Acronyms and Abbreviations and Rates of Exchange
Terms of Reference
1. Introduction
2. Definitions, classification of non wood forest products
3. Socio-economic importance of non wood forest products
4. Institutional responsibility
5. Technical Aspects
6. Main problems and constraints
7. Recommendations
8. Conclusion
ANNEX I. Classification of NWFP in Tanzania
ANNEX II. Statistical data on NWFP
ANNEX III. Contribution of international tourism to Tanzania economy
Reference
Project profiles
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS
NON WOOD PRODUCTS AND ENERGY BRANCH (FOPN)
PILOT COUNTRY STUDY ON NWFP FOR TANZANIA
DECEMBER 1992
ALEXANDER WILSON CHIHONGO
Tanzania Forestry Research Institute (TAFORI), MOROGORO
Acronyms and Abbreviations
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ABA |
Arusha Beekeepers Association |
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BET |
Board of External Trade (Foreign Trade Statistics) |
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BoT |
Bank of Tanzania (Tanzania Central Bank) |
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BoS |
Bureau of Statistics, Tanzania, Planning Division |
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BTI |
Beekeeping Training Institute (Tabora) |
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CDC |
Commonwealth Development Coorporation |
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DSM |
Dar es Salaam |
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E |
Export figures |
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ERP |
Economic Recovery Programme, Tanzania |
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FAO |
Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations |
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GAPEX |
General Agricultural Products Export Company (of Tanzania) |
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GDP |
Gross Domestic Product |
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GFR |
Germany Federal Republic |
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HHPP |
Handeni Honey Processing Plant |
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IUCN |
International Union for the Conservation of Nature |
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Kg |
Kilogrammes |
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Nos |
Numbers |
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NWFP |
Non-Wood Forest Products |
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P |
Production figures |
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RNRO |
Regional Natural Resources Office |
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SPM |
Southern Paper Mills Ltd. (Mufindi) |
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T |
Tonnes |
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TAFORI |
Tanzania Forestry Research Institute |
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TANAPA |
Tanzania National Parks Authority |
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TanWatt |
Tanganyika Wattle Company Ltd. (Njombe) |
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TBCS |
Tabora Beekeepers' Cooperative Society |
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TFAP |
Tropical Forestry Action Plan |
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Tsh |
Tanzania shillings |
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UAE |
United Arab Emirates |
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UK |
United Kingdom |
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USA |
United States of America |
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WHO |
World Health Organization |
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WWF |
World Wildlife Fund |
Rates of Exchange
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Aug. |
1980 |
1 US$ = 8.18 Tsh |
|
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1981 |
1 US$ = 10 Tsh |
|
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1984 |
1 US$ = 17 Tsh |
|
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1985 |
1 US$ = 17 Tsh |
|
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1986 |
1 US$ = 40 Tsh |
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1987 |
1 US$ = 65 Tsh |
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1988 |
1 US$ = 100 Tsh |
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Feb. |
1989 |
1 US$ = 124.9 Tsh |
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Aug. |
1989 |
1 US$ = 145 Tsh |
|
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1990 |
1 US$ = 195 Tsh |
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1991 |
1 US$ = 210 Tsh |
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1992 |
1 US$ = 400 Tsh |
By letter dated 9th October 1992, FAO engaged Alexander Wilson Chihongo of Tanzania Forestry Research Institute (TAFORI), Morogoro through contract No. 7-54391 to carry out consultancy work for the preparation of Pilot Country Study for Tanzania on Non-Wood Forest Products (NWFP) in line with the Tropical Forestry Action Plan (TFAP).
The terms of reference were:
1. To gather and collect information and statistical data on Non-Wood Forest Products (NWFP).2. To provide a brief concise and realistic overview of the importance of NWFP of the country and prospects for further promotion and development.
3. Identify the rate of NWFP production in the Natural Resources Sector as a whole.
4. Identify constraints and issues warranting intervention.
5. Review the role of the Government cooperatives individuals and private sector in management and utilisation of NWFP resources and make recommendations to further promote and develop NWFP sector.
6. Provide a proposed filed project to address issues mentioned in the Country Study on NWFP.
7. Last the Pilot Country Report is to be utilized for Regional Expert Consultation of NWFP 1993 and for the Interregional Expert Consultation on Economics and Resource sustainability of NWFP as well as to sustain FAO/FOPN database on NWFP.
Responsibility:
Although this report has been commissioned by FAO the organization bears no responsibility for and is not in any way committed to the views and recommendations expressed herein.
Report Data Collection:
In October/November 1992 Alexander Wilson Chihongo (Senior Forest Research Officer TAFORI) undertook a Country Study of the informal NWFP sector within Tanzania. This took the form of field visits to selected areas of major NWFP activities such as Arusha, Kilimanjaro, Morogoro and Dar es Salaam. Discussions were also held with related sectors of NWFP especially those based in Dar es Salaam. Personal contacts with personnel at the Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA) were also done concerning the subject on NWFP. A few relevant literature have also been consulted in respect to NWFP, and are cited accordingly in the report. A seminar held at Kilimanjaro Hotel, Dar es Salaam on 10 November 1992 on Investment Opportunities in Forestry in Tanzania raised the awareness of economic values of NWFP.
The outcome of my study is presented in this report. Based on my conclusions, a number of recommendations are given, which I believe will help to relieve constraints on the NWFP sector and lead to overall sustainable development in line with the TFAP objective.
1.1 Size of the country
1.2 Ecological zones
1.3 Forested areas
1.4 Population Statistics
1.5 Forests as source of non wood products
Forests are a valuable environmental and economic resource for supporting natural systems and improving human welfare. Human activities have always modified the forest environment. Everyone has benefited when the forests have been treated as a renewable resource, protected them to preserve biodiversity or transformed them to support other economic activities on sustainable basis. Conversely, destructive exploitation, of forests has caused serious social, economical and environmental losses.
Tanzania, located between latitudes 1°S and 12°S and longitudes 36ºE and 40ºE is one of the larger countries in Africa being the eleventh in size and occupying a total land area of about 88.6 million hacters (939 702 km2). Zanzibar occupies 264 000 ha. or 0.3% of total land area.
The land rises gradually from the Indian Ocean in the east to about 2000m some 400 km inland where the Eastern arm of the Great Rift valley divides it from north to south west towards Lake Malawi. From this lake northwards the western arm of the Rift valley demarcates the boundary between Tanzania and neighbouring Malawi, Zambia, Zaire, Burundi and Rwanda into Uganda. On the floor of the Western Rift valley there are a number of lakes such as L. Malawi, L. Rukwa, L. Tanganyika, L. Edward and L. Albert. The valley is about 70 km wide and 300 m. deep with precipitous walls in some parts. In the eastern Rift valley the lakes are usually very shallow and these include L. Natron, L. Eyasi, L. Manyara and Momella, which are mainly caused by local barriers to drainage on the floor of the valley. Most of the active volcanoes are associated with the rift valley, especially the eastern arm. The whole rift valley and the highland zone in Northern Tanzania is overlain by volcanic rocks. Some of the largest individual cones: Hanang, Meru (4565 m), Kilimanjaro (5895 m) appear to be on lines of weakness. Other blocks of Mountains include the Pare, Usambara, Nguru, Uluguru and Udzungwa forming the Eastern Arch; and Southern Highlands, Poroto, Rungwe, Livingstone and Ufipa Highlands forming the Western Arc, are all bounded by major faults. These Montane Uplands are cool, wetter and form important water catchments, forest reserves and agricultural zones. The Central plateau consisting of a number of basins and averaging 1 200 m. a.s.l. stretches from Lake Victoria in the north to Ruvuma river in the south.
The plateau covers most of the country and receives seasonal rainfall. Miombo woodland is the major vegetation of the central plateau. The coastal belt including Zanzibar Islands consists of a strip of low-lying country between 20-60 km wide (below 500 m. a.s.l.) with comparatively fertile soils. In isolated areas, especially along river deltas the coast in lined with mangrove forests. Whereas remnants of lowland forests are also seen occupying very localised areas of coastal belt.
Tanzania forest resource supporting the environmental and economic needs is based on 44 million ha. of natural forests consisting of riverine and montane high forests (1.4 mil. ha. or 0.3% of total forested land), savannah woodlands and grasslands (32 mil. ha); mangrove forests along the coastal belt (80 000 ha.) and man made industrial plantations (115 000 ha) and community forests (66, 700 ha) existing as reserved and unreserved forests. The total area of productive forest land is estimated at 34.6 million hectares (78% of total forest area). The rest 9.8 mil. ha. is unproductive for physical reasons such as inaccessibility stand terrain features or legal reasons such as catchment forest reserves, forest lands in the National Parks and Game reserves. The forestry industry as well as rural population living around these forested areas have been relying heavily on the use of material from the natural forests. Due to many factors including forest fires, increased population pressure on land and enhanced agricultural activities, natural forests are disappearing at an estimated rate of 130 000 hectares per annum. Forests and wetland habitats are under special threat because of the potential use of these areas for agriculture.
The World Development Report 1992 (World Bank 1992) estimates Tanzanian population of 25.6 million in 1990 with 33% of the total population living in urban areas. The population growth rate has been slowly increasing over the last 25 years from a 2.9% in the period 1965-80 to 3.6% for 1980-90. The population is projected to continue to grow at a rate of 3.6% for the period 1990-2000. Zanzibar Islands are densely populated than any other country in Africa with an annual growth rate of 2.7% and 850 000 inhabitants (1988). The mountainous regions on the mainland are thickly populated.
Forestry in Tanzania has a great potential which largely remains to be developed. Its importance for maintenance and improvement of environment, climate, water resources, soil enrichment etc. is crucial. Potentiality of forest and non wood forest products in particular, in rural development efforts ought to he pursued. Products from the forests include the wood products like timber, fuelwood, poles and a wide range of non wood products such as fodder as forage for livestock and wild-life including insects; trees as a source of nectar for honey and beeswax production and increasing pollination of agricultural crops; palm nuts; tannin extracts; bark; gums; resins; medicinal plants; aromatics; fruits; edible fungi; wild animals and trophies and many others. Though the forestry sector plays minor role in the economy of Tanzania in terms of its contribution to the GDP which hardly exceeds 2-3% and contributing about 1% only to the exports; the forests and woodlands have a very positive, effect on both the subsistance and national economy through appropriate management practices ensuring sustainable supplies of wood and non-wood forest products.
The Objective of this paper is to give an overview of the current utilisation aspects of both within and outside Tanzania with respect to non wood forest products (NWFP) and to present some suggestions and possible strategies of what should be done to further promote and develop these towards a sustainable socio-economic performance in future.
In Tanzania, beekeeping, wattle mimosa extract cultivation, gum arabic production, tradition medicinal and aromatic plants processing, fodder crop farming, fibre handicrafts making, edible insects collection, fruits and nuts from the wild flora, latex tapping, tourism and environmental improvement and potential naval stores extraction are all predominantly forest - based activities. On the other hand Cinchona barks and spices production, though depend upon agricultural lands, their cultivation is closely related to well forested sites. The forest products and services derived from the above named activities, other than wood, and presented in detail in Annex I may be classified as non wood forest products (NWFP). Usually their extraction from a forest ecosystem does not alter the basic reproductive functions of the forest. (FAO, Paper No. 97).
2.2.1. Fibre:
The mountain bamboo, Arundinaria alpina found on the moister mountainous sites between 2400 and 3000 asl. provide building poles and fibrous materials for communal handicraft industry in rural Tanzania. On drier sites. the Borassus palm supports matts and baskets making industry for the rural people, an activity which is of great importance to certain areas. Other vegetal fibres used in rural areas include the plaiting and tough - weaving fibres used for straw hats, baskets, chair-seats and matting for which stems of various palms, grasses and the baobab Adansonia digitata are used. Moreover, in special cases, natural fabrics consisting of tough interlacing fibres that can be extracted from bark in layers and used as a substitute for cloth are obtained from Ficus species. Such fabrics are commonly used in rural Kagera areas.
2.2.2. Forage:
The Forests provide forage and shelter to both domesticated as well as wildlife populations-key component to food protein and tourism, upon which mankind depends. The role of forestry in the semi-arid zones and savannah grassland areas of Tanzania is partially reflected by the provision of fodder and shelter not only to livestock but to wildlife populations within the National parks. These animals do not only feed on grass but obtain a considerable part of their nutrition, and the part most rich in protein, from the pods and buds of trees and bushes, of which the most valuable are the Acacias. From the utilitarian point of view, forage plants for domesticated as well as wildlife may be looked upon as a means of turning plant carbohydrate and protein into meat and dairy products. Suffice it to say that practically every item of food of all animals comes from plants; as these alone are able economically to build up complex food substances from simple inorganic materials. (Nicholas, 1960).
2.2.3 Food - Vegetal
2.2.3.1 Nuts:
Products of the nut-bearing plants are often obtained from wild sources. Some of the important chewing materials like betel, obtained from the widely cultivated Betelnut palm Areca catechu provide food and cash requirements to the rural as well as national economies.
2.2.3.2 Edible fungi:
A number of usually minor foods are afforded by the lower plants. Thus the use of mushrooms, morels, truffles and other fungi is ancient and familiar. Mushrooms provide valuable sources of certain food proteins and vitamins. Mushrooms in particular are being widely cultivated, though in Tanzania these are only collected from wild sources. The commonly consumed mushrooms in the country belong to the locally important orange-red Amanita species native to the Miombo woodlands. They are related to Amanita caesarea the most highly appreciated edible mushroom in ancient Rome. Other edible species of mushroom are also common in rural Tanzania. Food yeast is another important fungal product used in brewing and baking processes.
2.2.3.3 Spices:
Many of the non wood forest products are taken with fair regularity as a kind of crop, sometimes from cultivated trees. Spices, condiments and other food adjuncts are almost innumerable, and the value of spices and condiments lies in their ability to increase the attractiveness of food, usually owing to the presence of essential oils. Besides their use as food adjuncts, spices are employed in various industries including perfumery, drug and soap manufacture and dyeing. The vast majority originate in seeds and fruits of the cultivated vegetals e.g. cardamon, chillis and peppers; others from flowers or flower-buds like cloves, while from leaves are obtained peppermint, spearmint etc. Spices obtained from barks include cinnamon and cassia; from roots and rhizomes include ginger, turmeric grown in the tropics (Nicholas, 1960).
2.2.4 Food-Faunal
2.2.4.1 Honey:
In Tanzania, the woodland and savanna areas are not only important as producers of large quantities of wood. They also constitute the main basis for industry of some national importance, beekeeping. Most of the Acacias, - A. tortilis subsp. spirocarpa, A. xanthophloea; Brachystegia and Julbernadia species are excellent honey trees. Honey is widely used domestically in making an alcoholic beavarage.
2.2.4.2. Game meat:
As source of cheaper protein for rural AS well as urban populations, is of vital importance particularly for people living around the parks and forest reserves. Fish and insects also provide vital feed protein requirements to people.
2.2.5 Non food-Faunal
Bees wax: A by-product of honey, bees wax is of national importance and most of it is being exported because there are very few domestic industries which process the wax for other end uses.
2.2.6 Medicinal plants:
The medicinal value of plants is due to the presence in them of special substances having a particular physiological action on the human body: commonly such substances are alkaloids, some of which are powerful poisons if administered unwisely, while others are dangerously habit-forming. Yet in small quantities skilfully administered, even the most poisonous or dangerous drugs can be of value to human health and well-being (Nicholas, 1960). Throughout the world, there are used for medicinal uses some thousands of different plants, many of them only locally by rural populations in the developing countries. Some are widely cultivated like Cinchona species but many more are collected entirely in the wild state and are still important commercially. It is estimated that as many as 80% of Tanzania's rural people rely on herbal traditional medicines from the indigenous forests, as their primary health care, though commendable efforts have been made to avail medical facilities. A few of the most significant plants cultivated in the country include: opium, obtained from fruits and seeds, as an exudation from the injured fruits of the widely cultivated Opium Poppy containing principles effective in relieving pain but fragrantly misused as a narcotic. In Tanzania, the Opium poppy is cultivated to a limited scale on wetter, well drained soils in the highlands. Quinine, extracted from the cultivated cinchona barks, is a great anti-malaria drug. Papain, an enzyme obtained from papaya plant, Carica papaya fruits though of limited use in medicine, is employed as a digestive enzyme for treatment of intestinal and gastric disorders. Other potential notable sources of medicinal drugs include the agricultural fibrous product - Agave sisalana which is used in the production of a steroidal sapogenin called Hecogin as its by-product. Hecogin is an important therapeutic agent used in modern medicine. The sisal plant is used to a very limited extent for the synthesis of these drugs in Tanzania, though its potential is great. The exotic Neem tree, Azadirachta indica is grown in the country as a multipurpose tree for fuelwood, shade and ornamental as well as medicinal source of Azadirachtin that is widely used for the manufacture of insecticides elsewhere. Locally, the decoction from the bark of the Neem is believed to cure a number of ailments including malaria. Among the introduced blue gum trees, E. globulus, E. saligna, E. maidenii and E. regnans are known to produce eucalyptus oil Cineole from their leaves that is extensively used in medicine for the treatment of nose and throat disorders. Actual production of cineole in the country has not been developed. Shortly, there are many species of plants in Tanzania (more than 90% of the flora) whose significance as potential sources of important drugs and/or cosmetics have not been appreciated, simply because their chemical composition has not been studied (Rulangaranga, 1991).
2.2.7 Aromatics:
Essential oils or volatile types as stated elsewhere, have a pleasant taste and strong aromatic odour, easily volatilizing in air. They are complex in chemical composition but are readily removed by distillation, or solvent extraction from the plants that produce them. Their major uses are for scenting, flavouring, or medicinal purposes for example in the manufacture of soaps, perfumes, and other toilet preparations. Other uses are as clearing agents and solvents; deodorants, shoe-polish etc. In the country a few of the useful aromatics include the sandalwood oil, muhuhu oil, camphorwood oil, clove oil. Cedar oils, extracted from Juniperus procera wood is used as a laboratory clearing agent in microscopy studies. Of potential importance is the Cassie oil, obtained from flowers of Acacia farnesiana, a tree whose distribution is restricted to Morogoro region only. For many aromatics, maximum concentration within the plant is to be found in those plants inhabiting drier sites.
2.2.8 Extractives
2.2.8.1 Tannins:
In the tanning, strongly astringent tannins are reacted with proteins present in animal hides and skins, to form the strong and resistant, flexible product leather. Although tannins are very widespread in plants, relatively few species are known to contain a sufficient proportion to be of commercial importance. In Tanzania, the wattle mimosa and mangrove barks are the main sources of tannin extract.
2.2.8.2 Natural dyes:
Stains and natural dyes obtained from plants are especially useful in dyeing fabrics and other products. These normally are extracted from seeds and fruits, flowers, leaves, wood, hark, roots and even tubers. A redish-brown dye obtained from the bark of wild kapok Bombax rhodognaphalon; is used to dye fabrics (Bryce, 1967). Due to recent competition from synthetic dyes obtained from coal-tar products, the use of vegetable dyes has been on a decline.
2.2.8.3 Latex:
Of the products obtained from the milky juice (latex) of various plants, rubber is by far the most important. Crude rubber is mainly used in tyre manufacture and inner tubing; footwear, packaging, tubing, electrical insulation and waterproof clothing etc. Of a number of woody plants that produce rubber, the plantation rubber tree Hevea brasiliensis is by far the most important source of rubber. In Tanzania, the rubber tree is planted in the humid East Usambara Mountains at Muheza and Kwamkoro areas, Nguru ranges in Morogoro at Turiani and Zanzibar Islands, where about 1270 ha. are planted to support the domestic as well as export trade in tyre manufacture. Rubber is also tapped from wild sources, though of no much economic value.
2.2.8.4 Gums:
The gums which exude from plant stems either naturally or in response to wounding, and the resins which are secreted in definite cavities (resin ducts) are both exudates. Gums which can dissolve in water, does not dissolve in organic solvents like alcohol or ether. Main uses of gums include as adhesives, as sizing for paper, in medicines and polishing, in cosmetics, chewing-gum and ice-cream making, etc. Gum arabic is one of the chief commercial varieties, obtained from Acacia trees notably A. senegal, A. seyal, A. tortilis and A. spirocarpa. Gum arabic is of considerable economic importance in some African countries with arid and semi-arid climates like the Sudan, Kenya, Senegal, Chad and Tanzania, to mention a few.
2.2.8.5 Resins:
These, are more important than gums, though tapping is essential to obtain resins in commercial quantities. Resins of potential development in Tanzania include the turpentines, obtained by tapping coniferous trees and yielding on distillation, oil of turpentine (oleo-resin) and rosin. Oil of turpentine is used in the paint and varnish industry as a solvent and thinning agent. Rosin is the chief sizing material for paper, and is also used in manufacture of adhesives, printing inks, rubber products, greases and lubricants. Of the introduced industrial pine species, Pinus patula, P. elliottii and P. caribaea, their resinous woods could be utilized as sources for naval stores - turpentine and rosin. The best turpentine comes from P. elliottii, followed by P. caribaea. On the other hand, P. patula at maturity produces a resin - free wood. These naval bases have so far not yet been tapped in this country, despite their potential.
2.2.9 Services Functions of Forest Lands
2.2.9.1 Amenity:
Trees are planted sometimes mainly for their aesthetic and amenity values. Amenity forestry together with environmental protection and tourism form part of Services Functions of Forest Lands Sector. Amenity plantations include roadside trees, parks and plantations to beautify the landscape and to make living conditions more pleasant. The value of these plantations is extremely high, though cannot be assessed in terms of cash. Multipurpose plantations are of great use; for instance, those that have roadside trees that bear honey flowers and also act as windbreaks to conserve the soil; or those that have trees like Black wattle for fuelwood which may also yield bark from which tannin can be extracted. In the country a number of tree species have been planted with the cooperation of the public, as. amenity trees on different sites. In the high mountainous areas, conifers, eucalypts and Cedrella odorata. are used. On the central plateau species like Neem, Casuarina, Grevillea, Senna siamea and Eucalyptus species are often planted. Under more arid conditions, Acacia species, some eucalypts, Azadirachta indica may he planted. On humid lowlands and coastal plains Saraca indica is favoured. Where flowering trees are desired, Delonix regia, Jacaranda species; Senna siamea, Grevillea robusta, Acacia spp. and certain eucalypts are planted.
2.2.9.2 Environmental protection:
Forests for environmental protection and climatic improvement-checking soil erosion and water run off, stabilizing soil surfaces, shelter-belts and windbreaks to protect fields, enhancing soil fertility and rehabilitation of wastelands and industrial sites all play a desirable role. The impacts of forests in ensuring environmental stability and productivity by mitigating the effects of climatic fluctuations, by improving the micro-climate for animal and plant production and by conserving soil and water resources, cannot be overemphasized; because attempts to disturb various ecological systems have had serious implications to Man and his surroundings. The economic return of the protection plantations is indirect.
2.2.9.3 Tourism:
In Tanzania, the tourism industry to a greater extent depends on services functions of Forest Lands, since land has been gazetted as National parks/game reserves which provide habitats for wildlife populations that provide tourist attractions. Within these reserves, we also find varied flora communities.
With the exceptions of industrial production of forest products, it is very difficult to establish the current production levels of some of the products because the same are produced in small scale by private individuals who sell their produce to the local markets, or outside markets that offer attractive prices.
3.1.1 Forage:
One of the main preoccupation of rural people in Tanzania, especially in the savannah woodland of Tabora and semi-arid zones like Shinyanga, Mwanza, Singida, Dodoma, parts of Arusha and Kilimanjaro regions where animal husbandry forms a major income source is to cultivate enough fodder to meet food scarcity especially for their livestock. To a greater extent, the forage needs for their huge stocks of cattle, goats and sheep still is afforded from the wild sources - the grasslands and forests close to their habitats. During the dry season, grazing animals may have only branches and leaves of fodder trees to live on. In some of these areas, we also find higher concentrations of wildlife in the parks and game reserves which depend upon dry season browse for their survival. Crude protein contained in the leaves of some trees, makes certain tree species to be very palatable for animals. Several species of Prosopis: P. juliflora, P. chilensis which produce pods that are highly palatable and nutritive, and the leaves are eaten by cattle. These multipurpose trees also yield poles and timber and can be established on saline soils in arid areas where other fodder plants are rare. Pods and leaves of browse species of Acacias - A. nilotica, A. arabica, A. tortilis, A. senegal, A. farnesiana and Faidherbia albida are readily eaten by both cattle and wildlife populations, and these species can be established in semi arid zones on commercial basis. Tamarindus indica, with its wide, rounded crown and drooping branches provides both shade and fodder crop to grazing animals in dry savannah sites. However, in densely populated highland areas of Arusha, Kilimanjaro, Southern highlands, Usambaras, Uluguru mountains and Kagera, fodder trees and shrubby species which have high production potential and produce good quality fodder are cultivated. Leucaena leucocephala, L. diversifolia, Pithecelobium dulce, Acacia farnesiana, Erythrina spp., Senna siamea, Grevillea robusta and Prosopis juliflora are planted, sometimes as green hedges (living fences). These species are also useful for agroforestry activities as soil conservation and nitrogen fixing species.
Tree fodders may complement, but will not replace herbaceous fodder species, such as elephant grass, in montane areas where zero-grazing in animal husbandry is largely practised. Selling of fodder crops in these fertile and densely populated areas is a lucrative business at community level.
Kowero and Hofstad (1989) have reviewed economic aspects of Tanzanian forestry. They have estimated a theoretical total annual output from fodder crops of about 900 m Tsh. as shown in Table 1 below, reproduced from their report:
Table 1: Total value of Primary forest production
|
Item |
Value (m Tsh) |
|
Industrial wood |
169 |
|
Non - traded wood fuels |
515 |
|
Non - traded construction materials |
210 |
|
Non - traded wood for implements etc. |
2 |
|
Fruits, medicines etc. |
2,000 |
|
Game meat |
200 |
|
Honey and beeswax |
8, 500 |
|
Fodder (forage) |
900 |
|
Water |
20 |
|
Soil conservation |
1, 000 |
|
Climate amelioration |
- |
|
Gene pool |
- |
|
Total |
13, 516 |
On this basis, from their work, fodder contributes about 7% to this estimated total value of primary forest production. However, the actual contribution of fodder crops, like other non wood forest products to total annual value of primary forest production is usually more than these figures presented above. This is so because, for example, fodder crops that are browsed by wildlife populations in most cases, their contribution is not supported by statistical evidence.
3.1.2 Fibres:
Most of the handicrafts are woven in the rural Tanzania, as a source of income, not only to the rural communities, but also for urban traders, who buy these from rural craftmen and resell the products to urban dwellers and tourists. Bamboo grass and Borassus palms are the major sources of woven handicrafts. In 1989, about 280,000 m3 of bamboo grass Arundinaria alpina were extracted from bamboo forests for handicrafts as well as building purposes. Lowland bamboo species have already become extinct. In Tanzania, like other East African countries, the bamboo is potentially among the most important non wood product resources, yet, it is one of the least developed (Ogana, 1991). However, bamboo cultivation and processing provide employment and income generating opportunities for rural communities. Some of the most diverse uses of the bamboo can be found in the handicraft trade on the domestic market, though the indigenous species A. alpina is not as versatile as bamboos found elsewhere for example in South East Asian countries. At present, there is an insatiable market for bamboos in the country for basket making, tooth picks, matts weaving, tree seedling's support, fencing, building poles and making of baskets for tea picking. Bamboos are also used in onion and tomato gardening especially in Arusha, Iringa and Mbeya regions. Borassus palms woven handicrafts are important at community level especially in Kigoma, Iringa, Kilimanjaro Morogoro, Mwanza, Tabora, Singida and Shinyanga regions.
The Legume Erythrina excelsa which occurs naturally on humid sites at higher elevations in Kagera region, its bark is known to produce cork, though not of commercial value as that produced by the cork tree Quercus suber. Rural communities around Lake Victoria seldomly used the product cork from this tree to float fishing nets. Because of its usefulness, the tree has become over-exploited. The floss from fruits of the wild kapok Bombax rhodognaphalon, at one time was used in upholstery. Again, there are no reliable statistics for production and sales of fibre related products, because most of these items are produced and sold unofficially, though a few enter export market as tourist articles.
3.1.3 Food-vegetal:
3.1.3.1 Fruits:
Trees and other woody plants that are extensively cultivated in Tanzania for their edible fruits of importance to mankind include the mango Mangifera indica, papaya Carica papaya, coconut Cocos nucifera, jack fruit Artocarpus communis and pears Pyrus communis. Some of the exotic tree species like avocado Persea americana that are multipurpose and planted in humid, upland parts of the country, produce edible fruits as well as provide shade and wood fuel. In the floral habitats of Tanzania, though a number of wild trees and shrubs produce fruits and seeds that are edible to rural communities, the variety and nature of food and food products obtained from trees are not fully appreciated. Moreover, many of these fruit-bearing species occur naturally in forest environments which are under pressure to yield land for agriculture. Greater knowledge of the potential of these species and their capacity to improve-man's way of life will add weight to efforts to conserve these forests or woodlands, while making them more productive (FAO, 1983). A detailed study carried out by the Silviculture Research Centre of the Forest Division under the auspices of FAO in 1983, on 40 forest food and fruit-bearing species of Tanzania has helped to highlight knowledge and promote an appreciation of their usefulness. A brief description on some of the commonly used indigenous fruit-bearing trees is given:
- Allanblackia stuhlmannii (msambu), the seed of this tree yields an edible fat used for cooking, lighting and as liniment. The species can be planted on large plantation scale in the humid montane forests. Seeds of this species were once exported by GAPEX, before its dissolution in 1989.- Allanblackia ulugurensis (msambu, mkani), a tree abundant in Morogoro and Iringa Districts at higher elevations, produces seeds that yield a white fat which is used for the same purposes as that from A. stuhlmannii. The sap obtained from the three produces a yellow dye.
- Annona senegalensis (wild custard apple, mtopetope), a tree of widespread occurence in Tanzania, whose white pulp of the yellow to orange fleshy fruit is edible and has a pleasant pineaple-like odour and sweet taste. If this species if fully known to people, it can be cultivated and fruits sold in the markets, contributing to their economy. A yellow/brown dye is obtained from its bark. The bark, roots and leaves are used in preparation of traditional medicine.
- Parinari curatellifolia (mbura), a tree widely distributed in Tanzania, produces edible pulp from its ripe fruit. The seed can be pounded and used to make soup. Seed kernel has a high oil content that could be extracted for export trade.
- Parinari excelsa (mbura), a species of montane rain forest produces fruit pulp and kernel that are edible. The fruit pulp could be also used in making local beer. The bark and wood also used to yield tannins for tanning and dyeing hides.
- Syzygium cuminii (mzambarau mwitu, mshwiwi, waterberry), a tree of widespread occurence in Tanzania mainland, produces ripe fruits that are sweet testing and edible. Moreover, the fruit is used as a remedy for dysentry and a decoction of the bark is used as an anti-diarrhoeic drug.
- Trichilia emetica (mtimaji), is widespread in Tanzania with the exception of Miombo woodland and dry thicket belts. The seed aril of this species can be squashed into a fatty milky suspension that is used for cooking. The oil extracted from the crushed cotyledons is used for soap and cosmetics manufacture. Planting of T. emetica as a source oil for both soap making and cooking is greatly emphasized by the government. T. emetica is reported to be of medicinal value.
Introduction of these, and many other fruit-bearing forest trees to cultivated areas offers both opportunities of improved nutritional value and economic potential to provide cash incomes to the rural communities.
3.1.3.2 Beverages:
Edible fruits of some wild trees that occupy the drier savannah woodland and bushland sites of Tabora, Dodoma and Singida regions particularly Tamarindus indica and Adansonia digitata are used for preserves and beverages. Substantial amounts of fruits of these two tree species are exported to the Middle East mainly Saudi Arabia, hence they are a source of income to the inhabitants of such rural areas.
Bamboo species Oxystenathea abyssinica yields a bamboo wine as source of food and income for rural people in certain localities where the grass grows naturally. Recently, a privately owned plant at Iringa has been brewing the wine for domestic demand.
3.1.3.3 Fungi:
Mushroom consumption in rural areas of Tanzania is not uncommon, especially in Miombo woodland areas of Kahama, Kigoma Tabora, Shinyanga, Singida, Iringa, Mbeya, Mtwara, Lindi, Ruvuma and Morogoro regions, where there are large variety of these edible fungi compared to the few varieties found inhabiting the wetter highland sites. In Tanzania, it is estimated that the number of edible mushrooms exceeds one hundred species. Edible mushrooms in these areas also act as a source of income to communal people especially in the rainy season. Cultivation of mushrooms is not practised in the country, though this could create employment and provide income to people engaged in the industry as it is commonly experienced in other countries like Japan, China, where Mushroom cultivation is a viable economic endeavour.
3.1.4 Food-Faunal
3.1.4.1 Fish:
Fish for food from the many ponds, streams and rivers, whose sources are usually in the mountainous forested areas provide feed protein to the population in rural as well as urban centres such as Arusha, Moshi, Morogoro, Sumbawanga, Mbeya, Tanga, Iringa, Songea, Dodoma etc. Fish rearing is a very important activity in Arusha region whereby endowed with the numerous lakes - Babati, Duluti, Bassotu, Tlawi, Manyara and man made dams - Nyumba ya Mungu dam and the nearby Mtera dam in Iringa, and a number of fish ponds provide nutritional supplements of feed protein to the people within the region as well as neighbouring regions of Singida, Dodoma, Iringa, Kilimanjaro and Tanga. From available regional statistics for Arusha region it shows that there has been a sharp increase in the consumption of fish within the region from 490.8 Tonnes valued at 5. 5 m Tsh to 2,839.0 Tonnes valued at 72.2 m Tsh in 1986 and 1989 respectively (RNRO-Arusha).
3.1.4.2 Edible insects
A number of insect species are edible, these include grasshoppers, ants, beetles and termites. They all supplement protein needs in the food for rural communities throughout the country. These are eaten as seasonal sources in most cases, since their availability is seasonal too. Termites, have been, and indeed are still utilized as food by man over a large area of the World where termites occur. Where there is a scarcity of protein-containing food, the contribution which palatable termite species like Macrotermes bellicosus and M. natalensis may offer in order to make up a protein deficiency may be considerable. In some areas of rural Tanzania, the cropping of colonies of the winged reproductives at a time of leaving the nest, is a source of income since roasted alates are sold on the market. The food provided by the flying termites is also rich in calorific value (Hickin, 1971).
3.1.4.3 Game meat:
People living in or around forests and grasslands are provided with food security in the form of cheap protein supplements. Game hunting in backward districts of Kiteto and Mbulu in Arusha region, for instance is done by poisoned arrows. Certain plants are employed in manufacture of arrow poisons from the wild flora of Tanzania. The same toxins are used in water poisoning to stan fish and wild game, by the native tribes of the Hadzabe and Barbaig inhabiting Mbulu and Singida districts respectively, who are believed to be remnants of the Bushman. The Tanzania Wildlife Cooporation (TAWICO) in 1991 hunted 2573 wildgame and 25 birds, all valued at 9.6 m Tsh for game meat as well as trophies from controlled areas outside the parks and game reserves (RNRO-Arusha). Licensed individuals can also hunt animals for game meat to urban populations in the northern tourist circuit and elsewhere in the country.
3.1.4.4 Honey:
Honey and beeswax products are viable sources of rural income, not only in Tanzania, but in many areas in the SADC sub region. At the same time beekeeping provides one economic justification for the sustainable management of the natural forests particularily miombo and montane woodlands which possess a number of prolific nectar producing tree species. Beekeeping to a large extent, can serve as an important source of income for those living in buffer zones surrounding conservation areas, and the low population pressure within the forest reserves makes them particularily excellent for Honey and beeswax production. Honey is a high-carbohydrate food, valued as a source of sweetness and diversity in the Tanzanian diet (Kihwele and Bradbear, 1989). Honey is highly regarded as a tonic or medicine and is given to nursing mothers and the aged. Honey in Tanzania is widely used in the manufacture of honey beer which is a lucrative business as income earner at community level. Honey has also social value, as it is used at various important ceremonies, for example marriage and circumcision. This is especially true for Maasai people. Since many beekeepers produce and sell their honey locally to end-users who offer better prices than cooperative societies, there are no statistics on the extent of this enterprise in rural communities. Most of the honey is consumed locally or sold through unofficial channels.
3.1.5 Non Food-Faunal
Bees wax: The contribution of the beekeeping subsector to the economy is quite substantial. Tanzania was once the leader in the world in the export of beeswax. Beeswax is a useful commodity used locally in a wide range of processes, including floor polish, shoe-polish making, candles, taxidermy and cosmetic manufacture. However, most of beeswax so produced is exported. In many respects bees wax production does not compete with any crop for local consumption, hence is an ideal export crop for Tanzania. Beekeeping is a small scale activity spread all. over rural areas in mainland Tanzania, though mainly concentrated in these regions:- Arusha, Kilimanjaro, Singida, Dodoma, Rukwa, Tabora, Tanga, Mtwara and Lindi. This makes evaluation of the extent of the industry difficult.
3.1.6 Medicinal plants:
The importance of medicinal plants to rural populations in the country has been pointed out under section 2.2.6 above. Suffice to say that, with the exception of Cinchona barks that are cultivated in the tea producing areas of Lushoto, Amani, Njombe and Mufindi; and used Worldwide for the extraction of quinine; most of medicinal plant sources come from the wild flora. As it has been pointed out elsewhere, much of forestry output remains unrecorded and goes to subsistence consumption as part of peoples basic requirements such as medicinals, fuelwood, fodder, and the alike. Most of the medicinal herbs is traded informally in both rural and urban areas and is therefore unrecorded. (Rulangaranga, 1991) reviewed indigenous important medicinal and aromatic trees from the wild flora of Tanzania that are suitable for afforestation programmes. A few of these include: Faidherbia albida, a multipurpose tree, from miombo woodlands whose bark is used for coughs and diarrhoea. The legume, being a nitrogen fixing species is used in agroforestry soil enrichment programmes. The fruits provide fodder for livestock and food for human consumption in times of famine. Acacia mellifera, also a legume from the Miombo-woodlands and thorny bushland, the tannin extract from boiled hark is used as a remedy for stomach troubles, primary symphilis, malaria and sterility. Bridelia micrantha, naturally grows on Miombo-woodlands and montane forests of Coast, Iringa, Kagera, Kilimanjaro, Mbeya, Morogoro and Tanga regions. A decoction of boiled bark possess Saponins as active principle that cures stomach-ache, tapeworms, diarrhoea in young children. Erythrina abyssinica, whose active principle(s) Erythrina alkaloids extracted from the bark of young stems and roots are used to treat a number of disorders such as trachoma, burns and general body swellings, malaria, anthrax, syphillis and snake bite. Rauvolfia caffra, with a wide range of distribution, yields alkaloids that are depressants of the Central nervous system. The plant also yields a bitter alkaloid that is reported to have anti-malaria activity. Reserpine, another alkaloid extracted from R. caffra is used in the treatment of hypertension. R. vomitaria of limited occurrence to Kagera and Kigoma regions only, is a source of the alkaloid reserpine which is used as a hypotensive and central nervous system sedative. Other indigenous tree species of potential medicinal value are as given in Annex I and their multiple uses are shown in Annex IV of this report. Though a number of species of plants growing naturally in the country are used as drugs in traditional medicine, there are no readily available sources of information on their active principles, supply, demand etc. There is only scanty information available on medical. botany surveys carried out in the country that reveal the medicinal uses of plants for different ethnic/tribal groups for instance. This means that knowledge locked in the minds of indigenous peoples are less likely to be discovered. The Maasai for example, have a reputed knowledge of traditional medicines in Tanzania, and the selling of herbs to rural and urban communities by Maasai women in the country is a lucrative preoccupation. Indigenous knowledge is essential for the use, identification and cataloguing (Farnsworth et al, 1988).
As previously mentioned under section 3.1.6 and elsewhere, the contribution of forestry to socio-economic development of Tanzania is felt to be substantial, though difficult to quantify. Some of the produced products are traded informally and therefore unrecorded. Industrially important raw materials include also a wide range of informal sector products (NWFP) - where there are no reliable estimates on their supply and consumption. However, without knowledge on what forests can supply and what is locally consumed and exported, it would be difficult to even determine the contribution of forestry sector to the National economy. Moreover, many forestry outputs and services like those related to improvement of climate and promoting ecological balance are difficult to quantify despite their tremendous contribution to other sectors like agricultural. livestock development, and wildlife management.
Table 2: Estimated gross of output in forest based activities 1988 - 2008
|
Activity |
1988 |
2008 |
||
|
Tshs million |
% of grand total |
Tshs in 1988 price |
% of grand total |
|
|
Fuelwood and charcoal |
9500 |
34.5 |
12500 |
7.0 |
|
Building poles |
1000 |
3.7 |
2200 |
1.2 |
|
Forest industries |
3200 |
11.5 |
80300 |
45.3 |
|
Wood Total |
13700 |
49.7 |
95000 |
53.5 |
|
Honey and beeswax |
1100 |
3.8 |
2240 |
1.3 |
|
Wildlife based activities: |
9700 |
35.2 |
74300 |
41.9 |
|
Others (Wattle extract, fruits, fodder, medicinal plants) |
3100 |
11.3 |
5760 |
3.3 |
|
Non Wood Total |
13900 |
50.3 |
82300 |
46.5 |
|
Grand Total: |
27600 |
100.0 |
177000 |
100.0 |
Source: Forestry and Beekeeping Division (1989a) Tanzania, Forestry Action Plan 1990/91 - 2007/8 Ministry of Lands, Natural Resources and Tourism, Dar es Salaam First Draft, 89 pp.
It would therefore appear a lot of vital statistics have to be generated and recorded if the role of forestry sector to the economy of Tanzania is to he realized. From the available statistics, the role of NWFP in the economic development of Tanzania can be realized by looking at Table 2 above, extracted from the TFAP 1990/91 - 2007/08 (Mgeni, 1990):
From Table 2 above, it can be realized that the contribution of the Forest sector's to Tanzanian economy is significant. It represents a total consumption of about Tsh 26 billion per year (Forestry and Beekeeping Division, 1989). Furthermore, the contribution of wood products is reckoned to be equal to the Non wood products sector. Forest Sector has also an impact on foreign trade in a form of exports or imports substitution. In 1987, for example, about 20% of Tanzania's foreign exchange earnings originated from the forest based activities.
Wildlife based activities are projected to increase their contribution seven-folds by year 2008.
Table 3 shows Foreign Trade Export statistics for the major NWFP in Tanzania between 1988 - 1992.
Table 3: Export Trade Statistics for Selected NWFP 1988/92
|
Product |
Value in Mill. US$ |
||||
|
1988 |
1989 |
1990 |
1991 |
(Jan-June) 1992 |
|
|
Honey |
0.024 |
0.01.5 |
0.078 |
0.117 |
- |
|
Bees wax |
0.793 |
0.510 |
0.566 |
2.451 |
0.720 |
|
Gum arabic |
0.356 |
0.264 |
0.370 |
0.940 |
0.099 |
|
Cinchona bark |
0.163 |
0.266 |
0.265 |
0.258 |
0.098 |
|
Wattle mimosa extract |
- |
4.371 |
- |
2.855 |
1.787 |
|
Raw rubber |
- |
0.369 |
- |
0.914 |
- |
|
Wood carvings |
- |
0.728 |
- |
0.195 |
0.104 |
|
Wildlife activities: |
|||||
|
Animal trophies |
0.258 |
0.395 |
0.587 |
0.013 |
1.337 |
|
Live animals |
0.856 |
1.057 |
3.964 |
0.593 |
0.080 |
|
Tourism |
40.400 |
60.974 |
65.000 |
94.730 |
138.300* |
|
Grand Total: |
- |
67.974 |
- |
104.064 |
- |
* Projection figures, 1992
Source: Annexes II and III of this report.
3.2.1. Wildlife based activities:
From Table 3, wildlife activities contributed about 90% of foreign exchange for years 1989 and 1991. Wildlife based activities include trade in Animal trophies, live animals and Tourism itself. By far, tourism is the biggest revenue earner in the NWFP Sector. The contribution of Tourism to economic development of the country has been increasing especially since 1986 when the number of tourists who visited the National parks and game reserves for game hunting, viewing, photography, trophies collection has doubled (Annex III). This new development, is partly clue to the concerted efforts by the Government in making tourism a more profitable industry.
A number of animal trophies harvested from controlled game reserves enable the country to earn substantial amounts in terms of foreign exchange. The animals so killed provide food security and income generation, employment opportunities in their collection, trade and foreign exchange from the sale of collected trophies. Tourist hunting for live animals including birds, is done by a number of Tourist. companies, mostly found in Arusha and Mara regions. Owing to Government ban on illegal bird trade of such species like brown parrots lovebirds etc; the earnings from live animals has. decreased substantially from about; 4 mill. US$ in 1990 to less than 0.6 mill US$ a year after. The major markets for Tanzania's wildlife products include Japan, Federal Republic of Germany, Belgium, Norway, USA, UK, Canada and France.
Crocodile rearing is being encouraged by the private sector, as seen in Dar es Salaam and Kilombero valley in Morogoro, for skins to support the leather industry in future.
3.2.2 Honey and bees wax:
Potential honey and beeswax producing areas include western, central as well as southern Tanzania which have good environment for the production of these products.. Since most of the honey is sold unofficially, it is difficult even to know the level of domestic demand for this product. It is believed that: bees wax and honey are also exported unofficially, largely to neighbouring Kenya, where price offered is more attractive. Estimates put the annual production levels of honey and beeswax at 5000T and 330T respectively. Currently known honey and bees wax exports are valued at a minimum of 2.5. mill. US$ per annum. Prior to 1991, there has been a decline in exports of honey and beeswax, because of the policies within Tanzania, while world demand for these products has increased rapidly.
The major markets for honey has been the Middle East countries particularly the U.A. Emirates: whereas for bees wax main importers are Germany Federal. Republic Japan and the United Kingdom.
3.2.3 Tannin Extract:
Tannin extract: from wattle bark as raw material, is produced by two export-oriented mills (Tanganyika Wattle Company Ltd. in Njombe and Giraffe Extract Company in Lushoto) where total capacity is 11000 tons per annum; but actual production is in the region of 5 000 tons of extract per year. The Giraffe Extract mill has a rated capacity, of 2000 tones per annum of grannular tannin and the other mill 9000 t/a of ordinary powder, high quality solid and green strips. Production at the Tanganyika Wattle Company has in the 1980s been 4500 to 5000 tonnes of extract per annum, whereas in recent years the output has declined to between 3500 and 4000 t of extract per annum. The raw material wattle bark for these mills come from the TanWatt's own wattle plantations as well as individual farmers woodlots. For the Giraffe Extract mill at Lushoto, the raw materials are extracted from Magamba Forest Project nearby as well as. outgrowers in the vicinity.
The mangrove species Rhizophora mucronata and Ceriops tagal along the coast were widely used for tannin extraction until the late 1960s in Tanzania (Bryce 1967); but their harvesting has been restricted since then. In view of the needs to protect mangrove forests, it is not realistic to consider them as a potential source of raw material for tannin production, though the Government has again opened them for harvesting. The mangroves, besides providing tanning barks and poles; they also provide good breeding zones for certain types of fish along the coast.
The bulk of the extract produced continues to be exported mainly to India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Egypt, Syria and Thailand. Average annual exports of 4000 tonnes earning the country over 2.5 mill. US$ in foreign exchange is supplied by Tan Watt alone. A small quantity of wattle extract is used in the local tanneries as well as natural glue in plywood manufacture of potential value.
3.2.4 Gum arabic
Annually, about 1 000 tonnes of gum arabic are collected. Half of this amount is exported to Austria, Germany Federal Republic, India and Sri Lanka. earning the country foreign exchange.
Like other non wood products, gum arabic is sold locally and is also exported unofficially. The product is tapped from wild acacia woodland trees in the semi arid natural forests of Singida, Arusha, Shinyanga and Tabora regions. The products have a great potential for increased exports with sufficient economic return.
3.2.5 Cinchona barks:
The barks, collected from cultivated Cinchona species - C. calisaya, C. ledgeriana, C. officinalis, and C. pubescens are important export produce that earns Tanzania foreign exchange in the region of 0.25 mill. US$ per year. Most of the product is produced by the private sector (Mazumbai Quinine factory) alongside with tea cultivation.
The bulk of Cinchona bark produced is exported to Belgium, United Kingdom and the Netherlands to be utilized in pharmaceuticals. Together with Cinchona tree species, there is a large number of medicinal and aromatic plants, many of which could offer possibilities for small scale collection and processing.
Only small amounts of essential oils are exported, mainly to the United Arab Emirates.
3.2.6 Raw rubber
Labour costs in rubber tapping from living rubber trees in plantation may account for 70-80% of total production costs. Though at present, only about 7,0 tonnes of crude rubber is exported to mainly Singapore and Syria; the product has a high demand in the tyre industry. More land has to be planted with rubber trees in the humid, sub-tropical areas so as to meet the growing demand for rubber products both internally and externally.
3.2.7 Wood carvings:
The famous Makonde carvings from Tanzania, have high demand in Japan, USA, Germany, Uganda and other countries. The main wood species used in carvings are Dalbergia melanoxylon, Combretum molle, Brachylaena huillensis etc. In most cases the wood that is used in carvings could otherwise be left in the forest to rot. For the country, it is necessary to make concerted efforts to achieve drastic improvement in the export performance through better marketing of traditional exports and development of non-traditional exports like wood carvings. Most of wood carvings are made by small craftsmen in rural Tanzania especially in Lindi and Mtwara regions.
3.2.8 Naval stores:
As outlined under section 2.2.8.5 above, the existing pine plantations could be a source for naval stores, gum rosin and turpentine obtained by tapping mainly from the living trees of Pinus elliottii, P. caribaea and to a lesser extent, of young P. patula. Major potential sources of supply are within these forest projects; Sao Hill in Iringa; Buhindi and Rubya in Mwanza; Rondo in Lindi; Matogoro in Ruvuma; Ruvu in Coast region; Rubare in Kagera and Ukaguru in Morogoro region. Preliminary tapping yield trials done at Sao Hill Forest project to find out the likely yields, have indicated that there is an abundant potential supply of resins from the industrial forests; hence justifying the development of naval stores-based industry in Tanzania. The product quality and market acceptabilities have also been studied, and initial results suggested that the quality would be acceptable for export.
Since the sizing chemicals for paper making are presently imported to Tanzania by the Southern Paper Mills (SPM) as well as the Kibo Paper Mill; the development of gum rosin extraction would therefore, be well suited for the country to substitute these imports.
4.1 Organisational structure
4.2 Human Resources involvement
4.3 Efficiency and impact
4.4 Policy and legislation
As stated elsewhere in the proceeding chapters that, despite the potential importance of the NWFP to community as well as national economies, these products have not received desirable attention in forestry activities, which include Research, Development, Investment and Planning. The NWFP Sector, like other sectors in the country is being faced with a host of problems that hinder its development with available limited resources. However, once the constraints are identified then due attention ought to be directed towards sustainable utilisation of those NWFP that have the greatest potential for development: - Wildlife related activities, Tannin extracts, Beekeeping products, Gum arabic, traditional medicines and naval stores.
4.1.1 Responsibilities
The Wildlife Division together with the Tourism Division are responsible for state activities in the management and control of wildlife related activities. These, together with the Tanzania National Parks Authority (TANAPA) control the utilization of animal trophies, live animals through permits to tourist companies, individuals in the national parks and other controlled game reserves.
The Forest and Beekeeping Division on the other hand, is responsible for a wide range of state activities in the Management and control of wood and non-wood products such as honey and beeswax, tannin extract, bamboo and other fibre products, resins, latex and gums. The Division controls the utilization through permits and royalty collection from sales of various products. To a large extent the Private Sector, and Cooperatives (e.g. Tabora Beekeepers' Co-operative Society - TBCS and Arusha Beekeepers' Association - ABA etc) and parastatal organisations like Handeni Honey Processing Plant HHPP are responsible for honey and beeswax production. For tannin extract, the jointly - owned Government and CDC mill is to a large extent responsible for the bulk of tannin extract products exported annually. To a lesser extent, the parastatal mill the Giraffe Extract is also responsible for production and marketing of wattle mimosa extract. Mangrove bark export has been on a decline for some time now. The General Tyre (E. A.) Ltd. a parastatal organisation is wholly responsible for crude rubber production and manufacture into rubber products in the country. The Fisheries Division, is responsible for state activities and management and control of fisheries. Indeed, the traditional practitioners in Tanzania, are still responsible for primacy health care to the majority of the population; hence with the establishment of the Traditional Research Unit of Muhimbili Medical Centre, the Government has recognized the need to gather knowledge and attitude of traditional medicines, to cultivate both medicinal and aromatic plants and consequently conserve traditional medicinal plants.
The Private Sector plays an important role in the cosmetics industry both meeting domestic and export trade. For cinchona barks production, the bulk of the export is handled by the private sector. This is also true with gum arabic extraction and marketing. The Government, through its Wildlife Division is mobilizing the private sector to establish crocodile and frogs rearing farms to support leather industry, and provide game meat, as evidenced at Hambo Crocodile farm, Boko village near Dar es Salaam.
4.1.2. Coordination structure
The present organization of the forestry sector as well as other related sectors of Natural resources, is characterized by lack of a direct chain of command, which in itself is a serious structural hindrance to any kind of smooth flow of communication and implementation of various policies.
Suffice to say that the role of the Government extension services in NWFP informal sector is ineffectual despite the fact that Tanzania has a large number of Government employees that possess qualifications in various fields such as beekeeping. Generally, there is a lack of information and coordination at national and sub-national levels in most fields. With the Government policy on decentralised organisation system whereby respective sectoral District Natural Resources Officers and respective sectoral Regional officers Are responsible to Regional Natural Resources Officers neither District nor Regional Natural Resources officers need have knowledge in every field of the Natural resources sub-sector. Moreover none of the extensionists are answerable to Divisional Directors at the Ministry. Hence it is impossible for NWFP sector to function in a unified way. For products like gum arabic, cinchona barks and traditional medicine generally there is no line authority to national agency since the private sector buys and processes the products from producers themselves. The private sector also markets aromatic products without much intervention from the Central Government. However, there is a weak coordination structure between the Government and the private sector too.
4.1.3 Relationship with producers/Market agents.
There is limited Government intervention in production, processing and trade of major non-wood forest products through import and export duties. For certain NWFP like honey, wood carvings, handicrafts, dyeing and colouring materials etc trade is between the producer and importer. The public sector however, provides transport infrastructure for NWFP for instance, tannin extracts from Tanwatt Company, rail/road transport, to Dar es Salaam port; and shipping facilities. Road and air transport facilities for live animals, birds and other related products.
Individual enterprises, such as TanWatt and Board of External Trade are represented on marketing boards. These, to an extent, do influence government policy on NWFP development.
4.1.4 Financial aspects
As stated elsewhere, nearly all large NWFP enterprises are privately owned, with exception of wildlife related products that are run by local and Central Governments. Honey and beeswax products are owned by Cooperatives as well as parastatals. None of major NWFP enterprises have ever received any government support in terms of machinery or foreign funds. Capital base structure of various plants is inadequate, hence financial constraints that affect production capacities are not easened. However, with the Government's wise decision to liberalise trade in 1986 and to make foreign exchange readily available by introducing incentives to exporters in the form of retention schemes and opening of Bureau de Change shops; the mills and Cooperative Societies within NWFP sector will benefit more, since the much needed foreign exchange will be available, with which to import necessary spare parts and inputs necessary for improving the efficiency of these mills, paving the way for increased productivity and sales (Ndepanya, 1992).
Proper utilisation of human resources in various spheres of the economy to promote productivity efficiency and improve the lives of the people is a pre-requisite for any sustainable development.
4.2.1. Technical capabilities
Generally, there is limited degree of scientific training, research, and dissemination of knowledge regarding production techniques applicable to NWFP sectoral activities in the country with the exception of beekeeping and tannin extracts industries. There is a lack of comprehensive training policy (government and private sector) to ensure that the right people are receiving the right training. In many eases, it will he noted that there is no liaison between one research institute and other institutes. within the same sector. Lack of skilled manpower constitutes a major problem that results in ineffective extension services. Most of the NWFP based mills, like many industries in Tanzania employ labour intensive production methods. The cooperatives on the other hand, employ fewer numbers of full-time staff, for example Tabora Beekeeping Cooperative Society has about 10 full-time staff and a membership of about 5400 beekeepers drawn from the five districts within Tabora Region. Research Institutions need Government subvention to support active research programmes. Usually, through extension services; local staff will he periodically informed of relevant advances in their fields.
4.2.2. Local management skills
In Tanzania, it can be generalised that there is inadequate management of the existing forest resource to sustain future demand both for wood and non-wood products. These forests are being abused in many parts of the country due to inadequate supervision.
However, local knowledge of management techniques, product processing technologies do exist; though not well documented in the following areas:
- Traditional medicines. The amount of information available at the species level is inadequate for assessing the status of medicinal plants.- Fibre/handicrafts (including wood carvings) production of competitive quality.
- Aromatics/oils production, and spice processing.
- Game hunting and fish catching using toxins.
- Gum arabic tapping/collection from wild Acacias.
On the other hand, imported technologies and well taped local skills are found in the Tannin extract industry, rubber industry, Cinchona bark production, Tourist based activities and the traditional beekeeping industry that accounts for the bulk of honey and beeswax production. However, there is an urgent need to reorientate and strengthen training in practical skills and extension, at the Beekeeping Training Institute (BTI) in Tabora and establishment of a Bachelor of Science degree course in Beekeeping at the Sokoine University of Agriculture in Morogoro to impart local management skills at professional level tailored to Tanzanian conditions. The course could also cater for the needs of other African countries.
Banking loans to NWFP industries in most cases is not. sufficient to meet various needs, which in turn leads to low productivity, low efficiency and lower revenues. Personnel and facilities utilized in NWFP sector are mostly not sufficient, in experienced and adequately not maintained respectively, to impart the desirable impact on capacity utilization of mills.
In order to reverse this trend, the NWFP subsector like others, should be provided with professional skills, together with requisite resources, notable capital, trained personnel, transport, provision of incentives to use and develop forests by the private sector etc.
4.4.1 Review of policy and legislation
Forestry and Beekeeping Division is charged with responsibility of developing and managing the forest resources in Tanzania. Furthermore the division has the main duty of contributing to the national economy by providing goods and services pertaining to the forestry activities together with the collection of lawfull dues attached to these goods and services. These policies and legislations are aimed at stopping people from cutting forestry products as if they are free commodities, but at the same time promoting better utilisation of these on a sustainable basis.
Revitalisation of existing legislative codes and policies regarding use, access (land tenure etc.), processing and trade of NWFP for instance, once implemented would lead to revitalisation of the industry. Forest policies that are both environmental protection and market oriented should he instituted. The proposed forest policy encourages private sector investment not only in wood industry but also in the non-wood products sector. The beekeeping policy prior to 1986 for instance, put more emphasis on modern methods of beekeeping in order to increase honey and beeswax production, though the bulk of these products are still produced b traditional methods. Hence, the proposed policy must acknowledge that most beekeeping in the country is done by traditional and non-chemical methods. Beekeepers in that case need assistance to obtain maximum quality and quantity crops using materials that are now available to them Rather than promoting only modern hives, the policy should advocate the use of whichever hives are appropriate for a given situation; whereby modern hives should only be encouraged where they have proven ecological or economic advantages.
Legislation must be drawn-up and enforced quickly to prevent the import and export of honey bees and used beekeeping equipment to avoid over exploitation of the bees, introduction of diseased strains and contamination through used equipment.
Forest policy and Forest ordinance as stated above, are currently being revised so as to make sure that they reflect present day and future vision of the place of forestry in the National Development.. After revision, an aggressive campaign will be carried out to educate not only the forestry personnel but also leaders and the general public on the provision of these two instruments.
4.4.2 Effectiveness of policy and legislation
In Tanzania, and elsewhere, it is recognized that. some policies have encouraged deforestation through market and policy failures (Mbonde, 1992). The forest policy At present is being reviewed and will involve participatory dialogue among stake holder both in public. and private sector. For example, in tobacco growing areas deforestation rate is high owing to fuelwood exploitation for curing the crop. It is the intention of the Government that some functions are transferred to local communities and the private sector and strengthening institutions to ensure that new and leaner forestry agencies have capacity needed for effective forest management. Amongst key challenges facing Tanzania to date in the forestry sector, include: Enhancing social and cultural benefits of forest resources - that is, increasing the production of non-wood forest products to enable rural and urban people to benefit from intact forests and thereby give these people an incentive to preserve the forests. one example whereby market and policy failures has been experienced in the country, involved the establishment of GAPEX a government export organisation in 1978/79. Since its establishment, there were no honey exports to European market. because only limited quantities were produced. After its dissolution in 1988/89, more honey has been reaching European market. The cooperatives, private sector and parastatals engaged in beekeeping handle the products themselves. The Government has to look a new at various policies which affect the NWFP sector development, especially on management of forests, financing, and new investment opportunities, with a view to increasing productivity and hence their contribution towards GDP.
5.1 Major NWFP
5.2 Geographical distribution
5.3 Yield/Management of principal resource base
Traditionally, NWFP which have been exported from Tanzania have mainly been Tannin extract, honey, beeswax, gum arabic and Cinchona barks. In recent years, animal trophies and live animal exports have been introduced. Traditional medicinal herbs, though of vital importance to rural populations, are not exported. These major NWFP have been discussed in detail under chapter 3 above and their contribution to the economy of Tanzania has also been outlined, (Annex II on Statistical Data).
Suffice to say that the principal sources of the major NWFP are as follows:
- Tannin extract from grassland wattle plantations of TanWatt Company at Njombe, Iringa region and the Giraffee Extract Company at Lushoto, Tanga region. Scattered farmers' wattle wood lots are-also found in the nearby Kilimanjaro and Arusha regions.- Honey and beeswax, scattered throughout the country, but concentrated in Miombo woodlands, high rain Forest areas, Acacia woodlands and agricultural lands (coffee, sunflower estates etc). Amongst the Miombo woodland high potential beekeeping Districts in the country include the Western: Tabora, Urambo, Kahama, Kibondo, Mpanda, Chunya and Manyoni Districts; the North-Eastern: Handeni, Kilosa, Kiteto and Kondoa Districts: and the South-Eastern: Liwale, Mbinga, Songea and Tunduru Districts.
- Gum arabic, from Acacia woodlands in semi arid areas of Tanzania such as Urambo in Tabora Region; Singida and Iramba Districts in Dodoma Region; Bariadi and Shinyanga Districts in Shinyanga Region; Kiteto, Mbulu and Hanang Districts in Arusha Region; Same, Hai and Mwanga Districts in Kilimanjaro Region and Handeni Districts in Tanga Region.
- Cinchona barks, from commercial tea estates in the mountainous areas of Usambaras and Southern highlands
- Animal trophies and live animals, in Game reserves, National parks and controlled public areas. The major National Parks include the World famous Serengeti National Park; Lake Manyara, Tarangire and Arusha National Parks in Arusha Region; Kilimanjaro National Park in Kilimanjaro Region; Mikumi and Udzungwa National Parks in Morogoro Region; Rubodo Island National Park on Lake Victoria; Kitavi Plains National Park in Rukwa Region; the Ruaha National Park in Iringa Region and Gombe River National Park in Kigoma Region. Among the famous game reserves in the country are the Seleous Game Reserve occupying parts of Morogoro, Lindi, Ruvuma - and Iringa Regions; Ngorongoro Conservation Area in Arusha Region; Mkomazi Game Reserve in Same District, Kilimanjaro Region and Maswa Game Reserve in Mara Region. There are also a number of game controlled areas in the public lands including the Loliondo forming part of the Serengeti Ecosystem in Ngorongoro District; Ngorongoro, Mto wa Mbu in Arusha Region; Umba River, Rungwa River, Utengule Swamps and Kilombero. Others are the Sanya Plains and Rau Forest in Kilimanjaro Region and those found on the Isles of Pemba and Zanzibar.
- Medicinal plants as outlined in detail under section 3.1.6 and elsewhere in the report, together with plant toxins are obtained largely from the wild sources in the forested areas of the country.
5.3.1 Tannin extract
Tannin extract from black wattle has world-wide markets, though production has been on a decline overtime. This is due to declining supplies of wattle bark by farmers and plantations owned by the Government (Magamba Forest plantation, Kilimanjaro, Meru Mts. and in Mbulu District) and the TanWatt's own wattle plantations. Also the decline, is due to competition from synthetic materials, development of non-tanning uses and regional marketing stabilisation. Yields of bark for tannin extract over the past two decades has also declined due to restricted exploitation of the mangroves along the coast. For instance, in the 70's, exports of wattle bark extracts averaged about 9000 tons whereas in the 80's both production and exports averaged about 4000 tons only. Production has again improved from 1990 onwards (Annex II).
5.3.2. Honey and bees wax
Areas with the greatest potential for beekeeping include forests, woodlands, bushlands and wooded grasslands, and these account for over 70% of Tanzania's total land area. From the high rainfall forests; miombo woodlands; bushlands and Acacia thickets; wooded grasslands will. miombo spp. Dombeya and Parinari as excellent sources of light coloured honey of pleasant flavour; Desert and semi-desert type of vegetation though too dry but have high potential in certain areas, Euphorbia spp. and Xerophytes are good for honey production; to cultivated areas most fruit and vegetable crops are good sources of forage for bees and in high rainfall zones, coffee produces high quality honey; have excellent beekeeping potential. Grasslands e.g. Masai steppe, are important beekeeping areas, though generally have lower potential due to low rainfall, hut the associated Acacias, attract high honey bees populations. Permanent swamps, are good beekeeping zones due to presence of flowering trees and an ample water supply. Despite the fact that the silvicultural management of miombo species is largely unknown; any management interventions must consider possible effects on the flowering of trees and thereby on beekeeping. Like other NWFP, yield of honey and beeswax for the last decade has been on a decline. In the 70's Tanzania used to he one of the leading producers of beeswax, with an annual output of approximately 600 tons. Many beekeepers produce and sell their honey locally to end users. In 1988, for instance, the private sector was responsible for the export of at least 20 Tonnes honey (worth about 23000 US$) to the Middle Fast and 324 Tonnes beeswax (worth around 800 000 US$) to Europe and Japan. Export of honey and beeswax by private sector reduced considerably during 1989-90 period, hut is showing signs of recovery since then (Annex II).
5.3.3 Gum arabic
The product could have potential for increased exports, since after liberalising trade in 1986, there has been an increase in the production of gum arabic, which has resulted into the increase of quantities being exported. More and more people have now gone into export trade. Frequent devaluation of local currency, has also encouraged many exporters of gum arabic For instance, to increase their export quantities. The product is being tapped by individual farmers from the Acacias. Export of gum arabic jumped from 383.8 Tonnes in 1986 to 740.2 Tonnes in 1990 (Annex II).
However, for sustainable yields, the acacia resources should be inventoried and the natural stock should be increased by plantations, since gum arabic producing trees can be easily propagated by seeds. Gum collection and sales should be adequately organized, presumably on Cooperative society basis instead of individual farmer's approach.
5.3.4 Cinchona barks
Silvicultural practices for the Cinchona trees is a well known fact. Increased acrage on suitable sites will ensure sustainable yields for the products. Tanzania, is one of the main Cinchona - producing countries. The most important alkaloids contained in the hark and used in medicine are quinine and quinidine. While quinine is used as an antimalarial, quinidine is used as a cardiac depressant to control curicular fibrillation (Husain, A. 1988). At one time, the use of quinine as an antimalarial drug had gone down and production of Cinchona hark as well as alkaloids had decreased considerably due to competition offered by synthetic drug sources. Because of development of resistant strains of the malarial parasites, the use of quinine as an antimalarial drug has increased recently and it is expected that with the reappearance of malaria in African and Asian countries, the use Of quinine will increase in those countries. For example, exports of Cinchona barks declined from 160.9 tones in 1986 to about 119.8 tonnes in 1990, but a year later, exports increased to 755.9 tonnes in 1991 (Annex II).
5.3.5 Wildlife based activities
The Tourism Division is charged with the wildlife related resources that include the National parks, game reserves and controlled areas in the country. In these reserved areas, all legal wildlife based activities are operating, like live animal cropping, animal trophies harvesting and tourism itself as outlined under section 3.2.1 above. Moreover, of lately the Government has taken deliberate measures in making tourism a more sustainable industry by encouraging more private investors' involvement in this sector. More tourist hotels are planned to he run on either joint venture with the Government or by the private sector so as to improve the efficiency and accommodate the projected booming Tourist industry.
There are a number of problems and constraints that binder the promotion and further development of NWFP in the country as high lightened in the preceding chapters. These are summarized hereunder:
(i) In relation to all major NWFP:(a) There is over exploitation of natural resources e.g. forests due to indiscriminate harvesting of trees and other woody plant materials of medicinal value; wild animals due to poaching; dwindling fish supplies due to situation of dams/water sources that has been caused by deforestation of catchment forests.(b) Most of the reserved natural forests are without appropriate management plans and harvesting on public lands is widely without any control.
(c) There is unreliable statistical data on NWFP for smooth planning and management.
(ii) Specifically, in the Tannin extract industry:
(a) Control of bark quality from various suppliers (farmers) is difficult at the Giraffe Extract Company, resulting in lower processing yields.(b) Owing to technological advancement, the Giraffe Extract mill has now to face the change in market requirement in preference of powdery extract while the present product is being sold as a solid extract. At Tan-Watt Co. modernization of product processing has been accomplished to produce a variety of products from high quality and ordinary powder to green strips.
(c) Some wattle growers are exporting bark to Poland, Kenya and India, probably encouraged by higher prices than offered by local producers or mills. However, for long-term interests of the country, trade should he properly controlled led by offering remunerative prices to producers of bark.
(iii) For honey beeswax production:
(a) Traditional beekeepers lack marketing support either from the Government or Cooperatives etc. This is also true for other products like gum arabic, traditional medicines, handicrafts including carvings, aromatics industry that. are privately run, toxins preparation by peasant farmers or hunters.(b) Traditional beekeepers are unable to both produce and market table honey commercially because they don't have the transport facilities of containers.
(c) Money is needed to buy honey and beeswax from beekeepers by the cooperatives since the society does not receive payment from subsequent sales until several months later. With more funds, the cooperatives or parastatals could offer- more competitive prices and hence handle larger volumes of products and ultimately he able to offer dividends to members, further stimulation beekeeping and the local economy.
(iv) For Food-vegetal products like edible mushrooms both research aimed at increasing production and marketing support is totally lacking, rendering this product to be of little economic value.
(v) For Cinchona harks produce, due to technological advancement, the Mazumbai Quinine factory is being faced with the option of rehabilitation of the aging facilities so as to produce semi-processed drugs to meet domestic as well as export demand.
(vi) The acreage under plantations can not, support the local tyre manufacturing industry, hence necessitating importation of raw materials from elsewhere.
(i) There is a low rate of capacity utilization of mills and other production units due to low working capital/weak capital base. Of particular emphasis, Tanzanian Tourism industry is facing the same draw hack of low capacity utilisation due to weak capital base.(ii) Shortage of foreign exchange which could he used to finance imports of necessary spare parts for rehabilitating aged machinery and equipment.
(iii) High cost of transport or both raw materials and finished products resulting from the bad state of roads and railway network as well as the ever rising cost of fuel and spare parts.
(iv) Clearing imports may delay up to 6 months the availability of necessary suppliers.
(v) Certain NWFP industries like the Tan-Watt Co. and Mazumbai Quinine factory are not connected with the national grid and hence, generating their own electricity is costly.
(vi) Poor management and inexperienced personnel in certain mills acts as a bottle-neck in the development of the NWFP sector.
(vii) Working skills and low working capital are the major problems hindering the establishment of the naval stores industry in the country.
(viii) Lastly, in the past the awareness of decision makers and the general public on the contribution of NWFP sector to the GDP and the physiological needs of the rural communities was very low, leading to such goods being called "minor forest products". This attitude has not changed much, though of lately, the Tanzanian government has embarked on a number of programmes aimed at the sustainable supply of NWFP.
Much as there has been increased efforts by the Government in exporting wood and non-wood forest products as evidenced in the export performance in recent years, Tanzania is not a major supplier of these products in the international markets (with exeption of Cinchona barks and Wildlife related products) and it, has failed to exploit the existing market potential despite its having very big reserves
In recognition of these problems, the Government should develop comprehensive strategy to these diverse factors that can transform the social and economic processes. The key elements of this strategy are:
The present production levels of both wood and non-wood products are too low to adequately satisfy the growing demand of both domestic and export markets. Improvement of production levels can be done through:
(i) Increasing capacity utilization of non-wood processing mills.(ii.) Ensure proper maintenance of production machinery and equipment.
(iii) Application of modern technology in products harvesting and processing. Most of the mills in the country need rehabilitation so as to enhance productivity.
(iv) Improvement of knowledge relevant to forest and non-wood products management - both basic and applied research should be emphasized in order to improve techniques of forest management, and provide specific inventory data for investment opportunities in both the wood and non-wood forest products sectors.
(v) Introduction and evaluation of new forage crops trees, grass, bushes for multiple use. Carry out phenological observation to provide necessary information on species availabilities.
(vi) Increased planting of various indigenous fruits-bearing forest tree species on large plantation scale is highly recommended. The introduction of forest and fruit species to agricultural areas and their possible domestication and improvement through breeding offer considerable possibilities, not only in the improved nutrition of rural populations but in their economic potential to provide cash incomes derived from the sale of their raw fruits or processed products.
(vii) National inventories of medicinal plants, and other non wood forest products like Acacia woodlands for gum arabic production; rubber plantations, natural aromatic tree species etc. are essential if sound programmes for their rational use and exploitation are to be developed. Such inventories, still largely to be effected in Tanzania; need to describe the geographical and climatic distribution on of various products, their source and an indication of their relative abundance or scarcity. For the scarce products, efforts on their resource management including establishment should be put into practice.
(viii) Improved market and marketing strategy by:
(a) Product advertisement through participation at trade mission/fairs(b) Formulating integrated promotional strategies that would enable to attract more buyers.
(c) Offering best quality products to the export market.
(d) Quotation of most competitive prices for products.
(e) Ensuring strict adherence to sales contractual stipulations in relation to specification of the product (packaging, storage), protection during transport, punctuality of delivery etc.
(f) Diversify products range by promoting and introducing products which have traditionally not been put in the export markets e.g. NWFP like traditional medicines, aromatics, rubber products, naval stores etc.
(i) As of lately, the Government's decision to liberalise trade, this has accelerated latest developments in mill productivity whereby in some mills has already started to pick-up, and this trend is expected to continue. Trade liberalisation has contributed positively towards increases in importation.(ii) Improved infrastructure (Telecommunication, road, railway, power supply) in areas to be harvested and provide accessibility and transport to market destinations.
(iii) Local transport agencies, like (TRC) - Tanzania Railways Corporation, (TAZARA) - Tanzania Zambia Railways Authority, and (THA) - Tanzania Harbours Authority should introduce preferential rates for upcoming non traditional exports.
(iv) Improve the welfare of workers in various industries. Utilize properly trained personnel both in Management and production.
(v) Improving capital base structure in order to ease financial constraints which affect production
(vi) The Government should give exporters special incentives e.g. higher retention rates, access to foreign exchange, simplified export documentation.
(vii) Promotion of Tourism and wildlife based activities through building of better-run tourist hotels; joint venture with Private investors. Taking drastic steps to prevent total loss of the country's endangered wild animal populations e.g. black rhinos, one of great attractions for tourists. New projects of translocating various species into high security game sanctuaries that are fenced could be launched. Once animals are translocated into such areas and let alone, can breed well. Management of wildlife/human inhabitants coexistance schemes should be encouraged such as the Ngorongoro conservation Area Authority whereby, the Maasai people attend their livestock using forage from the National Park, and are allowed to crop for game meat and trophies, while at the same time provide tougher security against poachers. Such measures are aimed at giving local communities incentives to preserve the endangered wildlife populations. The Government should think more on how to provide game meat to the people around wildlife conservation areas instead of leaving the animals to roam the wilderness.
(viii) More national programmes should he drawn up to promote awareness on environmental. conservation. Similar programmes involving local communities are also necessary. These programmes must include sharing benefits accrued from sustainable use of the resource in accordance with the resolution of the Rio de Janeiro United Nations Conference on Environment and Development. Full involvement of the people during the planning stage and implementation of these programmes is a prerequisite to ensure their success.
(i) The demand for non-wood forest products is very big both in the local and export markets. The Government, Private investors etc. should endeavour to exploit all potential markets in order to increase sales volumes, so as to earn more money which will guarantee the survival of the NWFP sector and increase the contribution of the sector to the Economic Recovery Programme (ERP)(ii) Concerted efforts should be geared towards documentation (identification and evaluation) preparation cultivation and conservation of medicinal plants used in traditional medicine. Quality efficacy and accuracy in labelling the constituents of medicinal plant remedies is critical for safety evaluation and drug control.
(iii) Since, the present production levels are insufficient to satisfy the few markets which are being served now it is necessary that. production capacity is increased through rehabilitation of present mills and installation of new capacity.
(iv) Private investments should be encouraged to develop the NWFP sector by investing in the infrastructure, because the Government has little ability to do so now due to the poor state of the economy.
(v) Reliable Data analysis is a key element in any national, regional forestry development process as stipulated in the Tropical Forestry Action Plan (TFAP).
(vi) The success of TFAP depends on the programme being backed and guided by a strong research base, of which in Tanzania like other developing tropical countries, is very weak.
(vii) Single sector approaches in forestry development need to be replaced by a broader approach to sustainable management of forest resources within the national as well subregional resources management framework.
|
CATEGORY OF NWFP |
PRODUCT |
IMPORTANCE OF NWFP |
|
|
Fibre |
Bark |
3 |
|
|
Matts |
2 |
||
|
Bamboo |
2 |
||
|
Baskets |
2 |
||
|
Cork |
3 |
||
|
Forage |
Grass, leaves, branches, live hedges |
1 |
|
|
Food (Vegetal) |
Condiments |
3 |
|
|
Spices |
2 |
||
|
Fruits |
3 |
||
|
Fungi; (Mushroom) |
2 |
||
|
Beaverages |
2 |
||
|
Leaves |
3 |
||
|
Seeds |
3 |
||
|
Oils |
3 |
||
|
Nuts, Betel |
3 |
||
|
Nuts, Shea Butter |
3 |
||
|
Food (Faunal) |
Fish (meat, feed protein, oil) |
|
|
|
Eggs |
3 |
||
|
Game meat (mammals, birds, reptiles) |
1 |
||
|
Honey |
1 |
||
|
Frogs meat |
3 |
||
|
Invertebrates |
2 |
||
|
Non-Food (Faunal) |
Feathers of (Ostrich etc.) |
3 |
|
|
Bees Wax |
1 |
||
|
Live Animals |
1 |
||
|
Animal Trophies: |
|
||
|
|
Mammal Furs |
1 |
|
|
|
Mammal Horns |
2 |
|
|
|
Mammal Teeth (ivory, hippo) |
1 |
|
|
|
Shells (tortoise, etc.) |
3 |
|
|
|
Skins of larger mammals |
1 |
|
|
|
Skins of Reptiles |
1 |
|
|
Medicinal |
Azadirachta indica |
2 |
|
|
Cinchona barks |
1 |
||
|
Caesalpinia decapitala |
2 |
||
|
Croton megalocarpus (bark) |
3 |
||
|
Agave sisalana |
2 |
||
|
Carica papaya (fruit) |
3 |
||
|
Clove oil (Eugenia caryophyllata) |
1 |
||
|
Faidherbia albida (bark) |
2 |
||
|
Acacia mellifera (bark) |
2 |
||
|
Alchornea cordifolia (leaves) |
2 |
||
|
Annona senegalensis (bark, roots) |
2 |
||
|
Bridelia micrantha (bark, roots) |
2 |
||
|
Byrsocarpus orientalis (roots, leaves) |
2 |
||
|
Combretum molle (roots) |
2 |
||
|
Entada abyssinica (seed, roots, bark) |
2 |
||
|
Maytenus buchananii (Leaves, stem wood) |
2 |
||
|
Rauvolfia caffra (bark, root) |
2 |
||
|
Trema orientalis |
2 |
||
|
Trichilia emetica (bark, roots) |
2 |
||
|
Eucalyptus oil/cineole |
+ |
||
|
Cosmetics (Aromatics) |
- Sandalwood Oil (Zanthoxylum gillettii) |
2 |
|
|
- Brachylaena huillensis Oil |
2 |
||
|
- E.A. green heart oil (Warbugia stuhlmannii) |
3 |
||
|
- Cedarwood oil (Juniperus procera) |
2 |
||
|
- Cineol oil/camphor (Ocotea usambarensis, Cinnamonum camphora) |
+ |
||
|
- Cassie oil (Acacia farnesiana) |
+ |
||
|
- Clove oil (Eugenia caryophyllata) |
1 |
||
|
- Eucalyptus oil (E. globulus, E. maidenii, E. regnans, E. saligna) |
+ |
||
|
- Piper capense oil |
+ |
||
|
Extractives |
Tannins: |
||
|
|
- Wattle mimosa extract |
1 |
|
|
|
- Mangrove extract |
3 |
|
|
Textile Dyes: |
3 |
||
|
Lac Latex: |
|||
|
|
- Crude rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) |
2 |
|
|
|
- (Funtumia africana) |
3 |
|
|
Gums: |
|||
|
|
- Gum arabic (Acacia species) |
2 |
|
|
Naval stores: |
|
||
|
|
- gum rosins (P. elliottii, P. caribaea) |
+ |
|
|
|
- waxes |
+ |
|
|
|
- turpentines, oleo-resin, (P. elliottii, P. caribaea) |
+ |
|
|
Others: |
|||
|
Amenity |
Various tree species |
2 |
|
|
Toxins |
Various tree species |
3 |
|
|
Environmental Protection and Improvement |
Forests, Woodlands, Grasslands, Green hedges, etc. |
1 |
|
|
Parks and reserves: |
Floral and faunal conservation, Tourism, Recreation, Hunting, etc. |
1 |
|
|
Legend: |
1. Very important |
|
|
2. Moderately important |
|
|
3. Less important |
|
|
+ High potential product |
|
SPECIES |
PRODUCT |
YEAR OF REFERENCE |
UNIT |
SCOPE |
QUANTITY |
VALUE* US$ |
IMPORTING COUNTRIES (Where known) |
|
|
Acacia mearnsii (Black Wattle) |
Wattle mimosa Extract |
1980 |
T |
E |
6,065.00 |
28,533 |
Cuba, Italy, India, USA |
|
|
Julbernadia, Brachystegia, |
Honey |
1980 |
T |
E |
176.00 |
128,000 |
Middle East |
|
|
Isoberlinia, Acacia and Combretum spp. |
Bees wax |
1980 |
T |
E |
285 (217) |
612,465 |
GFR, Japan, UK |
|
|
Acacias, Brachystegia |
Honey |
1981 |
T |
E |
- |
- |
- |
|
|
and Julbernadia spp. |
Bees wax |
1981 |
T |
E |
442 (437) |
1,748,552 |
Belgium, GF R. Japan, USA |
|
|
Miombo woodland tree spp. and High Rain Forest spp. of Croton, Albizia, Ficus, |
Honey |
1982 |
T |
E |
39.00 |
31,200 |
U A E |
|
|
Melicia excelsa etc. |
Bees wax |
1982 |
T |
E |
148 (197) |
478,336 |
GFR, Japan, UK |
|
|
A. mearnsii |
Wattle Mimosa extract |
1985 |
T |
P |
5,026.00 |
- |
- |
|
|
1985 |
T |
E |
3,889.00 |
153,706 |
- |
|||
|
Miombo woodland tree species |
Honey |
1985 |
T |
E |
1.00 |
750 |
U A E |
|
|
Bees wax |
1985 |
T |
E |
66.7 (90) |
168,084 |
GFR, Japan |
||
|
A. mearnsii |
Wattle mimosa extract |
1986 |
T |
P |
2,902.90 |
- |
- |
|
|
T |
E |
2,439.00 |
65,325 |
- |
||||
|
Acacia spp. |
Gum arabic |
1986 |
T |
E |
383.80 |
255,000 |
- |
|
|
Julbernadia, Acacia, |
Honey |
1986 |
T |
E |
3.00 |
2,250 |
Kuwait |
|
|
Combretum, Brachystegia spp. |
Bees wax |
1986 |
T |
E |
21.7 (106) |
58,590 |
- |
|
|
Cinchona spp. |
Cinchona barks |
1986 |
T |
E |
160.90 |
138,000 |
- |
|
|
A. mearnsii |
Wattle mimosa extract |
1987 |
T |
P |
3,497.00 |
- |
- |
|
|
1987 |
T |
E |
4,985.00 |
61,138 |
- |
|||
|
Acacia spp. |
Gum arabic |
1987 |
T |
E |
283.90 |
312,138 |
- |
|
|
Miombo woodland spp. and |
Honey |
1987 |
T |
E |
17.84 |
25,020 |
- |
|
|
Euphorbia spp. |
Bees wax |
1987 |
T |
E |
216.00 |
616,124 |
- |
|
|
Cinchona spp |
Cinchona barks |
1987 |
T |
E |
131.43 |
234,308 |
- |
|
|
A. mearnsii |
Wattle mimosa extract |
1988 |
T |
P |
3,350.00 |
- |
- |
|
|
Miombo woodland spp |
Honey |
1988 |
T |
E |
20.50 |
23,475 |
Kuwait, UAE, Saudi Arabia |
|
|
Coffee plantations |
Bees wax |
1988 |
T |
E |
324.00 |
792,514 |
GFR, Japan, UK |
|
|
Animal Trophies:- |
||||||||
|
|
- Elephants |
Ivory |
1988 |
Kg |
E |
2,543.73 |
254,373 |
Belgium, GFR, USA, UK |
|
|
- Crocodiles |
Crocodile skins |
1988 |
No. |
E |
1.00 |
500 |
UK |
|
|
- Zebras |
Zebra skins |
1988 |
No. |
E |
3.00 |
3,000 |
Canada |
|
Acacia spp. |
Gum arabic |
1988 |
T |
E |
427.00 |
356.000 |
UK, Australia, India, Sri Lanka |
|
|
Live Animals: |
||||||||
|
|
- Ostriches |
Birds |
1988 |
Nos. |
E |
92,000.00 |
794,465 |
Belgium, UK, Portugal |
|
|
- Vervet monkeys, Gazelles, Impalas etc. |
Mammals (small) |
1988 |
Nos. |
E |
353.00 |
18,470 |
USA, GFR, UK |
|
|
- Crocodiles, snakes |
Reptiles |
1988 |
Nos. |
E |
1,036.00 |
42,350 |
Soviet Union, Saudi Arabia, Japan |
|
|
- Termites, grasshoppers, millipedes |
Insects and Anthropads |
1988 |
Nos. |
E |
380.00 |
390 |
Netherlands, Italy |
|
|
- Frogs |
Frogs (Amphibians) |
1988 |
Nos. |
E |
90.00 |
90 |
Japan, Hong-Kong |
|
Cinchona spp. |
Cinchona barks |
1988 |
T |
E |
94.4 |
163,100 |
UK, Belgium, Netherlands |
|
|
A. Mearnsii |
Wattle mimosa extract |
1989 |
T |
P |
4,305.00 |
- |
- |
|
|
|
E |
1,648.40 |
4,370,988 |
Thailand, USA Zambia, Canada |
||||
|
Julbernadia, Brachystegia, |
Honey |
1989 |
T |
E |
62.00 |
14,565 |
UAE, UK, Sweden |
|
|
Isoberlinia Acacia, Combretum etc. |
Bees wax |
1989 |
T |
E |
221.10 |
510,231 |
GFR, France, UK, Japan |
|
|
Animal Trophies: |
||||||||
|
|
- Elephants |
Ivory |
1989 |
Kg |
E |
1,609.50 |
160,950 |
Australia, Belgium |
|
|
- Crocodiles |
Crocodile skins |
1989 |
Nos. |
E |
142.00 |
131,928 |
France, UK, USA |
|
|
- Zebras |
Zebra skins |
1989 |
Nos. |
E |
7.00 |
7,000 |
Canada, GFR, Spain |
|
|
- Hippopotamus |
Hippo teeth |
1989 |
Kg. |
E |
65,860.00 |
34,983 |
Belgium, Spain, France |
|
|
- Ostriches, parrots |
Birds skins and Feathers |
1989 |
Kg. |
E |
400.00 |
963 |
Norway, UK, Australia |
|
|
- Tortoise |
Tortoise shells |
1989 |
Kg |
E |
22.00 |
1,219 |
UK, Italy, Pakistan |
|
|
- Colubus & vervet monkeys, otter |
Fur skins |
1989 |
T |
E |
3,912.00 |
57,474 |
Hong Kong, India, Pakistan |
|
Live Animals: |
||||||||
|
|
- Ostriches, Love birds, parrots |
Birds |
1989 |
Nos. |
E |
9,000.00 |
983,865 |
Japan, Netherlands |
|
|
- Vervet Monkeys, Serval cat, Impala |
Mammals |
1989 |
Nos. |
E |
1,361.00 |
33,540 |
USA, Belgium, UK |
|
|
Crocodiles, snakes |
Reptiles |
1989 |
Nos. |
E |
2,084.00 |
39,165 |
UK, France, USA |
|
|
- Termites, grasshoppers etc. |
Insects |
1989 |
Nos. |
E |
200.00 |
200 |
Portugal, Saudi Arabia |
|
Cinchona spp. |
Cinchona barks |
1989 |
T |
E |
150.1 |
265,758 |
Belgium, UK, Netherlands |
|
|
Acacia seyal, A. Senegal, A spirocarpa |
Gum arabic |
1989 |
T |
E |
503.3 |
262,646 |
Australia, GFR, India, Sri Lanka |
|
|
Hevea brasiliensis |
Raw rubber |
1989 |
T |
E |
2.7 |
368,733 |
Syria and Singapore |
|
|
Quercus spp, Erythrina excelsa |
Cork |
1989 |
T |
E |
70.8 |
21,368 |
Italy, Zimbabwe |
|
|
Zanthoxylum gilletti, Pinus spp. etc |
Essential oils, Resinoids |
1989 |
T |
E |
40.0 |
15,645 |
UAE |
|
|
Areca catechu |
Betel Nuts |
1989 |
T |
E |
1.0 |
2,520 |
Zambia |
|
|
Mpingo, muhuhu, Combretum spp. |
Wood carvings |
1989 |
T |
E |
184.7 |
728,302 |
USA, Sweden, Uganda |
|
|
Acacia mearnsii mangroves |
Dyeing, Tanning & colouring materials |
1989 |
T |
E |
18.0 |
12,969 |
Pakistan, USA |
|
|
Miombo woodland spp. |
Honey |
1990 |
T |
E |
36.0 |
78,100 |
UAE, UK |
|
|
Bees wax |
1990 |
T |
E |
234.0 |
565,540 |
UK, GFR, Japan |
||
|
Animal Trophies: |
||||||||
|
- Elephants |
Ivory |
1990 |
Kg. |
E |
4,929.25 |
492,925 |
Belgium, GFR, India |
|
|
- Zebras |
Zebra skins |
1990 |
Nos. |
E |
10.00 |
10,000 |
Canada, Spain |
|
|
Live Animals: |
||||||||
|
|
- Ostrich, Flamingo, Love birds, Guinea fowl, Parrots |
Birds |
1990 |
Nos. |
E |
91,200.00 |
3,803,475 |
UK, Australia |
|
|
- Vervet monkeys, Impala, Gazelle |
Mammals |
1990 |
Nos. |
E |
779.00 |
104,495 |
UK, France, USA, Japan |
|
|
- Crocodiles snakes, |
Reptiles |
1990 |
Nos. |
E |
1,272.00 |
49,715 |
UK, France, USA |
|
|
- Termites, grasshoppers |
Insects and Anthropad |
1990 |
Nos. |
E |
904.00 |
5,504 |
- |
|
|
- Cinchona spp. |
Cinchona barks |
1990 |
T |
E |
119.8 |
265,000 |
Netherlands, Belgium, UK |
|
Acacia mearnsii |
Wattle mimosa extract |
1990 |
T |
E |
5,538.15 |
- |
- |
|
|
Acacia spp. |
Gum arabic |
1990 |
T |
E |
740.20 |
370,100 |
India, GFR, Austria |
|
|
Acacia mollissima (A. mearnsii) |
Wattle mimosa extract |
1991 |
T |
P |
5,466.51 |
- |
- |
|
|
T |
E |
4,282.67 |
2,854,260 |
Italy, Egypt, Pakistan, Kenya, Thailand, USA, Canada, Zambia, Bangladesh |
||||
|
Mpingo, muhuhu, combretum spp. |
Wood carvings |
1991 |
T |
E |
78.40 |
194,750 |
UK, USA, Japan, Hong-Kong |
|
|
Brachystegia, Julbernadia, Isoberlinia, Acacia, Terminalia, Dombeya and Parinari spp. |
Honey |
1991 |
T |
E |
140.60 |
116,790 |
UAE, Saudi Arabia |
|
|
Cinchona spp. |
Cinchona barks |
1988 |
T |
E |
94.4 |
163,100 |
UK, Belgium, Netherlands |
|
|
A. Mearnsii |
Wattle mimosa extract |
1989 |
T |
P |
4,305.00 |
- |
- |
|
|
E |
1,648.40 |
4,370,988 |
Thailand, USA, Zambia, Canada |
|||||
|
Julbernadia, Brachystegia, |
Honey |
1989 |
T |
E |
62.00 |
14,565 |
UAE, UK, Sweden |
|
|
Isoberlinia Acacia, Combretum etc. |
Bees wax |
1989 |
T |
E |
221.10 |
510,231 |
GFR, France, UK, Japan |
|
|
Animal Trophies: |
||||||||
|
|
- Elephants |
Ivory |
1989 |
Kg. |
E |
1,609.50 |
160,950 |
Australia, Belgium |
|
|
- Crocodiles |
Crocodile skins |
1989 |
Nos. |
E |
142.00 |
131,928 |
France, UK, USA |
|
|
- Zebras |
Zebra skins |
1989 |
Nos. |
E |
7.00 |
7,000 |
Canada, GFR, Spain |
|
|
- Hippopotamus |
Hippo teeth |
1989 |
Kg. |
E |
65,860.00 |
34,983 |
Belgium, Spain, France |
|
|
- Ostriches, parrots |
Birds skins and Feathers |
1989 |
Kg. |
E |
400.00 |
963 |
Norway, UK, Australia |
|
|
- Tortoise |
Tortoise shells |
1989 |
Kg. |
E |
22.00 |
1,219 |
UK, Italy, Pakistan |
|
|
- Colubus & vervet monkeys otter |
Fur skins |
1989 |
T |
E |
3,912.00 |
57,474 |
Hong Kong, India, Pakistan |
|
Dombeya, Parinari and other Miombo spp. |
Beeswax |
1991 |
T |
E |
473.87 |
2,450,450 |
GFR, Japan, UK, |
|
|
Animal Trophies: |
||||||||
|
- Elephants, Zebras, Lions, Leopards, Pythons, Cheetah |
Ivory and skins |
1991 |
T |
E |
255.67 |
1,012,770 |
Australia, Belgium, GFR, Japan |
|
|
Live Animals: |
||||||||
|
- Ostrich, Parrots, Love birds |
Birds |
1991 |
Nos. |
E |
135,159.00 |
346,810 |
Hong-Kong, Japan |
|
|
Cinchona spp. |
Cinchona barks |
1991 |
T |
E |
755.92 |
258,000 |
Belgium, UK, Netherlands. |
|
|
Acacia senegal, A. spirocarpa etc. |
Gum arabic |
1991 |
T |
E |
385.54 |
904,110 |
Austria, GFR, India |
|
|
Hevea brasiliensis |
Raw rubber |
1991 |
T |
E |
10.453 |
913,820 |
Syria, Singapore |
|
|
Acacia mearnsii |
Wattle mimosa extract |
Jan/June 1992 |
T |
E |
1,114.50 |
1,787,330 |
Thailand, USA, Cuba, Pakistan, India |
|
|
Julbernadia, Brachystegia, |
Honey |
Jan/June 1992 |
T |
E |
262.26 |
- |
UAE, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, UK, Sweden |
|
|
Combretum, |
Beeswax |
|
T |
E |
265.00 |
719,490 |
UK, GFR, Japan |
|
|
Animal Trophies: |
Various |
Jan/June 1992 |
T |
E |
222.30 |
1,337,710 |
Japan, GFR, Belgium, Norway |
|
|
Live Animals: |
||||||||
|
|
- Ostrich, Guinea-fowl, Parrots, Flamingo, lovebird |
Birds |
Jan/June 1992 |
Nos. |
E |
22,108.00 |
47,550 |
Hong-Kong, Japan |
|
|
- Vervet monkeys Gorillas, Impala, Gazelles |
Mammals |
Jan/June 1992 |
Nos. |
E |
112.00 |
32,170 |
Japan, USA, GFR, UK |
|
Cinchona spp. |
Cinchona barks |
Jan/June 1992 |
T |
E |
147.00 |
98,290 |
Netherlands, Belgium, UK |
|
|
Mpingo, muhuhu, Combretum spp. |
Wood carvings |
Jan/June 1992 |
T |
E |
36.27 |
103,870 |
USA, Japan, Belgium, GFR. |
|
|
Hevea brasiliensis |
Raw rubber |
Jan/June 1992 |
T |
E |
20.60 |
- |
Singapore, Syria |
|
|
Acacia seyal. A. senegal, A. spirocarpa |
Gum arabic |
Jan/June 1992 |
T |
E |
311.85 |
99,150 |
GFR, India, Austria |
|
LEGEND:
T: Tonne Kg: Kilogramme Nos: Numbers P: Production figures E: Export figures; US$ United States dollar* Indicative Export World Market values. For honey and bees wax February 1989 prices: Honey 1800 US$ per T. bees wax 2360 US$ per T respectively. Export values are in United States Dollars (US$). July/August 1992 prices: honey 1070 US$ per T f.o.b, bees wax (sorted/refined) 2800 US$ per T; gum arabic 500 US$ per T.
|
SOURCE: |
Honey and bees wax 1980 - 1988, Customs Department and Central Bank of Tanzania. |
|
|
Alternative figures in brackets for bees wax are from Foreign Trade Statistics 1986, Bureau of Statistics, Dar es Salaam, December 1988. For 1989 - 1992 figures, are from Foreign Trade Statistics, DSM June 1992. |
|
|
Wattle mimosa extract 1985 - 1991 Production figures (P) from Bureau of Statistics, Dar es Salaam, December 1991. Export figures (E) 1980 - 1987, Customs and Sales Tax Department and Central Bank of Tanzania. Export figures 1988 - June 1992, Foreign Trade Statistics, Dar es Salaam. |
|
|
Animal Trophies and Live animals 1988 - 1990 figures, Wildlife Division, Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, Dar es Salaam, December 1990. Export figures 1991 - 1992, Foreign Trade Statistics, Dar es Salaam, June 1992. |
|
|
Other products - Cinchona bark, Wood carvings, gum arabic, raw rubber and essential oils 1986 - 1992 Export figures Foreign Trade Statistics, Dar es Salaam, and Customs & Sales Tax Department, Dar es Salaam, June 1992. |
|
NB: |
- No figure available. |
|
|
World market prices for forestry and non-forestry products on international market as given by the BoT journal "Trade Current" are just indicative. There are no official/government controlled prices for export. However, the exact prices for export are fully negotiable, based on quality and other terms (e.g. handling, packaging, after packaging etc., time of delivery) and consideration. |
|
YEAR OF REFERENCE |
NO. OF TOURISTS |
FOREIGN CURRENCY EARNINGS US$ MILLIONS |
|
1980 |
84,021 |
18.00 |
|
1981 |
92,000 |
20.00 |
|
1982 |
71,290 |
15.00 |
|
1983 |
54,000 |
16.00 |
|
1984 |
64,000 |
10.00 |
|
1985 |
81,821 |
10.00 |
|
1986 |
103,363 |
27.00 |
|
1987 |
130,851 |
31.05 |
|
1988 |
130,343 |
40.40 |
|
1989 |
137,889 |
60.00 |
|
1990 |
153,000 |
65.00 |
|
1991 |
186,800 |
94.73 |
|
1992 |
227,900* |
138.30* |
Key
* Projection figures
|
Source: |
Tourism Division, Ministry of Tourism, Natural Resources and Environment, Dar es Salaam, 1992; Central Bank of Tanzania, August 1992. |
1. Akerele, O. (1988). Medicinal Plants: Polities and Priorities Proceedings of an International Consultation organized by WHO, IUCN and WWF. 21-27 March 1988 held at Chiang Mai, Thailand.
2. Bryce, J.M. (1967). Commercial Timbers of Tanzania. Utilisation section Moshi, Forest Division, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives.
3. FAO (1983). Food and Fruit-bearing forest species 1:Examples from Eastern Africa. FAO Forestry paper No.44/1.
4. FAO (1991). Non-wood forest products: The way ahead. Rome: FAO Forestry Paper No. 97.
5. Farnsworth, N and Soejarto, D. (1988). Global Importance of Medicinal plants. Proceedings of an International consultation organized by WHO, IUCN and WWF. 21-27 March 1988 held at Chiang Mai, Thailand.
6. Forestry and Beekeeping Division (1991a). Tanzania Forestry Action Plan 1990/91-2007/8. Ministry of Lands, Natural Resources and Tourism. Dar es Salaam. First Draft, 89 pp.
7. Goor, A.Y. and Barney, C.W. (1968). Forest Tree planting in Arid Zones. The Ronald Press Company; New York.
8. Hickin, N.E. (1971). Termites a World Problem. The Rentokil Library.
9. Husain, A. (1988). Economic Aspects of Exploitations. Proceedings of an International Consultation organized by WHO, IUCN and WWF. 21-27 March 1988 held at Chiang Mai, Thailand.
10. Kihwele, D. and Bradbear, N. (1989). Beekeeping. TFAP Tanzania. Sector Review Mission Report No. 15, Dar es Salaam. Ministry of Lands, Natural Resources and Tourism.
11. Kowero, C.S. and Hofstad, O. (1989). Economic Aspects of Tanzanian Forestry. TFAP Tanzania Sector Review Mission Report No.7. Ministry of Lands, Natural Resources and Tourism.
12. Mbonde, G.P.L. (1992). Forest Policies and the role of the private sector. Paper presented at seminar on Investment opportunities in Forestry in Tanzania. Dar es Salaam, November 10, 1992.
13. Mgeni, A. (1990). Tanzania Forestry Action Plan TFAP 1990/91 2007/8. Ministry of Lands, Natural Resources and Tourism. Dar es Salaam. Sept. 1990.
14. Morgan, W.T.W. (1972). East Africa: Its people and Resources. Oxford University Press.
15. Ndepanya, A. (1992). Markets for forest products: Wood and non-wood products. Paper presented at Seminar on Investment Opportunities in forestry in Tanzania. Dar es Salaam, Nov. 10, 1992.
16. Nicholas, P. (1960). Introduction to Plant Geography. Longmans.
17. Ogana, W. (1991). Bamboo: Kenya's untapped green gold. Science and Technology features service. All Africa Press Service.
18. O'Ktingati, A. (1992). Financial returns from tree crops. Paper presented at Seminar on Investment. Opportunities in forestry in Tanzania. Dar es Salaam, November 10, 1992.
19. Rulangaranga, Z.K. (1991). Conservation of medicinal and aromatic plants in Tanzania. Proceedings of a workshop on Priority species for Tree planting and Afforestation in Tanzania held at Morogoro Tanzania. May 14-18, 1990.
20. Watkins, C. (1960). Trees and Shrubs for planting in Tanganyika.
|
Profile No. 10* |
|
|
Project Title: |
Research: Beekeeping in Miombo woodland. |
|
Priority: |
High |
|
Location: |
Beekeeping Training Institute (BTI) and/or Tanzania forestry research Centres based near Miombo woodland. |
|
Duration: |
Two years |
|
Objectives: |
Immediate - Investigate the management of miombo with respect to beekeeping potential |
|
|
- Evaluate the effect and extent of use of bark for hives and other domestic containers. |
|
|
- Identify wood-efficient methods of hive manufacture |
|
|
- Establish reliable figures for the current and potential extent and value of beekeeping within Miombo woodland |
|
|
Development: - To encourage beekeeping as an economic sustainable source of income from miombo woodland, and thereby help to safeguard its conservation. |
|
|
- Develop strong sectoral linkages between beekeeping forestry and conservation. |
|
Justification: |
Miombo woodland is being cleared at the rate of an estimated 300 000 ha. per annum. However, beekeeping can provide an economic reason for the retention of miombo. |
|
Beneficiaries |
Local people living in or near miombo benefit from a sustainable source of income for themselves and future generations. There is, and is likely to continue to be a strong market for the products of beekeeping. |
|
|
Tanzania through stimulation of the economy and export earnings (particularly of beeswax). |
|
|
Tanzania and the whole region through conservation of the environment. |
|
Activities: |
- Experiment on hive manufacture and production of bark hives with least damage to trees. |
|
|
- Establish a team to gather reliable data. |
|
|
- Investigate management practises within miombo with regard to beekeeping. |
|
Institutional Framework: |
BIT, Tabora |
|
Special considerations: |
Information on miombo tree species valuable for beekeeping already exists, but all discussion of the value of beekeeping is hindered by lack of reliable data (statistics) |
|
Cost estimate: |
Foreign input 300 000 US$ (1989 Estimates). |
|
|
350 000 US$ (1992 Estimates). |
|
State of preparation: |
Profile. |
* From the Sector Review Mission Report No. 15 of Tanzania TFAP by Kihwele, D. and Bradbear, N.
Project Proposal
|
Project Title |
Comparative studies on grass/tree fodder crops utilization in three ecological zones of Tanzania - semi arid, Savannah woodlands and Humid highlands. | |
|
Priority: |
High | |
|
Location: |
Semi arid zone (Shinyanga, Dodoma); Savannah woodlands (Tabora) and Humid highlands (Arusha, Kilimanjaro Mts.) | |
|
Duration: |
2 years | |
|
Objectives: |
Immediate: - To investigate the management of these 3 ecological zones - semi arid, miombo and montane, with respect to livestock forage cultivation potential. | |
|
|
- Establish reliable figures for the current and potential extent and value of fodder cultivation within the 3 zones. | |
|
|
- Identify economical fodder cultivation methods. | |
|
|
Development: - To encourage fodder crop cultivation as a socio-economic sustainable source of income of the rural people in livestock keeping areas in Tanzania; and help overcome overgrazing and bush encroachment for fodder. | |
|
|
- To meet food scarcity for livestock especially during the dry season. | |
|
|
- Develop strong sectoral linkages between forestry, agriculture and animal husbandry. | |
|
Justification: |
To a greater extent, the forage needs for communal domesticated animals (cattle, goats, sheep) still is afforded from the wild sources, which it entails overgrazing of grasslands and forest encroachment close to their habitats in the high stocked-livestock farming areas. However, forage management can halt the rate of bush encroachment, for instance. | |
|
Beneficiaries: |
Local people living in rural areas where cattle grazing is a preoccupation as a source of income, food for themselves. | |
|
|
The Nation, through environmental conservation by planting of multiple tree fodder crops. | |
|
Activities: |
- Investigate management practises within the 3 ecological zones with regard to forage cultivation. | |
|
|
- Establish a team to gather reliable statistics so as to overcome the paucity of information. | |
|
Institutional framework: |
Tanzania Forestry Research Institute, Morogoro; Ministry of Agriculture Training Institutes located in these three zones; | |
|
|
Funding agency. | |
|
Special considerations: |
Information of good fodder trees and grasses within each ecological zone already exists, but the paucity of information on the value of the fodder crops, their contribution to the economy of rural people in those areas where livestock keeping is an important activity; is due to lack of reliable data. | |
|
Cost estimate: |
Foreign input |
25,000 US$ (1992 Estimates) |
|
|
National input |
2,500 US$ |
|
State of Preparation: |
Profile (proposal). | |
