extraction of natural resources can only support low human population densities, and increasing population pressure have negatively affected the sustainability of NWFP resources.
- Organized and unplanned land use changes also have caused destruction of the proper habitat for NWFP.
- Lack of integration of wood and non-wood products in forest management, wasteful harvesting, lack of stability and reliability of supply, and lack of efficient and proper market chains are other constraints on the supply side.
- There is lack of processing and storage technology and facilities; quality standards of products are often poor.
- Most traditional NWFP activities are labour intensive and cheap, so they tend to be inversely related to general economic development. They tend to become early casualties in the process of economic development, and succumb to competition, unless measures are taken to improve them to the new needs and situations.
- For many of the non-wood forest products, the markets are ephemeral in nature often due to competition from cheaper and more convenient substitutes (e.g. from cultivated source) or synthetic products.
- NWFP being mostly of local/rural importance, small in scale, associated with traditional uses and low in technology, there is often a policy bias against them - considering them as difficult to develop or unimportant.
- There is serious lack of research and technology development related to NWFP.
- Information is scarce on all aspects of NWFP. These products are not adequately treated (or not treated at all) in official statistics and surveys.
- There is general absence of inventory of NWFP, and their planning often lacks scientific basis. The extent of variation in the nature, quality, characteristics and uses of the products compounds the problem. Products which do not contribute significantly to the national economy, tend to get less attention.
- Exploitative commercialization of NWFP in some countries results in the collectors or extractors of products receiving only insufficient incentive to manage the resources sustainably.
- Finally, there is lack of clear and appropriate policy support for NWFP development in spite of their positive attributes and potential.
The natural forests of Africa are rich in species. The number of species of higher plants in the tropical rain forest is estimated to be 30,700. The number is 13,000 for moist deciduous forest, 1,900 for dry and very dry zone and 12,300 for upland formations. Many of the plants providing NWFP are found only among the biological richness and ecological complexity of primary forests. Some of them can only thrive within natural habitat and do not lend themselves to domestication of any sort. Those species that can be grown in plantations, or as pure or mixed crops, are heavily dependant on regular infusion of germplasm from wild gene reservoirs (wild relatives). Only the continued existence of species variability in the wild will afford plant breeders a better chance for creating new, disease-resisting and high-yielding varieties for the future. Thus the genetic wealth and variability are crucial for future development of NWFP. However, deforestation and other anthropogenic influences are causing loss of species and their variability. The indicative species loss during 1981-90 in Africa has been estimated by FAO to be 2.0% for tropical rain forest, 2.5% for moist deciduous forest, 1.0% for dry and very dry zone, and 2.5% for upland formations.
Integrated management of forests under a holistic approach for wood and non-wood products and benefits is an essential strategy in many situations. The practice of managing forests for wood production alone has therefore to change. Integrated multipurpose management of forests is highly demanding on scientific knowledge and technology. It involves, in addition to timber inventory, detailed investigation and prospecting of non-wood forest resources for fibre, phytochemicals, aromatics, gums, resins, etc. These investigations have to consider the nature and extent of distribution of the specific plant resources and their density of occurrence. They need to be scientifically screened for active and valuable ingredients, their potential supply from wild sources, their suitability to be grown under multi-species environment (e.g. enrichment planting under natural forest cover and agroforestry) or under monoculture. Traditional knowledge and ethno-biology can contribute considerably in planning integrated development of the resources.
In-situ genetic conservation of areas with greatest number of plant varieties of known economic value, as well as those with potential, should be part of integrated forest management. It will help to "Save the Plants That Save Lives".
It may often be a compatible objective of management to allow controlled extraction of NWFP from natural forests which are included as part of protected area systems, especially in the buffer zones of protected areas.
An important point to be stressed, in promoting integrated management of forests is the need and urgency of developing proper scientific and situation-specific management systems. Another and equally important need is adequate institutional arrangements, considering that without such arrangements commodity based natural resource management, if solely left to market forces, could lead to fast depletion of resources. It is necessary in this connection to understand that: trees and plants yielding wood and non-wood products can co-exist in the forests; many non-wood products are available from timber species; harvesting of wood and non-wood products is not mutually exclusive and needs to be carried out with great care; wood harvesting, if improperly done, can be deleterious to production of NWFP; and, production of some non-wood products may substantially affect production of others. These suggest the need for appropriately balanced and integrated system of forest management combining ecological and economic prudence.
At present natural forest management in Africa is very weak, almost non-existent in many cases. The challenge involved to improve the situation is enormous. Faced with this challenge, some countries regard their ability to promote NWFP as a key to their ability to manage forest resources in a sustainable way.
Foresters have been developing and refining silvicultural techniques of managing tropical forests for over 100 years. These systems, however, have been specifically designed to maximize the production of commercial timber. Silvicultural systems for enhancing the growth of non-wood resources in forests such as wild fruits, edible nuts, mushrooms, gums and latex which can be harvested non-destructively and in combination with timber, have received much less attention. This is not to say that such systems are unknown or do not exist. Many indigenous or other local communities in the tropics have developed their own form of 'silviculture' for managing their non-timber resources. Such (indigenous or local) systems of forest management have been little studied, largely because of the lack of economic interest in many non-timber resources, but also due to the relative 'invisibility' of these (indigenous) practices. Both indigenous silvicultural practices and conventional forestry can contribute in designing or improving systems for managing non-timber forest resources on a sustainable basis.
Some specific issues to be addressed in this regard are:
a) Compatibility of management systems for different products and the need for compromises e.g. tapping of latex and the quality of timber from tapped trees;b) Conflicts likely to arise in situations where rights are separately assigned to wood and non-wood products;
c) When, where and to what extent NWFP production could be or should be through domestication under intensive NWFP plantations, agroforestry and in combination with timber plantations;
d) In cases where harvest would result in killing the plant (e.g. extracting tubers/roots) how can conservation of genetic resources and diversity be ensured?
e) Compatibility of NWFP production with services like watershed protection.
The role of non-wood forest products in upland conservation and watershed protection, is a special aspect of integrated management. Some of the attributes of NWFP, relevant in this regard, are the following:
- Controlled, and regulated exploitation of NWFP is normally fully compatible with forest hydrologic and other protective functions of watershed forest cover;- NWFP are often of high value per unit of weight or volume. They are therefore highly suitable for production in areas far away from road networks and markets;
- Income from NWFP provides a strong incentive for forest conservation, as well as one of the most important alternatives to shifting cultivation in remote upland areas.
- NWFP are often well known to indigenous forest dwellers, and therefore represent a potential source of income where they have a competitive advantage, provided they are ensured recognition and protection of resource tenure and fair access to outside markets;
- Income generation from NWFP often involve all members of the family, including children, men, women and old people;
- NWFP cannot only generate income but also, and sometimes more importantly, provide a higher nutritional and health standard. This is particularly important in remote upland areas without access to preventive or curative medical services;
- Weaker groups in the uplands, women, the poor, the landless and old people, often have easier, informal access to NWFP than to timber and other wood products. (Formalisation of land and resource tenure in the uplands and watershed areas may further deteriorate the position of the weaker groups, as their access is based on informal tradition rather than legislation and written property rights).
The impacts of deforestation on NWFP resources can partly be averted or minimized by cultivating them as a crop. Domestication of plants yielding NWFP, involving their genetic improvement and growing them under intensive cultivation practices is often considered as a means of ensuring controlled production and economic success of the ventures. Intensive cultivation can take place under monoculture, mixed cropping or agroforestry systems. Certain non-wood products (such as cardamom) can be grown artificially under the shade of natural or man-made forests.
It has been the experience that once a product achieves commercial importance, its supply from the wild sources tends to be replaced by cultivated source with a view to bring production, quality and cost under control. Oil palm, rubber, cashew, coffee, cocoa and pepper are but a few of the many wild forest products that have been largely replaced by production from cultivated sources. The productivity of the cultivated crop can be enhanced through improved agro-technology, and this would also help to support resource sustainability by facilitating conservation of the genetic resources in the natural forest.
Agro-forestry systems are particularly suitable for certain non-wood forest products (e.g. spices, aromatic plants) and for certain situations (such as land scarcity). Trees are generally planted or maintained in agroforestry systems to increase agricultural productivity and/or to provide a wider range of products (timber, fuelwood and non-wood products) for household use or for sale.
Multipurpose tree species - those which provide both ecological benefits and products, are most commonly used in agroforestry systems. The range of trees or woody species integrated into agricultural land use systems in Africa is vast and their products are varied. The development of NWFP in agro-forestry systems has the advantage of diversifying the economic base and enhancing the supply of products for household use.
If trees are to be successfully integrated onto agricultural land, the species and their management and use must be compatible with the farming system in biophysical, economic and social terms. Accordingly, all the relevant factors must be considered in examining the potential for development of non-wood forest products in agro-forestry systems.
Consideration must be given to the ecological interactions between the tree and crop and tree and livestock components of the system, the economic viability and efficiency, and marketing needs. Problems of resource depletion are less likely to occur when the development of NWFP is carried out on private agricultural lands.
Harvesting of non-wood forest products of both wild and cultivated sources is different from wood harvest in terms of the use of tools and equipment, technology, pre-harvest preparations, post harvest treatment and requirement of intermediate processing. Harvesting does not normally involve a whole tree or plant, but only parts thereof. It varies from collection of nuts and leaves to tapping of latex, harvesting of palm hearts, honey hunting, extraction of wax and collection of decorative plant materials.
The harvesting techniques vary considerably for the various NWFP. For edible nuts it involves: collecting raw nuts, cleaning, drying and grading; for fibres it involves: cutting relevant parts of the plant (leaves, branches), removing thorns and hard coating, boiling, beating and separating fibres, dressing or treating, drying and bundling; for some latex/gum it involves: making incision on the tree trunk, treating as necessary with acid for enhancing exudation, collecting of crude exudate, boiling it to pasty consistency, cooling it into balls or blocks for packing and transport; for Annatto seeds it involves: collecting pods, drying, threshing, winnowing, screening and fumigation; in the case of some medicinal plants it involves: digging up tubers or rhizome, ensuring that some reproductive materials are left in the ground, slicing, dehydrating, grading and packing. The cycle of harvesting also varies from a few weeks for tender shoots, to longer periods in the case of mature fruits or rhizomes.
Since volume involved for individual NWFP is in most cases small and extractive in nature, the attention devoted to their harvesting also tends to be less. The collectors are mostly unskilled and untrained in scientific methods. As a result, the harvesting standard of many non-wood products are poor and rudimentary, and hence wasteful, destructive and unsustainable. Efforts are also not made, usually, to harmonise harvest of wood and non-wood products. Planning and control harvesting operations, introducing more efficient harvesting methods and systems, reducing harvesting waste and keeping overall costs of operations at the lowest possible level are essential for utilising forest resource on a sustainable basis.
There are variations in the system of organizing NWFP harvest. One common system is the collection by local people under rights bestowed, for sale in the local market, or with some form of patronage and financial help from a purchasing agent. Another is by the employment of casual or contract labour by those who have obtained collection rights on lease. Local collectors of NWFP are often exploited by middlemen who control access to the market, or by those who control access to the resource, Thus the millions of NWFP collectors have no adequate incentive for practising properly controlled and sustainable harvesting.
Post harvest care is also poor in most cases, and wastages are high. Wastage happens in quantitative and qualitative terms during collection, transport and storage. Physical infrastructure is more important when harvested products are delicate or perishable compared to those which can stand rough handling and long storage.
An urgent need, therefore, is to rationalize and improve harvesting systems and practices, involving improved tools and techniques, training and skill improvement, incentive systems, institutional arrangements, promoting local facilities for processing and value addition, and linking harvest to processing.
Primary and downstream processing of NWFP adds value to the product, provides local employment and helps increasing the retention of value in the country of origin. However, in developing country situations, harvested products reach the market, local or foreign, either after some intermediate processing in the form of cleaning and grading or after primary processing.
Market oriented downstream processing, for export markets, is highly specific on quality and stresses on reliability of supply. But due to the lack of technology, skilled manpower, management expertise, capital for investment and marketing arrangements, coupled with inadequate information on resource and resource development, sophisticated or refined downstream processing is rarely done in most developing country situations.
The processing taking place uses a range of technology and equipment - semi-mechanical or mechanical processes with equipment mostly locally fabricated to those with improved processing technology and equipment. The following are indicative of the range: crude extraction of palm oil from fruits of Elaeis guinensis using wooden presses; simple distillation for essential oil involving passing of steam through a charge of fresh or partially withered grass or leaves and condensing the vapours; making ornamental baskets, bags, etc. from palm leaves at cottage level; fairly sophisticated processing of wattle bark for producing tannin. There are also facilities established in the Africa region, especially in the bigger countries, for producing medicinal preparations/pharmaceuticals from phytochemicals, for manufacturing fragrances and toiletries using essential oils and so on. These productions essentially meet local and national demands.
Most processing of non-wood products for local use, whether herbal medicine or straw basket, is done in very small family units, employing persons without any training, often working on part-time basis. They are low-return activities. Their survivability is low, as they tend to be abandoned as wages rise and alternative opportunities grow. Those products of comparatively bigger establishments carrying out primary processing for export, such as the case of gum arabic, undergo further processing in developed countries.
Provided that appropriate management capability, skills and technology are available, several of the countries in the Africa region have the potential to install export oriented processing of NWFP, such as natural extracts and colours of adequate quality. However, it is necessary to know the specific market needs as well as the product specifications and standards required, before deciding to venture export oriented production. There is also need to link the production to a reliable and captive source of raw material supply. More efficient modern technology can cause more destruction if tied to inconsistent supply. Although adding value locally is important, attempting to produce end-user commodities without adequate preparation or studies will be risky.
A national industrialization strategy to add value to the non-wood materials of the forests does not exist in most countries. Subject to feasibility based on stable supply of suitable non-wood forest products and analysis of economic and market factors, development through value-addition on NWFP will call for appropriate process technology capable of producing market goods. Process technology for medicinal plants, for example, helps to isolate pure active compounds for formulation into drugs, to isolate intermediates for production of semi-synthetic drugs and to prepare standard galenicals (extracts, powders, tinctures, etc.).
Before launching on an actual production, pilot trials are necessary. Polyvalent pilot plants, such as the one designed and developed by UNIDO, can be used to carry out operations in extracting flavour, aroma and medicinal constituents from plant material, such as aqueous or solvent extraction, continuous extraction, preparation of solid extracts and oleoresins, distillation of essential oils, fractionation of essential oils and processing of other economic plant-derived products.
The non-wood forest products were traded over long distances for many centuries, while wood products have become major international commodities only during comparatively recent times. The ancient Egyptians, for example, imported gum arabic from Sudan and used it for preparation of colours for painting and mummifying. In France this commodity was considered an important article of commerce as early as 1349, when the Treasury of Philippe VI imposed a tax on it.
Because of the variety of non-wood forest products, ranging from fruits and food to aroma chemicals and phyto-pharmaceuticals, the markets for them show corresponding variation: bartering in subsistence economy, local village markets, large city (national) markets and international markets. Some of the products meet bulk demands (e.g. edible nuts, resin) and others reach specific niches (special types of honey, aroma chemicals). Some non-wood product are not traded but only collected and consumed.
A large number of vendors are involved locally in selling NWFP. Many of them sell products collected by them for making extra income, others are supported by a network of merchants and several levels of buyers and sellers down to the village. The main products locally sold include fruits, leaves, tubers, bags, baskets, thatch and other building materials, meat and skins, palm oil, and medicinal plants.
In cases the products are sold outside the locality where they are collected local traders and merchants are the main intermediaries who buy NWFP cheaply from collectors and sell it to exporters or processors or their agents at a high price. Because of the absence of cooperative organizations of collectors, non-availability of market and price information, and lack of access to credit to meet operational needs, these collectors are at the mercy of the intermediaries. Traditionally the supply of NWFP has thus involved networks of local collectors and intermediaries bound by long-term, often debt-based, relationships. It is a trader dominated system and it is not conducive for the birth and growth of enterprises. The system is exploitative and non-supportive of sustainable development. For supporting development, it is essential that the community of NWFP collectors are assisted to form into cooperatives and directly sell their products to the processor or exporter through their organizations on the basis of long term contracts.
There are rare cases where processing units are supported by captive sources of NWFP and other arrangements for collection and supply of the products. There is, however, a strong case for rationalizing the domestic market chains for NWFP.
A recent FAO study identified 116 items of NWFP as commercially important, including 26 essential oils, and considering the group of medicinal plants as one item. Available information suggests that 500 to 600 different medicinal plants enter international trade. Compared to other regions, Africa's share in the international trade is low. Some of the important export items are gum arabic, medicinal plants and extracts, spices, food colorants, honey and animal products. Additionally exports of some unique items, such as cage birds and butterflies from some countries take place occasionally.
General quality standards for internationally traded products are established by the International Organization for Standards. Quality and safety regulations by food and drug administrations and consumer protection groups of importing countries are often rigid in respect of items such as medicinal extracts, phytochemicals, food colorants and additives, essential oils and fragrances. In respect of specific groups of products there are international federations overseeing, among others, quality standards (e.g. the World Federation of Proprietary Medicine Manufacturers and the International Federation of Essential Oils and Aroma Traders). Quality specifications, sanitary regulations, packaging standards (and lack of adequate knowledge about consumer preferences) often become a non-tariff barrier for many countries to obtain access to international markets. There is no alternative to meet this situation except improving efficiency and production standards.
For various reasons there has been an erosion of international market share of NWFP over the years. Prices have generally fallen, and considerably in some cases. There has almost been a crash in respect of some commodities.
While some indications of the constraints being faced by the NWFP sector have been given elsewhere in this paper, it is difficult to analyze the situation adequately and objectively due to lack of appropriate information and data. Product grouping followed in statistical reports and the aggregation of products in International Standard Trade Classification (ISTC) make it almost impossible to isolate NWFP by specific products and by sources (forest vs. non-forest and country). Many items of NWFP fall under "vegetable materials and vegetable products". Edible nuts from forest are included under the group of all edible nuts, along with groundnut, cashew, almond and others. For similar reasons it is also difficult to analyze all the factors involved in price changes and to see whether the prices and the costs reflect the true values and whether production controls can improve the situation.
One aspect which gives some indication about the possibility of controlling costs and improving economic efficiency is the vast difference between the price paid to the collector or local producer and that obtained for it in the market without involving sophisticated downstream processing and refinements. It has been reported that for several items of NWFP the local producer receives only 296 to 3% of the price for it in the developed country markets. Most of this price difference is in the nature of windfalls to the traders or middlemen whose tendency (unlike that of entrepreneurs) is to maximize the windfall as long as the opportunity lasts. And this is a serious handicap for market promotion. As suggested earlier, development of local entrepreneurship is essential.
The new attitude of green consumerism resulting from concern for environmental conservation and consequent preference for natural products is providing an advantage and new acceptance to NWFP. An example is the emerging popularity of aroma therapy which is a fast growing area of natural therapy requiring essential oils obtained from plants grown without using chemical fertilizers. The United Kingdom alone uses essential oils worth US$ 15 million annually for aroma therapy.
If technology is improved, collection and trade channels rationalized and made efficient, and appropriate processing developed in NWFP producing countries, it will undoubtedly be possible to effect a positive change in the situation, towards sustainable development of NWFP. It is necessary also to develop new products and new uses for known products as well as to ensure steady supply of products.
It is further necessary, especially in respect of commercially important products, to have a marketing orientation rather than simple production orientation. Simple production orientation have the effect of creating increased supply, thus reducing price and profitability. A successful marketing orientation for forest products, on the other hand, should increase demand and value, thus allowing more of the products to enter the market without reducing the overall price of the concerned commodities. Product development, market development and market research are aspects related to this approach.
Marketing is essentially a 'soft-ware-based' function where knowledge and information are important ingredients along with attitudes and skills of those who are involved in market development. Production and product marketing involve several loops forming a chain from commodity production to marketing of consumer products. Although primary producers are influenced by all the repetitive loops, they usually manage only the first loop. It is essential to know well enough the whole chain of these loops and one's own position in the full chain, as well as the particular role and importance of the NWFP concerned in the final product, to claim, and justify getting, a "fair" share of the total wealth created between the extraction of the NWFP and the sale of the final consumer good. The need for an appropriate marketing information system for NWFP thus becomes vital.
The generally poor situation of NWFP in most producing countries is partly attributable to inadequate technology in use and lack of research support.,
Research needs for improving technology related to NWFP are tremendous, touching upon all aspects of their management and development. This would cover among others: enhancing knowledge about NWFP resource; methods of inventory for different NWFP; gathering scientific data on the nature of the products; prospecting, screening, evaluating and classifying plant species (such as by pharmacological and toxicological studies on medicinal plants) and identifying candidate species for development of specific products; domestication and cultivation including aspects of monoculture and agroforestry; control of pests and diseases; on-farm experimentation; species introduction trials; plant breeding and genetic improvement including use of germ plasm resources in the wild for improving yield and resistance of established crops to pests and diseases; improving of agronomic practices; improving harvesting methods and practices to reduce wastages and damages and to increase yield; adaptation of imported technology; improvements in processing, packaging and distribution of products; and product diversification including improvement of quality.
Thus, for example, on the establishment and improvement of the NWFP resource, some of the research issues to be addressed and information to be generated/analyzed are: can the species desired be domesticated?; if so, what are the specifics involved?; is there variation in the desirable characteristics?; if it exists, is this variation genetic in nature or caused by environmental factors?; can improvement in desirable characteristics be best achieved by genetic (phenotypic) selection, by silvicultural interventions, and/or by a combination of both?; is such improvement economically practical and feasible?; what parallel action will be needed to ensure the conservation of the genetic resources of the species. Considering the variety of non-wood forest products and related management situations, nerd for strengthening research to support development is obvious.
Some of the research institutions in Africa (such as the Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria, Tanzania Forestry Research Institute, and Institut des Forêts of Côte d'Ivoire) have been doing research on different aspects of NWFP. Some amount of information is also available on distribution, ecology, phenology, active ingredients, cultivation methods, collection methods, yields and use of selected plant species. There is need, however, to strengthen the research institutions and to promote collaborative research to avoid duplication of efforts. An aspect to be stressed here is the importance of research-extension linkage and provision of appropriate information materials and technical handbooks.
Development of NWFP depends on how far it succeeds in the market place. Therefore, to be effective, among others, research institutions need: competent scientists, support staff and research managers; ability to conduct continual strategic evaluation of market conditions and opportunities, as it relates to research; opportunities to be self-financing and autonomy; means to interact directly with producers and users to influence production and marketing.
One of the major ills afflicting the NWFP sector is the institutional neglect relating to policy, strategy and plans, legal rights and arrangements, incentives, development of skills, health and safety considerations, access to information, and streamlined support from public administration.
In most forest policies, non-wood forest products get a mention in passing, but without clear objectives, targets, and strategies for development. Harvesting, storage, processing, standardisation and marketing of many non-wood products are neglected areas of development, often because they are seen (wrongly) as suitable for local consumption only. This lacuna leads to the lack of appropriate plans, programmes and projects related to NWFP, and inadequacy of investment. Because of this, there is hardly any emphasis on developing and maintaining a database on NWFP. There have been initiatives to improve the situation in some countries, but a lot more needs to be done and urgently.
Participation of the local communities in the production and management of NWFP calls for appropriate provision regarding legal rights to encourage long term investments and improvements. The issue of the rights and involvement of local community in harvesting and managing NWFP have social, economic and ecological implications. When value of products accrue to the intermediaries, the people engaged in their collection remain poor, regardless of the value of the products involved. Consistent and equitable income from harvesting of NWFP gives the people involved, an incentive to conserve and sustainably manage the forest. This is necessary also for facilitating availability of loans/funds for developing NWFP.
Apart from tenure security and autonomy, other economic incentives are also needed. Rational policy interventions are necessary to ensure access to credit and markets and remunerative prices for the product. Financial institutions at present provide credit to the processors and exporters of NWFP and these funds get used primarily for buying and marketing and not for sustainably managing and harvesting the resource.
Broad-based and organized participation encompassing local groups, women, indigenous community and private sector is an essential means of strengthening the institutional structure for developing non-wood products for their economic and ecological benefits. Appropriate gender considerations can help to improve the effectiveness and benefits of NWFP programmes at the local level. Provision of facilities for training and skill development, capacity building, delivery of technological packages and extension support, a system of providing market information, credit facilities, support for establishing necessary infrastructure and a streamlined public forest administration with development orientation are other components of a rational institutional structure. Such a structure is required to promote healthy relationship between producer and user industry, and integrated operations wherever feasible.
In linking the NWFP resources with national and international markets to support sustainable development, each country has to design arrangements appropriate to its situation covering access, control, management and ownership of the resource and involving local people and groups management agencies. industry and trade. International support and assistance can considerably facilitate and help to accelerate the process.
The countries can learn from the experience of others through regular exchange of information and undertaking collaborative activities. A Regional Information Network on Non-Wood Forest Products will be extremely useful in this regard.
The foregoing discussion has identified major constraints and broad areas of action involved in NWFP development, as well as indicative options. The following listing provides a general basis for developing a framework for action. Depending on the actual situation in countries the order of preference and emphasis of actions may vary.
- An assessment of NWFP resources by appropriate categories and a detailed prospecting for specific products (e.g. phytochemicals) in selected priority areas is an essential step. This will help to identify candidate species or group of species and distribution of suitable areas to be developed for specific products. This will in addition serve as a sound basis for planning.- Planning and implementation of integrated forest management for wood and non-wood benefits is important to improve sustainable productivity and to balance the functions of forest including conservation of plant genetic resources. Planning in this regard should take into consideration the limits of sustainable supply of goods and services involved. Supply offered to the market can be so adjusted as to help the achievement of conservation objectives.
- The objectives of natural forest resource conservation can be served by domestication of wild species and intensive cropping of plants yielding NWFP wherever feasible.
This would help to provide stable and uniform supply of raw material and can be made captive to processing units. In this connection studies and investigations on the suitability of different agroforestry and agronomic systems are important.- Harvesting is a particularly weak link in the utilization of NWFP due to the variety of tools techniques and situations involved. Poor harvesting results in product wastages and resource damages. Special care is required to improve harvesting along with pre harvest preparations and post-harvest treatments.
- The existing systems of harvesting of NWFP do not have adequate technological and management back-up and its linkage to the chain of middlemen and traders is not conducive to sustainable management of resource. The system needs to be rationalized by developing autonomous participatory enterprises with long term sustainability objectives.
- Development of value adding local processing of appropriate level of technology and scale needs to be undertaken to capture and retain as much benefits as possible within the country. Since consumer products based on NWFP are highly specific on quality and safety standards, development of related technology should be an integral part of promoting NWFP.
- Ensuring of standard and stability of supply are vital conditions in international trade. This has to be achieved along with cost control to avoid the product being replaced by cheaper synthetic products. Development of new products, improvement of old products, capturing of lost markets and promoting new markets will have to be undertaken, as relevant and appropriate, as part of the strategy for NWFP development. While promoting trade, local market for NWFP should not be neglected.
- A major constraint related to all the above areas of action, in most countries, is the lack of basic information related to almost all aspects of NWFP. Setting up of a comprehensive database and information system is not easy, but essential for rational planning.
- The need for strengthening research for solving of problems and improving technology cannot be overemphasised. Transfer of technology and adaptive research also need to get adequate emphasis in the overall scheme of NWFP development. Cooperation in research activities among the countries of the region through collaborative programmes can help avoid duplication and quicken the process of NWFP development. A Regional Information Network on Non-Wood Forest Products proposed earlier can also be used to exchange research information.
- Other vital and essential ingredients in the whole process are adequate investment and efficient institutions. These include credit facilities on easy terms, extension support, an effective system of incentives linked to key objectives and target groups, and organized participation of people.
- International assistance as appropriate in key areas of NWFP development can play a very valuable and catalytic role.
An urgent need therefore is a comprehensive policy and strategy for development of NWFP appropriately covering the above areas and aspects, backed by commitment for action.
Non-wood forest products are an important natural resource which can support sound and sustainable forestry. There is significant potential for NWFP-based development in the -Africa region but this has not been adequately utilized due to several constraints which are technological, institutional and financial in nature.
In this regard a number of issues have been identified. They include among others: lack of a clear definition and classification of NWFP; lack of basic information; inadequate resource development, management and conservation; lack of adequate integration of management of wood and non-wood products; deforestation and land degradation; wasteful and inappropriate harvesting practices; lack of incentives for introducing and implementing sound technology; hurdles in the development of organized people's participation and entrepreneurship; unscientific and uncontrolled system of NWFP collection and the influence of exploitative middlemen; lack of market orientation, supply fluctuations and inadequate adherence to quality; lack of competitiveness in the international market due to weaknesses in the chain of NWFP management and utilization; inadequate local processing facilities; inadequate research, lack of appropriate extension facilities, lack of facilities for skill development and training in areas related to NWFP; lack of adequate investment, an appropriate policy and strategy for development of NWFP; and lack of an adequately strong system of regional cooperation and collaboration.
For developing non-wood forest products, old ways of doing things would no longer suffice. Considerable and drastic improvements are needed, urgently.
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Anderson, D.M.W. et al. |
Gum Arabic (Acacia senegal from Niger- Comparison with Other Sources and Potential Agroforestry Development. In Biochemical Systematics and Ecology, Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 447-452. |
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Anderson, D.H.W. |
Some Factors Influencing the Demand for Gum Arabic (Acacia senegal) and Other Water-Soluble Tree Exudates. In Forest Ecology and Management, 58 (1993), pp. 118. |
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Balick, M.J. and |
Assessing the Economic Value of Traditional Medicines from Tropical Rain Forests. In Conservation Biology, Vol. 6, No. 1, March 1992. |
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Cunningham, A.B. |
African Medicinal Plants: Setting Priorities at the Interface Between Conservation and Primary Healthcare. People and Plants Working Paper 1. UNESCO, Paris. |
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FAO |
Acacia and Prosopis in the Dry Forests of the Tropics. Prepared by A.L. Griffith, FAO, Rome. |
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FAO |
Fruit Bearing Forest Trees. Forestry Paper 34. FAO, Rome. |
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FAO |
The Palmyra Palm: Potential and Perspectives. Plant Production and Protection Paper 52. FAO, Rome. |
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FAO |
Selected Medicinal Plants. Plant Production and Protection Paper 53. FAO, Rome. |
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FAO |
Some Medicinal Forest Plants of Africa and Latin America. Forestry Paper 67. FAO, Rome. |
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FAO |
Food and Fruit Bearing Forest Species (3 vols). Forestry Paper 44. FAO, Rome. |
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FAO |
Edible Plants of Uganda: The Value of Wild and Cultivated Plants as Food. FAO Food and Nutrition Paper 42/1. FAO, Rome. |
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FAO |
Non-Timber Uses of Selected Arid Zone Trees and Shrubs in Africa. FAO Conservation Guide 19, FAO, Rome. |
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FAO |
Forestry and Food Security. Forestry Paper 90. FAO, Rome. |
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FAO |
Household Food Security and Forestry: An Analysis of Socio Economic Issues. Community Forestry Notes 1. FAO, Rome. |
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FAO |
Forestry and Nutrition: A Reference Manual, FAO, Rome. |
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FAO |
The Major Significance of Minor Forest Products: The Local Use and Value of Forests in the West African Humid Forest Zone. Community Forestry Notes 6. FAO, Rome. |
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FAO |
Non-Wood Forest Products: The Way Ahead. Forestry Paper 97. FAO, Rome. |
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FAO |
Forest, Trees and Food, FAO, Rome. |
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Fisseha, Y. and Milimo, J.T. |
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Non-Wood Forest Products in Africa. Unpublished report. (FAO Documentation, 1981) |
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WHO |
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Annexe 1: SOME EXAMPLES OF THE CLASSIFICATIONS OF NON-WOOD/NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS/BENEFITS SEEN USED IN STUDIES AND REPORTS
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NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS | ||
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Fiber products | ||
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Animal products, of: | ||
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Insects | |
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Birds | |
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Reptiles | |
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Fish | |
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Mammals/larger animals | |
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Plant products, of: |
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Leaves |
Grasses | |
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Buds |
Vines | |
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Fruits |
Palms | |
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Flowers |
Larger plants | |
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Roots |
Fungi/mushrooms | |
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Bark |
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Animal products: | ||
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Bush meat | ||
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Fur, hides and skin | |
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Feathers/plumes | |
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Bones and horns | |
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Venom | |
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Secretions | |
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Honey | |
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Dyes/lac | |
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Silk | |
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Plant products: | ||
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Food | |
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Fodder/feed | |
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Fiber | |
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Fertiliser | |
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Medicinal extracts | |
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Fragrances/flavourings | |
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Essential oils | |
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Dyes/colorants | |
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Exudates | |
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Thatch (organic construction materials) | |
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Bamboo | |
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Rattan | |
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Non-wood ligno cellulosic materials | |
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Ornamental materials | |
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Wild animal products |
Honey and wax | |
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Beverages |
Latex | |
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Chemicals |
Mulch | |
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Cork |
Pharmaceuticals | |
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Dyes |
Resin | |
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Distillates |
Silk | |
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Fibrous materials |
Stimulants | |
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Fodder |
Edible products | |
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Gums |
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Food products |
Latex/gums | |
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Spices and condiments |
Insect products | |
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Culinary herbs |
Incense woods | |
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Industrial plant oils |
Essential oils | |
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Plant gums |
Plant insecticides | |
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Natural pigments |
Medicinal plants | |
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Oleoresins |
Wild plants | |
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Fibres and flosses |
Animals and animal products | |
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Vegetable tanning materials |
Miscellaneous products | |
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Cork and bark | ||
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Food | ||
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Fodder | ||
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Wool and skins | ||
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Tannins | ||
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Christmas trees | ||
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Decorative materials | ||
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Essential and aromatic oils | ||
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Other | ||
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NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS | ||
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Addition of biomass fuel/fuelwood and charcoal to those included under NWFP | ||
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NON-WOOD BENEFITS | ||
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Non-wood products | ||
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Animal products | |
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Plant products | |
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Services | ||
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Conservation of genetic wealth and bio diversity | |
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Watershed management | |
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Climatic influences | |
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Soil improvement | |
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Support to agriculture and range management | |
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Ecotourism | |
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Heritage values | |
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Amenity values | |
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Non-wood products | ||
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Animal products | |
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Plant products | |
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Environmental services | ||
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Protection Water quality and quantity | |
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Global climatic effects | |
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Nature conservation | |
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Bio diversity | |
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Local environmental functions (microclimate, absorption of noise/pollution) | |
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Social and cultural services | ||
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Hunting and fishing | |
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Other leisure pursuits | |
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Landscape effects | |
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Historical importance | |
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NON-TIMBER BENEFITS | ||
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Addition of biomass fuel/fuelwood and charcoal to those included under NWFP | ||
