Pilot country study - Zimbabwe

1. Introduction
2. Environmental and socio-economic background
3. Non-wood forest products and their importance
4. Institutional responsibility for non-wood forest products
5. Legislation relevant to non-wood forest products
6. Key non-wood forest products and their exploitation
7. Problems and constraints
8. Recommendations
9. Acknowledgements
10. References

NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS ZIMBABWE

Bruce Campbell and Tim Brigham
April, 1993

Paper prepared for the FAO expert consultation on non-wood forest products (anglophone Africa).

1. Introduction

Attention on non-wood forest products in the forestry discipline is relatively recent, mostly limited to the last decade (FAO, 1983, 1991; Rao, 1991; Poulsen, 1982), though the interest in such products from botanists and anthropologists goes back many years, as evidenced by the journals Economic Botany, Journal of Natural Products, formerly Lloydia, and Journal d'Agriculture Traditionelle et de Botanique Appliquee (and its predecessor), which began publication in the 1930s and 1940s - see also Wickens, 1990). The recent attention is a result of many influences (FAO, 1991), including deteriorating economies (and the need for generating and saving foreign currency), the realisation by foresters that local people are dependent on forests and woodlands for products other than wood (Poulsen, 1982; Bradley and McNamara, 1980; Bradley and Dewees, 1993), the concerns of developing countries about conservation of tropical forests and biodiversity (Groombridge, 1992; Juma and Cable, 1992), and the development of new markets for 'environmentally-friendly' products (May, 1990; Jenner, 1989).

The aim of the present paper is to examine the non-wood forest products of Zimbabwe, to identify their importance at local, national and international levels and to investigate the institutional and other constraints on their development.

2. Environmental and socio-economic background

Zimbabwe, covering some 390,000 km², consists of four main physiographic regions. One of these, the eastern mountains, forms a narrow band along the Mozambique boundary. The rest of the country is characterised by a north-east to south-west watershed, the highveld (above 1,200 m); this descends to the Zambezi river in the north-west and the Limpopo in the south-east, in a series of plateaux, with the middleveld (900 - 1200 m) giving way to the lowveld (below 900 m). Approximately two-thirds of the country lies above 900 m.

Five main vegetation types cover Zimbabwe: Afromontane forest and grassland in parts of the eastern highlands; Zambezian miombo woodland covering the high and middleveld; mopane woodland and scrubland dominating the lowveld; large areas of Acacia scrubland in the southwest; and dry forest and scrubland on the Kalahari sands in the west.

Rainfall is the greatest physical constraint to agricultural production in Zimbabwe, and falls in a single season (November to March) annually. Altitude and relief greatly affect temperature as well as rainfall. Some two-thirds of the country receives on average less than 750 mm of rainfall per year and only 5%, the eastern mountains, receives on average more than 1000 mm (Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, 1987). The soils of Zimbabwe, derived largely from granite and basement complexes, are inherently infertile. The combined constraints of rainfall and land capability reduce the area of land suitable for intensive dryland cropping to about 17% of the national area.

An overriding feature of land use, and therefore of environmental development and conservation, has been the apportionment of land and the duality of the agricultural sector (Gore et al., 1992). At independence in 1980, there were four major land use categories: communal farming areas, commercial farm land, parks and wildlife estate (comprising mostly national parks and safari areas), and forestry land. These apportionments left farming land divided more or less evenly between black and white farmers, although whites constituted less than 6% of the population.

The magnitude of the social and environmental problem is exacerbated by the distribution of commercial and communal farm land in relation to agricultural potential. The communal farming area covers some 16.5 million hectares, the greater proportion of which falls within the areas of low potential. Much of the land in communal areas is under threat due to severe population-resource imbalances. Many communal areas have population densities exceeding 50 persons/km² (Ashworth, 1990). The Zimbabwe population is presently about 10.4 million, with an annual growth rate of over 3% (CSO, 1992). Over half the population is under the age of 15. Of the total population, some 20% live in urban areas, mostly in Harare and Bulawayo.

In order to redress the unequal distribution of land, the government initiated a resettlement programme in 1981, by which land is acquired from the commercial sector for resettlement of families from communal land. The aim was to resettle around 160 000 families on over half of the former white commercial land. To date less than half the number of families have been resettled on some 2.7 million hectares, and the programme contributes little to relieving land pressure in communal areas, given the magnitude of the population-resource imbalance.

Communal Areas and Resettlement Areas are characterised by small-scale, low-input, agro-pastoral systems. They occupy just over half of Zimbabwe's land area and accommodate 57% of Zimbabwe's population. Communal Areas tend to be densely populated and relatively deforested (Whitlow, 1980; Whitsun Foundation, 1981; du Toit and Campbell, 1988) and Resettlement Areas also appear to be undergoing rapid deforestation (Grundy et al., 1992).

Households in Communal Areas have small arable fields, typically about 3 ha in total area (Bratton, 1987; Reh et al., 1988). Maize is the staple crop. Other important crops are finger millet, bulrush millet, groundnuts, sunflowers and cotton. Croplands are in close proximity to grazing areas, which are used communally. The savanna in most of these grazing areas has been opened by tree cutting for timber and fuelwood or was previously cleared of trees for purposes of cultivation (Campbell et al., 1991). Cattle, goats and chickens are the chief livestock. They are usually kept for home use rather than commercial slaughter. Cattle are used for milk, manure and draught purposes and also have an important exchange value, especially in the payment of lobola (bride price) (Scoones, 1992). In grazing areas, trees and their products are used communally and control of their use varies from region to region.

The Zimbabwe economy is dominated by the agricultural sector, with good rainfall seasons producing favourable economic performances in most other sectors (CSO, 1987). The agricultural sector is the largest employer of labour (25%) in the formal economy and contributes around 15% to GDP and 35% to export earnings. The large-scale sector contributes most to output, but by 1986 communal farm production had increased to 32% of total agricultural output (with 61% of communal production being retained for own consumption) (Ashworth, 1990).

The forestry sector is comparatively small, mostly based on intensively managed pine and eucalypt plantations covering only 110 000 ha. It is largely located in the eastern highlands on state land under the control of Forestry Commission or on land owned by large companies (Forestry Commission, 1991). The country is self-sufficient in wood and has an expanding panel and pulp industry. The value of primary processing alone is valued at US$40 million per year (World Bank, 1992). Indigenous forest resources presently only account for 5% of industrial wood output and their contribution will continue to decline (World Bank, 1992).

3. Non-wood forest products and their importance

3.1 Introduction and definitions
3.2 Importance of products in the large-scale sector
3.3 Importance of products in the small-scale sector
3.4 Importance of service functions of forest lands
3.5 General discussion and relative importance in relation to wood products

3.1 Introduction and definitions

The term 'non-wood forest products' is one of the many terms used to describe the products under discussion, others being the dismissive epithet 'minor forest products', 'lesser-known forest products', 'wild resources' and 'non-traditional forest products' (e.g. de Beer and Mcdermott, 1989; Rao, 1991). 'Non-wood forest products' is used in the present report, but is also taken to include some products that would not strictly be encompassed by the term, these being: (i) wood for the production of handicrafts (including household utensils and agricultural tools), and (ii) service functions of forest lands, including climate amelioration and maintenance of aesthetic and cultural values. A note is necessary on the inclusion of livestock products as non-wood forest products. In the FAO (1991) publication wild animal products are regarded as non-wood forest products and range products (graze, browse, shade) are also included as non-wood forest products (under service functions of forest land). The exclusion of livestock products is somewhat peculiar, as the range products are of importance to both wild animals and domestic livestock. In Zimbabwe forage for the production of livestock and wildlife is largely derived from free-range movement in the woodlands and savannas. If the argument is that wild animals are not managed and that livestock are managed, then this argument is weak as numerous forest goods that are included under the term 'non-wood forest products' are managed, as evidenced by the considerable body of indigenous technical knowledge and practice (reviewed by Campbell et al., 1993). For these reasons, we include livestock products as non-wood forest products.

In Zimbabwe the term 'forest' is rather inappropriate, as most of the landscape from which non-wood forest products are collected is covered by woodland, savannas and scrubland. Non-wood forest products can be collected from 'natural' systems, the remnants of 'natural' systems (e.g. indigenous trees left scattered in cultivated land) or managed systems, mostly plantations. Horticultural domesticated tree crops, mostly fruit trees, are not covered by the present report. There is a diverse horticultural industry within the commercial sector, and small-scale farmers usually have a few fruit trees around there homesites, from which they derive produce for local trade and home consumption.

The beneficiaries of non-wood forest products are many, including households in the small-scale sector, land-managers/owners in the large-scale sector and the national treasury. In the next sections, the importance of these products for both the small and large-scale sectors, and the importance of trade at three scales (local, national and inter-national) is assessed. Local trade covers trade of products within communities at the district level (trade at local business centres and growth points). National trade applies to products that reach the main centres in Zimbabwe and which are often traded through national marketing institutions. International trade refers to trade beyond the borders of Zimbabwe. This latter type of trade is, of course, particularly important as it improves the foreign currency reserves of the country.

There is very little data on the value of non-wood forest products, and what data exist can seldom be used for comparative purposes. After developing a list of the products and preparing the matrix shown in Table 1, the relative importance of products to two different sectors was assessed on a 5-point scale as follows. For the formal economy, data on some products for domestic and export production are available (Table 2), and the volume and value of these products can be gauged for each of the sectors from production data (livestock) or estimates of relative land devoted to production (wildlife). For the small-scale sector, there are now some data on livestock-based non-wood forest products (e.g. Scoones, 1992) and on tree-based non-wood forest products (e.g. Campbell et al., 1991), and such studies have formed the basis of the ranking for subsistence products. The ranks are taken to be roughly proportional to gross benefit per hectare.

3.2 Importance of products in the large-scale sector

3.2.1 Introduction

The benefits of non-wood forest products to the large scale sector are largely derived through trade, not subsistence. The beneficiaries within this category include:

a) companies, individuals or the state (Agricultural Development Authority) owning commercial farmland (covering over 12 million hectares);

b) the Forestry Commission, a parastatal, having control of nearly 1 million hectares of State Forest, these being indigenous woodlands and forests, initially established as timber reserves;

c) the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management, which controls nearly 5 million hectares of National Parks and Safari Areas.

It is evident that a very limited range of products are of value to the large-scale sector, the most important being products from livestock and wildlife (Table 1).

Table 1. Classification of non-wood forest products, their importance for various sectors and for trade at various scales. Key: blank cells = no value; **** = very valuable.

Category of non-wood forest product	Product	Importance of non-wood forest product
		Importance to sectors			Importance of trade
		Large-scale sector	Small-scale sector		Local	National	International
			Subsistence	Trade
ANIMAL (domestic): FOOD	Meat	****	***	***	*	****	**
	Milk		***
ANIMAL (wild): FOOD	Bush meat	*	*			*	*
	Insects		**	*	*	*
	Fish		**	*	*
	Honey	*	*	*	*	**
ANIMAL (domestic): NON-FOOD	Hides, leather	***	**	*		*	**
	Traction		****
	Fertilizer		***
ANIMAL (wild): NON-FOOD	Tourism	****		**		*	****
	Hunting	***		**		*	****
	Live animals	**				**
	Tusks, hides etc	**		*			*
PLANT: FOOD	Fruits		***	**	*	*
	Fungi	*	**	**	*	*	*
	Leaves		*	?
	Nuts		*	*		*
	Roots, tubers		*	?
	Flowers		*
	Bark, sap		*
PLANT: FIBRE AND MATERIALS	Bark		***	*	*
	Thatch	*	***	*	*
	Reeds, wood		**	**	**	*	*
	Fertilizer		**
	Live plants	*				*
COSMETIC & MEDICINAL	Medicines		***	**	*	*
	Toxins		*
PLANTS: EXTRACTIVE	Dyes		*
	Gums			*		*

3.2.2. Livestock

In the large-scale sector, livestock production is carried out by individual farmers, large companies and the state Agricultural Development Authority on commercial farmland, with the chief product being meat, mostly for the domestic market (Table 2). The export value of meat has fluctuated widely in the last decade (Fig. 1), with severe curtailment of exports related to outbreaks of foot and mouth disease (Jansen. et al., 1992). Hides and leather in the piece are also relatively important export products (Table 2, Fig. 1). Milk is not regarded as a non-wood forest product in the large-scale sector, as most milk is produced under intensive management rather than from free-range cattle.

Figure 1. Value of exports from Zimbabwe: livestock products, curios and lumber (data from CSO, 1989, and CSO, 1991). 1989 data missing because of change in reporting year

Table 2. The quantity and value of wildlife and livestock products and timber.

Product	Quantity (t=tonnes, #=numbers m=million)		Value (Zim$ million2 yr-1)		Year	Source
	Total	Export	Total	Export
Cattle (large-scale sector)	1.7 m#				1990	Herd size: Jansen et al. (1992)
			353		1990	Offtake sales (milk & meat): CSO (1991)3
Cattle (small-scale sector)	4.0 m#				1990	Herd size: Jansen et al. (1992)
			8001		1990	Sales + subsistence: Cumming and Bond (1991)
			81		1990	Offtake sales (milk & meat): CSO (1991)
Beef (all sectors)	63300 t	3100 t	226	19	1990	Sales (net realized): Jansen et al. (1992)
Hides (all sectors)		2186 t		16	1990	Export value: CSO (1991)
Leather (all sectors)		2848 t		15	1990	Export value: CSO (1991)
Wildlife (all gross revenue, both sectors, data regarded as rough estimates)
Hunting			45	45	1991	Jansen et al. (1992)
Tourism			500	300	1991	Jansen et al. (1992)
Live animals			6.2	small	1991	Jansen et al. (1992)
Meat, hides			1	?	1991	Jansen et al. (1992)
Ostrich			20	20	1991	Jansen et al. (1992)
Timber (both sectors)	43400 m3		3.3		1990	timber output (data from Bradley and Dewees, 1993)

¹ This value is based on the valuation of cattle functions by Barrett (1991); if the valuation by Scoones (1992) was used, the value would be roughly three times as high.

² Zimbabwe dollar has performed against the US dollar as follows: US$ per Zim$: 1978: 1.47; 1979: 1.47; 1980: 1.56; 1981: 1.45; 1982: 1.31; 1983: 0.99; 1984: 0.79; 1985: 0.62; 1986: 0.60; 1987: 0.60; 1988: 0.55; 1989: 0.47; 1990: 0.40; 1991: 0.29; 1992: 0.20.

³ Reduces to about Z$220 million if milk production excluded (CSO, 1991).

3.2.3 Wildlife

Wildlife producers in the large scale sector include individual farmers, large companies, Forestry Commission and the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management, with 22% of the country now devoted to wildlife production (Fig. 2). 2.7 million hectares of commercial farmland, roughly 20% of the total is being managed for wildlife production (sometimes in conjunction with livestock) (Cumming, 1990). More than half of the state forest land is managed for wildlife, and Forestry Commission has its own safari company.

Considerable revenue, mostly as foreign currency, is derived from tourism and safari hunting, with some also from the sale of live animals and wildlife trophies and by-products (Table 2). The tourist industry is generally considered to be the third highest generator of foreign currency behind mining and agriculture (dominated by tobacco and cotton) (Jansen et al., 1992; CSO, 1987). The industry is estimated to be 95% 'nature-based' (Jansen et al., 1992), with wildlife and scenic attractions forming the basis. Thus tourism can be regarded as one of the most important non-wood forest products.

Figure 2. Land areas (km²) used for wildlife conservation in Zimbabwe in 1990 (Cumming, 1990)

Gross income from sport hunting has risen steadily from just over US$2 million in 1984 to US$9.3 million in 1990 (Jansen et al., 1992). Elephant, especially before the international embargo on trade in ivory, constitute a large proportion of this value, estimated to be US$4.7 million in 1989, a return of US$75 km² yr^-1 in prime elephant habitat (Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management, 1989). The demand for live animals, from the expanding safari industry on commercial farmland, cannot be met, mostly because of strict veterinary controls in the face of recent foot and mouth disease and the lack of game capture units (Cumming, 1990). In the six years 1982 to 1987, ivory sales realised Z$500 000/annum (CSO, 1989). At current prices it is estimated that Zimbabwe could earn US$4 million per annum, but the international ban on trade in ivory has precluded trade (Child, B., quoted in Zimbabwe Wildlife Apr. 1992). Ostrich are farmed intensively, mostly for hides, and earn substantial foreign currency (Table 2). Crocodiles are also farmed intensively, but are not included here as most of their feed is not from the wild.

3.2.4 Other products

Other non-wood forest products that are utilised by the large-scale sector are of minor importance to the sector. From the indigenous woodlands, they include thatching grass (sold to households in the small-scale sector by Forestry Commission and large-scale farmers), honey and live indigenous plants or seeds. From the plantations, the chief non-wood forest products are honey and mushrooms, with an export market for the latter having been recently initiated. Forestry Commission has a section involved in seed sales, with a proportion of this being based on indigenous resources (Table 3). Seed for the commercial forestry sector, based on eucalyptus and pine, dominate the sales figures. The Commission and a number of private companies are also involved in the marketing of indigenous plants for the ornamental market, but no data are available.

Table 3. Value of seed sales by Forestry Commission in 1990 and 1991, broken down by Pine, Eucalyptus and Other. The latter category mostly includes indigenous species except for exported seed in 1991 which is mostly Acacia melanoxylon.

	To other sections within Forestry Commission (Z$)			To other institutions within Forestry Commission (Z$)			Exported (US$)
Year	Euc.	Pine	Other	Euc.	Pine	Other	Euc.	Pine	Other
1990	10057	5931	1308	6412	9487	1142	1111	90527	107
1991	4419	6308	1781	10471	10233	2321	5707	109727	8637

3.3 Importance of products in the small-scale sector

3.3.1 Introduction

In this section the importance of non-wood forest products is assessed for the small-scale sector (covering some 20 million hectares). Importance is assessed both for subsistence needs and cash income. Cash income may be based on sales either by individuals (e.g. local trade) or by the community (e.g. sales of hunting rights to safari companies).

3.3.2 Livestock

As in the large-scale sector, some of the most important non-wood forest products in the small-scale sector are derived from livestock and wildlife (Table 1). In the case of livestock, the value of cattle production is immense (Table 2), even though offtake and sales are small and do not contribute much to the national economy or international trade, which is dominated by the large-scale sector (Table 2). Data from valuation exercises for cattle in the small-scale sector, indicate that only 12% of total value are derived from sales (Fig. 3), a figure which is comparable to the 10% derived from estimates of the herd size in small-scale areas and national sales from the sector (Table 2). A further small proportion of sales occur locally, and do not enter national statistics.

The dominant end product of subsistence cattle production is draught power (for ploughing) followed by, with roughly equal value, transport, cattle sales. milk (largely for home consumption) and manure (for fertilization of the cultivated land) (Fig. 3). Of much smaller significance are meat for home consumption and investment (cattle are kept as an investment against risks and as sources of funds for occasional large expenses, such as school fees - Scoones, 1992).

The data presented in Table 2 relate to cattle, but goats are another important component of small-scale farming systems, with goat numbers being roughly 40% of cattle (Cumming and Bond; 1991). Using the valuation of subsistence and commercial goat products by Scoones (1992) and the numbers of goats in communal areas, the total value of goat production is roughly Z$55 million yr^-1, some 20% of cattle value in this sector. Goats are particularly important for meat and milk (Scoones, 1992),

Another way of illustrating value of woodland. for livestock is shown in Fig. 5, where range production accounts for roughly 25 to 30% of the total value of non-wood forest goods (excluding wood and service functions of forest lands).

3.3.3 Wildlife

The large-scale sector also dominates wildlife production, with only 14% of the total wildlife production area being based in communal lands (Fig. 2). None the less, wildlife production in communal areas is significant, with 1.2 million ha (roughly 5%) of communal land being managed for wildlife production (Murphree and Cumming, 1991). No detailed data are available at a national level for the small-scale sector, so the relative importance of wildlife products for Table I is assumed to be roughly 10% of that in the large-scale sector (i.e. in proportion to land devoted to wildlife production). Communal land safari concessions had a potential to earn about US$3.8 million in 1990 (Jansen, pers. comm., in Cumming, 1990). A proportion of these wildlife revenues are returned to the community, either to community institutions or as dividends for individual households (Cumming, 1990). In addition, households receive meat from culling operations.

Figure 3. Percentage value of different functions of cattle (from data presented by Cumming and Bond, 1991, ARDA, 1987, Barrett, 1999, Danckwerts, 1974, GFA, 1987, and Scoones, 1992)

Apart from the above formalized arrangements for wildlife utilization, there are also poaching activities, which in Zimbabwe are either for international trade (ivory and rhino horn) or for domestic meat consumption. Murindagomo (1988) estimated that subsistence hunting in one area of Zimbabwe, Dande, gave five times greater returns per hectare than did dividends paid by commercial safari hunting. Apart from the illegal hunting of large mammals in those communal areas where wildlife populations are still abundant, there is extensive use of rodents and birds throughout the small-scale farming areas (see Wilson, 1990, and McGregor, 1991, for much detail). These authors present data which show the importance of bushmeat for household food security. Vibrant markets for bushmeat, as found in West Africa (Scoones et al., 1992), are not found in Zimbabwe, partly because trade in most species is illegal.

3.3.4 Other animal-based food products

Other animal-based products include honey, insects and fish, all of which are mostly used for domestic consumption, with a minor amount of local trade. Honey and insects are collected and eaten by almost all households, but seasonally and in low amounts (Campbell et al., 1991; McGregor, 1991; Wilson, 1990). Important edible insects include termites, caterpillars and some orthoptera, while honey is obtained from honey bees, mostly from the wild, or stingless bees (McGregor, 1991; Wilson, 1990). Trade in these products is conducted by less than 10% of households and is mostly local (Campbell et al., 1991), but in recent years caterpillars begun to be marketed in very small quantities in supermarkets. Fish consumption is probably higher than that of the above products, with Wilson (1990) recording fish as part of the relish in 12% of meals. However, it is unclear what proportion of the fish is obtained from woodland streams and rivers in the area and what proportion is obtained by trade from outside the community. McGregor's (1991) data indicate that only 1% of meals are from local fish.

3.3.5 Plant-based food products

Of the range of food products derived from woodlands, by the far the most important are wild fruits (Campbell, 1987; McGregor, 1991; Campbell et al., 1991; Wilson, 1990). All households use wild fruit, mostly as snacks, but in some areas up to 25% of meals of poor households in the dry season may include a fruit component (Wilson, 1990). This percentage may be much lower in other areas (e.g. less than 3% of meals at any of three sampling periods - McGregor, 1991). Much use of wild fruits is by primary school children (Campbell, 1987). Of all tree-based forest products, wild fruits are probably the most frequently marketed (by around 10% of households) (Campbell et al., 1991). Most of this sale is localised, but many types of fruit also reach the main towns of Zimbabwe (Brigham, in prep.). Although market size is uncertain, stallholders in the main Harare market reported significant profits from the sale of masowe (Ziziphus mauritiana) fruits both direct to the public and to sidewalk vendors. The major wild fruit species are listed in Appendix 1.

As with domestic fruits, most sales of wild fruit do not involve processing. One exception is the small market for Parinari curatellifolia fruits which had been processed into sweet cakes for local sale, mainly to school children (Brigham, in prep.). Another exception, is the juice or wine made from Sclerocarya birrea, which is largely used for home consumption and for agricultural work parties (Gumbo et al., 1990).

Other food products include fungi, leafy vegetables (from woodland herbs and a few woody plants), roots and tubers, flowers from a few woody plants, bark and sap (for chewing and drinking) and nuts (Tredgold, 1986; McGregor, 1991; Sharp, 1988; Wilson, 1990). Most household will consume these products, but as with other forest foods such as honey and insects, the quantities are small and seasonal and 5% or fewer household are involved in trading in these products (Campbell et al., 1991). McGregor (1991) recorded mushrooms in 1.5% to 4% of meals at three different times of the year, indicating that they may be as important as wild fruits in main meals (with wild fruits having overall more importance because of widespread use as a snack). Informal sector trade at a national level is evident for mushrooms, many of which are obtainable at roadside markets during the wet season, for prices around Z$0.70/kg (Sharpe, 1988). McGregor (1991) recorded collection by the sackful. Limited trade (50 kg/yr) in nuts from the marula, Sclerocarya birrea, has been taking place for many years, with small-scale producers in one area supplying a health shop in Harare. The retailer indicated that sales were limited by the small volumes sent by the suppliers.

Gathered wild foods are used mainly as relishes, but can also be a basic energy source, especially during times of seasonal hunger or drought (Wilson, 1990). The importance of non-wood forest products in the diet may not be in the quantity consumed but rather in: (i) contributing minerals and vitamins, and thus to balancing the diet (Campbell, 1987; Bradley and Dewees, 1993; Poulsen, 1982; McGregor, 1991; Wilson, 1990); (ii) contributing to the diet in times of stress (Campbell, 1987; Wilson, 1990), and (iii) contributing to the diets of poorer households (Wilson, 1990). Using very preliminary production data, it is estimated that wild fruits have about five times greater value, as measured by replacement cost, to households than the total value of honey, mushrooms, insects and wild vegetables (Campbell et al., 1991), and that wild foods as a group provide a considerable proportion of the total value of woodland goods (Fig. 5).

3.3.6 Fibre, materials, fertilizer

Households use forest products for a range of essential household and agricultural equipment, including cooking sticks, mortars, plates, baskets, mats, implement handles and yokes (Campbell et al., 1991; see Ellert, 1984, for detailed documentation on the material culture of Zimbabwe). Although many households will themselves make some of the above goods, there are members of communities who specialise in the production of these items, and thus there is a small local trade in these goods. Table 4 illustrates that the number of households involved in production and trade is limited: only 16 households out of 443 surveyed (around 4%) (Brigham, in prep.). The small number of households participating in craft production seems to suggest a limited role for this sector; however, the extensive market for these products indicates their importance within the local economy. A total of 349, or nearly 79% of the households surveyed, reported they had purchased at least one of the products listed (Table 4). One-third of purchasing households stated they had purchased five out of the six products.

Given the number of local people purchasing craftwork, there is clearly a significant local trade in these products. Data from craft-making households also indicate most production is intended for local consumption. However, informal interviews with craftsmen regarding their marketing channels suggest a somewhat different picture (Brigham, in prep.). A number of the craftsmen, while acknowledging the importance of local sales, reported frequent sales to communities up to one hundred kilometres away; some also travelled several times per month to Harare to sell their wares. Market outlets depend to some degree on the nature of the product involved. For example, tool handles and yokes tend to be sold locally whereas kitchen utensils such as wooden spoons, plates and bowls have a market in both rural and urban areas. One carver interviewed, working out of his home with assistance from relatives, supplies a total of a thousand or more spoons per month to buyers within the commercial sector. An unexpected finding was the degree to which mortars are marketed outside the rural areas. A craft maker stated he had no difficulty selling 25 mortars over a period of two days in Harare. Another craftsman, through a local middle-man, sold two orders totalling 46 mortars to South Africa; a craft worker from the same area supplied mortars for sale within Botswana.

The marketing practices described by Brigham (in prep.) challenge the perception that craftwork is exclusively a localised, limited and somewhat passive activity. Instead, as indicated by the sales and income data summarized in Table 4, the craft sector is made up of a range of enterprises that operate at widely varying levels of activity. A significant proportion of craft sellers in fact rely largely on the income earned through these sales and, as Mhone (1991) suggests, display considerable enterprise and ingenuity in their activities. Several craftsmen were acting on perceived market opportunities in the hopes of expanding their business or addressing some of their business problems. These options included new products which provided higher cash returns to labour or focused on expanding into different markets to reduce time and travel expenses.

Apart from the above craftwork for household products, there is production of crafts for the tourist industry. The crafts include baskets, mats, wooden and stone carvings and pots (some products are not truly forest products). Overall, as much as 10-15% of households may be involved in craft making for cash income (Campbell et al., 1991), and this percentage may be much higher in areas close to tourist centres. Craft workers in Mangwende earned an average of Z$53 yr^-1, while in Binga District producer households received roughly $130 yr^-1 (Campbell et al., 1991). Helmsing (1987) in a survey of over 17000 households in the communal areas recorded 15% as being involved in non agricultural enterprises, with a major proportion of these being based on non-wood forest products, with craft activities dominating this proportion (Fig. 4). Crafts (and works of art) produce not unsubstantial foreign currency earnings through formal sector marketing (Fig. 1). However, it is unclear to what extend these earnings are based on non-wood forest products, as they also include pottery and stone carving.

Table 4. The marketing of tree-based craft products in Mangwende, Mutoko and Uzumba Communal Areas (from Brigham, in prep.¹). The sales and income data refer to amounts per selling household.

Product	Buyers	Sellers	Yearly sales per household	Yearly income per household	Average price
Mortars	312 (70,4%)	4 (0.9%)	mean: 15.75 med.: 4.5 s.d.: 24.9	mean: 196.5 med.: 67.5 s.d. 294.2	12.50
Kitchen Utensils	284 (64.1%)	5 (1.1%)	mean: 159.0 med.: 20.0 s.d.: 226.3	mean: 102.2 med.: 10.0 s.d.: 130.3
Yokes	230 (51.9%)	3 (0.7%)	mean: 21.0 med.: 12.0 s.d.: 21.0	mean: 390.0 med.: 150.0 s.d.: 441.9	18.55
Furniture	216 (48.8%)	4 (0.9%)	mean: 5.0 med.: 5.0 s.d.: 2.95	mean: 64.75 med.: 22.5 s.d.: 90.5	12.952
Tool Handles	214 (48.3%)	6 (1.4%)	mean: 16.5 med.: 13.5 s.d.: 7.5	mean: 36.0 med.: 37.5 s.d.: 26.3	2.20
Bark Products3	61 (13.7%)	4 (0.9%)	mean: 3.75 med.: 2.0 s.d.: 4.2	mean: 39.0 med.: 35.5 s.d.: 36.8	10.402
TOTALS4	349 (78.8%)	16 (3.6%)	-------5	mean: 193.65 med.: 60.00 s.d.: 440.00	-------5

¹ Sample size is 443 households from 20 randomly selected sites.
² Both these figures are derived from a range of products rather than a single product line.
³ Products containing either bark alone (such as a beg) or having bark as part of its construction (such as a reed mat with bark twine).
⁴ Craft-selling and craft-buying households may sell and buy a number of products, therefore figures may not add up to expected totals.
⁵ Sales and prices are not comparable across a range of products.

Fibres are required for many household tasks (Poulsen, 1982) and most households collect the bark of trees for their fibre needs, with a limited amount of trading also taking place (Campbell et al., 1991). Vendors selling green leafy vegetables at local markets use bark fibre to tie the bundles, and McGregor (1991) recorded bark rope being sold to vegetable vendors in Shurugwi. Some households also generate income through the sale of handbags or reed mats utilising bark twine in their construction (Table 4) (Brigham, in prep.). Important species for bark collection are noted in Appendix 1.

Thatching grass is used by almost all households but because of shortage of grass, much grass is derived from areas outside the communal lands (Hawkes, 1992). Certain members of the community may specialise in thatching roofs (Fig. 4, Helmsing, 1987).

Large volumes of leaf litter are collected from woodland by between 20 and 70% of households, depending on area (Campbell et al., 1991; McGregor, 1991). The quantities involved may be quite large, Nyathi and Campbell (1993) recording around 0.4 tonnes per household per annum in communal areas. The litter is either applied directly to fields and gardens or added to the cattle pen (and then eventually returned to the fields with the manure) (Nyathi and Campbell, 1993). The litter may be particularly important as a fertilizer source for poorer households without access to other fertilizer sources (McGregor, 1991). The contingent valuation indicated that woodland inputs to crop production, i.e. litter, were regarded by householders as substantial, but a replacement cost calculated on the basis of nitrogen provided by litter suggested a much lower value (Fig. 5).

Figure 4. The non-agricultural enterprises in communal areas (Helmsing, 1987), showing which are based on non-wood forest products.

3.3.7 Medicines and pharmaceuticals

Approximately 500 species, 10% of Zimbabwe's flora, including many tree species, are used medicinally by traditional healers (Gelfand et al., 1985). Traditional healers have an important role in both rural and urban communities, providing advice, divination and herbal prescriptions for physical and psychological complaints. Traditional healers in relation to population figures in Zimbabwe are estimated to be 1:234 in urban areas and 1:956 in rural areas (Gelfand et al., 1985; Cunningham, 1990), ratios much lower than those for medical doctors.

Unfortunately, there are no quantitative data on volumes or value of trade and consumption. Cunningham (1990) provides some data indicating the importance of medicinal plant products, e.g. some medicinal plants are moved to distances over 200 km. In local markets, the section for medicinal plants is usually larger than those for any other non-wood forest product (pers. obs.). Campbell et al. (1991) record just under 10% of households as being involved in marketing of medicinal products. Another study (Brigham, in prep.) conducted in the Murewa, Mutoko and Uzumba Communal Areas, found less than 1% of households were involved in the marketing of medicines derived from the woodland; approximately 11% reported purchasing these products. A traditional healer encountered during the research suggested that the use of medicinal herbs had declined over the past two decades in large part due to the preference of younger people for western medicine (Brigham, in prep.). The contingent valuation of woodlands suggested a relatively low value for tree-based products as a source of health as compared to other functions of trees and woodlands (Fig. 5).

Toxins used for bird lime and catching fish (Wilson, 1990) may be considered as potential pharmaceuticals.

3.3.8 Plant extractive products

Plant extractive products are not very important in the household economies in Zimbabwe. Some dyes derived from woodland sources are used in various crafts, and small quantities of gum from Acacia are collected and sold to a company in Buluwayo. Oil extracted from the seeds of Trichilia spp. was once used for soap production, and there appears to be some potential to develop a small industry around the oil from this species (Grundy and Campbell, 1993).

3.4 Importance of service functions of forest lands

One service function of forest land is the provision of range: graze, browse, shade and shelter for domestic livestock and wildlife (FAO, 1991). This has been taken care of by considering livestock and wildlife products as non-wood forest products. Soil improvement and protection is a service function of forest land. There are many studies showing the value of trees for soil improvement (reviewed by Campbell et al., 1991, and further reported on in Campbell et al., in prep.). Biodiversity maintenance is another service function, but little attempt has been made to value this service function for Zimbabwean woodlands (Campbell, 1993). In the formal market, it is reflected in the tourism potential of the country, which is sizeable (Table 2). One ecological service function concerns the importance of trees and woodlands in influencing the hydrological cycle, but few studies are available to document the influences (du Toit, 1985, presents data on river flow patterns, and Wilson, 1990, and McGregor, 1991, present data on people's perceptions about changes in the hydrological cycle). Other service functions include the maintenance of aesthetic and cultural values. Some trees are sacred, some are linked to ancestral spirits and some are used as landmarks, play facilities and meeting places (Wilson, 1990: Campbell et al. 1991).

One attempt at placing a value on service functions for Zimbabwean conditions is the contingent valuation of Campbell et al. (1991) (Fig. 5). From the data it appears that roughly 25% of the total value of woodlands is considered to be related to service functions, with ecological service functions rated highly.

3.5 General discussion and relative importance in relation to wood products

The value of some of the above-mentioned non-wood forest products, some with figures running into the hundred millions, should be contrasted with more conventional forestry activity, where total output of industrial timber in 1991 was 961 000 m³ (Forestry Commission, 1991). Of this figure, only 5% was derived from indigenous forests and woodlands, this being largely mukwa (about 70%) and teak. Much of the mukwa is exported as finished furniture, while much teak is exported as railway sleepers (Bradley and Dewees, 1993; Forestry Commission, 1991). The total production value of industrial timber is very small by comparison to that of livestock and wildlife (Table 2). Export data show the same pattern, with railway sleepers being a minor export in comparison to livestock products (Fig. 1), and especially to wildlife products.

Figure 5. Value of tree resources (contingent method: ranking expressed by householders; replacement method: gross replacement cost of good) (Campbell et al., 1991)

The valuation exercises (Fig. 5) show slightly different results because they focus on subsistence and large quantities of wood are used for construction and fuel (Fig. 5). The valuations indicate around 40% of total value is due to wood.

The results support the general contention that non-wood forest products are an important source of cash income for the rural poor (Scoones et al., 1992). This is evident by, for example, the local trade in household utensils. However, the importance of the non-wood forest products in the commercial sector, namely livestock and wildlife, for cash income far exceeds income from non-wood forest products in the small-scale sector. Of much greater significance in the small-scale sector is the value of non-wood forest products as subsistence products.

4. Institutional responsibility for non-wood forest products

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Ministry of lands, agriculture and rural resettlement
4.3 Ministry of environment and tourism
4.4 Ministry of finance, economic planning and development
4.5 Universities
4.6 Non-governmental agencies (NGOs) and voluntary organisations
4.7 Institutional gaps

4.1 Introduction

This section provides a brief outline of the structure and key responsibilities of those institutions most directly involved in the management, development and exploitation of non-wood forest products in Zimbabwe. It covers government institutions, the Universities and non-governmental agencies.

4.2 Ministry of lands, agriculture and rural resettlement

The ministry is responsible for the agricultural industry of Zimbabwe and for implementing the government's agricultural policy. The ministry includes three executive departments that cover some aspects of non-wood forest products:

- Agricultural and Technical Services (Agritex);
- Research and Specialist Services, and
- Veterinary Services.

In addition there is a training branch, which oversees the activities in the Agricultural Colleges at Chibero, Esigodini, Gwebi and Mlezu. These colleges together produce about 700 graduates. Under the ministry, there is a statutory body, the Agricultural Development Authority (ADA).

4.2.1 Department of Agricultural and Technical Services

The aim of Agritex is to stimulate the adoption of proven agricultural practices for sustained and profitable production. The target population is all farmers in Zimbabwe, with particular emphasis placed on the small-scale sector. The Field Services Division is responsible for providing advice on all aspects of agricultural production and conservation. In regards non-wood forest products, Agritex is important in providing information about livestock production, and the extension service has expanded its tree-based activities in the small-scale farming sectors, and now includes an agroforestry section which collaborates closely with Forestry Commission (Agritex, 1982). There is a total establishment of approximately 4000 in the department, of which over 2000 have diplomas and 250 have degrees in agriculture.

4.2.2 Department of Research and Specialist Services (R&SS)

The key functions of R&SS are to further the welfare and technical progress of agriculture in Zimbabwe through agricultural research, and by providing specialist services. The department is also entrusted with the administration of certain regulatory services under various acts, including the implementation of phytosanitary regulations.

As regards non-wood forest products, R&SS includes a small agroforestry section, undertakes research and development programmes on livestock production, undertakes vegetation surveys of the communal lands and has a small section involved with apiculture. The National Herbarium falls under R&SS; it is able to provide considerable information on the plant species of Zimbabwe.

4.2.3 Department of Veterinary Services

The Department of Veterinary Services is responsible for the prevention and control of animal disease in Zimbabwe, thus they are important in sustaining livestock production. The department's activities include the following:

- extension advice on health of livestock for the communal areas and responsibility for dipping services (involving over 2000 dip tanks) within such areas;

- foot-and-mouth disease control measures, to protect the beef export industry, and

- tsetse fly control and eradication programmes.

4.2.4 Agricultural Development Authority (ADA)

ADA came into existence in its present format in 1982. The major objectives of ADA are:

- to engage in the production of strategic agricultural commodities on state farms;

- to carry out research and planning on the agricultural and rural development potential of the country and to lead, coordinate and monitor the planning and implementation of rural development throughout Zimbabwe, and

- to generate employment in the rural areas through its estates and by promoting agro industries, either in its own right or in association with other bodies.

Planning of agricultural and rural development is being carried out by ADA planning teams in communal areas of most provinces of the country. These teams identify small- and medium-sized projects in which the rural people can participate. As to non-wood forest products, ADA presently undertakes livestock production, but ADA could be the agency charged with the development of these products.

4.3 Ministry of environment and tourism

Professional expertise is located within the two departments and two parastatal commissions which fall within the ministry. These are:

- Zimbabwe Tourist Development Commission
- Forestry Commission
- Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management
- Department of Natural Resources

4.3.1 Forestry Commission

The Forestry Commission is a parastatal body with responsibility for forest resources and the forestry industry. The commission's duties include the following:

- promote the development of the country's natural resources for the benefit of the people and to ensure that forestry is integrated into the fabric of social life;

- introduce additional forms of land-use, including recreation and non-consumptive game safaris, to optimise the benefits from land under its control;

- carry out and promote research to improve the efficiency of forestry;

- promote the socio-economic benefits of natural resource management and ensure adequate funding for environmental programmes, and

- develop appropriate models that will integrate the indigenous woodlands into the entire production process of rural communities.

The Forestry Commission is involved with non-wood forest products through its participation in the wildlife industry and its social forestry programme. In the early 1980s the Forestry Commission began a social forestry programme, but initially this was concentrated on eucalyptus woodlots and nurseries. By the mid-1980s the focus had broadened to the provision of wider set of species, some of which yielded non-wood forest products. In recent years, the emphasis has again shifted to include the management of indigenous woodland resources. Thus the full range of non-wood forest products could be within the brief of the Commission. However, it should be emphasised that the social forestry component of the research section only comprises two professional officers.

4.3.2 Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management

The main responsibilities of the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management are to:

- protect and manage all national parks, botanical reserves, botanical gardens, sanctuaries, safari areas and recreational parks;

- undertake research and develop appropriate land management practices inside and outside the parks and wildlife estate for the benefit of fauna and flora and to enhance rural productivity;

- promote appropriate use of the parks and wildlife estate and of wildlife-oriented outdoor recreational activities generally;

- promote the sensible long-term use of the nation's indigenous fauna and flora in the interests of the resource and of sustainable rural productivity, and

- promote, support and regulate appropriate secondary industries based on indigenous flora and fauna of the parks and wildlife estate.

This department is central as regards wildlife production. Major current programmes include:

- provision of services to the game ranching industry;

- the development of a nationalised marketing structure for wildlife products in Zimbabwe;

- the Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE), which has been initiated in a number of communal areas, and

- anti-poaching activities in the Zambezi valley and elsewhere, as well as translocation of rhino populations.

4.3.3 Department of Natural Resources

The principal responsibilities of the Department of Natural Resources are to:

- promote and secure the implementation of policies designed to conserve and improve the natural resources and environment, and

- ensure that the provisions of the Natural Resources Act and other relevant legislation are observed.

To meet these responsibilities, the department:

- advises government on the formulation and implementation of conservation policy;

- maintains an effective surveillance through its lands inspectorate and other appropriate organisations and bodies to ensure observance of the provisions of the Natural Resources Act;

- promotes, advises, and assists in the work of all conservation committees established under the Act, and

- assists in promoting and coordinating the activities of government agencies involved in conserving and proving natural resources and the environment of Zimbabwe,

The major natural resources extension effort is conducted through a range of conservation committees which are serviced by regional secretaries and a national secretariat.

4.4 Ministry of finance, economic planning and development

Broad economic planning, public sector investment programmes, recurrent expenditure and donor aid programmes are controlled, coordinated and planned by the Ministry of Finance, Economic Planning and Development. Within this Ministry a planning unit, headed by the chief economist, has been closely involved in environmental development and land reform programmes.

The Central Statistical Office is located within the Ministry and produces the Zimbabwe quarterly and annual 'Digests of Statistics' on a wide range of economic, industrial, commercial and development-related matters.

4.5 Universities

The medium term objective of national development is to develop and strengthen indigenous scientific and technical capability in terms of human resources and training institutions. To mediate this development, there are three universities in Zimbabwe, the long-established University of Zimbabwe, and two recently established universities, the Africa University and the National University of Science and Technology.

The University of Zimbabwe contains all the major faculties of concern to the education, research and development of non-wood forest products, although there is no single department covering forestry. Faculties and some relevant departments and activities include:

- Faculty of Agriculture

The Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension is currently involved in valuation of tree-based resources and wildlife and livestock production. The Departments of Animal Science and Crop Science are involved with livestock production. The latter is also undertaking work in Agroforestry.

- Faculty of Arts

The Department of Geography is undertaking work on human coping strategies in impoverished rural areas and on tourism.

- Faculty of Science

The Department of Biological Sciences conducts research on both animal and plant non-wood forest products. The department offers an MSc in Tropical Resource Ecology (MTRE), together with the Centre for Applied Social Studies. These two departments have been selected by UNEP as one of eight centres of excellence for environmental education. The Department of Chemistry is conducting work on medicinal plants.

- Faculty of Social Studies

The Institute of Development Studies conducts research on policy issues relevant to the development of non-wood forest products. To date, research has included that carried out on rural and community development, the informal sector, land reform, wildlife management, agricultural finance and extension. The Centre for Applied Social Studies conducts a wide range of research on resource management.

- Faculty of Veterinary Science

The Faculty teaches and conducts research on both livestock and wildlife management.

- Faculty of Medicine

There are a number of researchers in the Faculty looking at traditional medicines.

The other two universities are too recent to allow for a detailed description, but both are relevant to research, training and development as regards non-wood forest products. The Africa University is going to be a university of agriculture and natural resources, while the National University will focus on science and technology.

4.6 Non-governmental agencies (NGOs) and voluntary organisations

There are many institutions involved in development of non-wood forest products. They include the following:

- ENDA (Environmental Development Action) - Zimbabwe

The objective of ENDA Zimbabwe is to promote the development of Zimbabwe's rural communities in the environmental, social, educational and technological spheres. The organisation undertakes research, initiates development projects and conducts training courses. In the past it has undertaken work on several non-wood forest products.

- UNDP Africa 2000 Network

The Africa 2000 Network is a new initiative intended to mobilise and support African-based NGOs in a continent-wide effort to address the growing problems of environmental degradation.

- World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)

There are a number of WWF projects in Zimbabwe; the largest in terms of human resources is the WWF Multispecies Project. This project is examining the ecological and economic basis for single (usually cattle) and multispecies (usually wildlife and livestock) systems of animal production in southern central Africa.

- Zimbabwe National Conservation Trust

The Zimbabwe National Conservation Trust is tasked with the promotion of projects relating to the environment and to the utilisation and conservation of natural resources.

- The Zimbabwe Trust

One of the major aims of the Zimbabwe Trust is to provide the supportive services required by communities in the Communal Areas to secure the 'Appropriate Authority' over their wildlife and other resources.

- ZERO (Zimbabwe Energy and Environmental Research Organization)

ZERO is a regional network of environmental experts that promotes and coordinates indigenous research and expertise on environmental issues.

- Producer associations

For the most important non-wood forest products, there are strong producer associations. In the large-scale sector, there is the Wildlife Producer's Association and the Livestock Producer's Association. Newly established in the small-scale sector is the CAMPFIRE association, which aims to coordinate the activities of those districts where CAMPFIRE programmes are in progress. In each district where wildlife management is being practised, there are local institutions which manage the programmes.

4.7 Institutional gaps

There is no single institution which covers non-wood forest products, but the diversity of products is such that this could hardly be expected. Livestock receives much attention, especially in the large-scale sector; but even in the small-scale sector, livestock receive more attention than any other non-wood forest product. In recent years wildlife has received considerable focus with the CAMPFIRE scheme. In government the central organization is the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management, but the real expansion has taken place outside government, with the establishment of WWF Multispecies project and ZIMTRUST, and the initiation of research by the Centre for Applied Social Sciences (UZ) on natural resource issues. Funding for wildlife development is now secure in comparison to other non-wood forest products, as all the major donors are presently involved in the wildlife sector.

The remaining non-wood forest products, including all the forest foods, the barks and materials, the medicinal plants and the gums and dyes, receive almost no attention. The only research to look at the full spectrum of products has taken place in the Department of Biological Sciences (UZ), while product development has been limited and scattered in many different organizations. There is no organization that coordinates activities. Extension activities regarding non-wood forest products are also limited and the responsibility of no single organisation. Expanded extension activities would probably have to be directed through Agritex, but this agency is dominated by extension on the major crop and domestic livestock.

For activities to be effective, there is need for strong coordination among the different agencies involved. Communication and coordination are not at present very strong. Funding for research and development is increasingly dependent on external donor funds. For instance, within government institutions, budgets have been static in the last decade despite widespread inflation. Research officers have security of a job but no funds, in the absence of donor support, to undertake in-depth studies (e.g. see Piearce, 1992, with respect to the Forestry Commission). Turnover rates for staff are also unsatisfactory, because of poor conditions of service. The average length of service of less than three years for research professionals in Forestry Commission (Piearce, 1992) is typical of most government and parastatal institutions, and precludes any long-term continuity in research and development.

5. Legislation relevant to non-wood forest products

In this section a brief overview of the relevant legislation is given.

- CITES (Convention in Trade in Endangered Species)

The most important piece of legislation affecting wildlife trade is Appendix One of CITES, which prohibits international trade in a listed species and its products between the signatories of the convention, one of which is Zimbabwe. Elephant were recently shifted to Appendix one and this has made the wildlife industry much less profitable (Cumming and Bond, 1991; Child, B., quoted in Zimbabwe Wildlife Apr. 1992). Industries based on ivory and elephant hide have had to close down, rural communities have foregone wildlife earnings of several million dollars and livestock production has become more economically competitive with wildlife.

- Natural Resources Act

This act provides for the conservation and improvement of natural resources at the national level. The implementing agency is the Department of Natural Resources, and the act allows for the ordering of inhabitants to carry out or refrain from certain activities.

- Forest Act

This act deals primarily with forests and woodlands on lands in the large-scale sector and in state land, with the implementing agency being Forestry Commission. Small-scale householders using resources on adjacent State Forest would be governed by this act. The act allows for the creation of forest officers who have power of seizure and arrest.

- Communal Land Forest Product Act

This act pertains to the communal lands, is implemented by Forestry Commission, and governs the exploitation of forest products. The act provides for the exploitation of forest products for subsistence and lays down the mechanism whereby products can be exploited on a commercial basis through a system of permits, licences and agreements.

- Parks and Wildlife Act

This act governs the exploitation and conservation of natural resources on state land administered by the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management. In addition the act applies to the exploitation of protected animal and plant species on private land. The act is important as regards wildlife management is concerned, as it allows for the use of wildlife on private property for the benefit of the landowner. Recently, wildlife on communal lands has also been incorporated into this aspect of the act, with 'appropriate authority' over wildlife now being given to District Councils.

The legislation, especially in regards non-wood forest products on communal lands, has been overly restrictive to the exploitation of these products and has not promoted development of trade. The primary strategy embodied in the acts is criminilisation (Gore et al., 1992). In addition, the legislation has not prevented commercial interests from exploiting the resources unsustainably. In recent years, some aspects have changed, with greater authority being given to more local structures (District Councils). For instance, the use of wildlife for the benefit of local residents is now possible, but this needs to be expanded to the full range of products. There is much more than can be done to liberalise and promote sustainable exploitation. At present it is easier for outsiders rather than local residents to exploit non-wood forest products through the permit system. Local residents should have easier access, and local residents should have greater say in the exploitation of the resources.

6. Key non-wood forest products and their exploitation

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Wild fruits
6.3 Mushrooms and insects
6.4 Craftwork
6.5 Medicines
6.6 Institutional arrangements for the exploitation of new forest products

6.1 Introduction

Of the many non-wood forest products used in Zimbabwe, it is necessary to select a few for further research and development. In this section, the most important non-wood forest products, and further research and development objectives are identified.

Livestock play a central role in household security in Zimbabwe, and must be a priority for research and development. However, the livestock sector is covered by numerous research and development institutions, and receives a considerable subsidy from central government (Food Studies Group, 1990). Thus livestock is not regarded as being key for any new focus on non-wood forest products. The same can be said for wildlife, though here the network of institutions undertaking research and development is rather recent. Nevertheless, wildlife are also not regarded as being a key focus for any new programme.

6.2 Wild fruits

Although wood for construction and fuel make up a high percentage of the goods derived from trees, as important, are wild fruits from the woodland. Wild fruits need much more attention; there is a need to document present levels of trade and to investigate means of developing the market potential of selected wild fruits. Fruits which are currently marketed and probably have potential for development include Uapaca kirkiana, Ziziphus mauritania, Strychnos spp. and Sclerocarya birrea. These mostly have at least two end-products, fresh fruit and fruit drinks (either alcoholic or non-alcoholic). S. birrea also has the possibility of providing high-quality nuts for confectionary, and in South Africa it is already used to produce a high-quality liquor, for domestic and export consumption. Zimbabwe is very poor in nut production, so a Sclerocarya nut market would result in import substitution. This tree is a very heavy producer (see e.g. Peters, 1988), so there are unlikely to be supply constraints, although research is needed into improving nut extraction methods.

Technical data on fruit yield and storage are lacking. It would be important to utilise indigenous technical knowledge in order to rapidly gain insight into production potentials of specific species and specific individuals, and of how stable the production is in relation to the rainfall variability that is characteristic of the region.

6.3 Mushrooms and insects

Two other woodland foods need attention: mushrooms and insects. The former probably have export potential, while the latter have potential on domestic markets. Technical data on these potential products are extremely limited, and the degree to which sustainable and economic harvesting practices can be implemented is unknown. Mushrooms production is unknown, with estimates of production ranging from 2 kg/ha to 50 kg/ha (C. Sharpe, pers. comm.). Production is very seasonal and dependent on the rainfall regime. Basic production data need to be collected, but assuming production is at the top end of the range, then at current prices the woodland can fetch Z$300/ha for mushrooms, which would represent the highest gross benefit per hectare of any land use, including crop production. Once again, it would be important to harness indigenous technical knowledge in obtaining rapid insights into the productive potential of these products.

6.4 Craftwork

Within the range of non-food forest products, that with the most potential for development concerns craftwork. Experiences of the Binga Craft Centre run by the Danish Volunteer Service need to be documented with the view to replicating this marketing mechanism in other areas of Zimbabwe. Present levels of marketing are more or less unknown and the potential for exportation of crafts is unclear.

Although craft workers generally displayed optimism in the future of their enterprises, they did acknowledge a number of difficulties (Brigham, in prep.). The most frequent complaints centred on the marketing infrastructure, or lack thereof, available to craftsmen. For those looking to sell goods outside of the immediate area, problems are encountered with the availability and cost of transport. Where buses are relied upon for getting to market, if a conductor discovers goods for sale are being transported, he will often sharply increase the fare. Another difficulty is finding an outlet which provides a fair return for the product; many complained of the 'makoronyera' (cheats) of Mbare market in Harare who coerce craft makers into surrendering their products for low prices. Some of the 'European' (tourist) shops in the city are also known for their high mark-ups, in one case up to 750%.

Scarcity of raw materials is also of some concern to craft makers (Brigham, in prep.). Most now travel long distances - on average approximately 5 or 6 kilometres - to obtain the specific wood they require. Shortages of certain species are often quite localised and craftsmen respond by shifting their collecting sites. Chidari et al. (1992) point out that statements regarding tree shortages may refer more to the rarity of a specific form of that tree rather than to an overall rarity of that species. Nevertheless, many craft makers expressed a concern that in the future, perhaps within a few years in some areas, certain species would no longer be available. Even under the current situation, conflicts were arising where craftsmen attempted to access wood resources considered to belong to neighbouring communities (Brigham, in prep.).

Little research has been undertaken on the environmental consequences of craft enterprises (Mhone, 1991). The craftsmen offering information on their tree-cutting practices indicated a rough felling rate of 25 to 60 trees per year (Brigham, in prep.). Currently, craft workers prefer to collect further afield rather than substitute with species they consider inferior, one of which is eucalyptus, the mainstay of Zimbabwe's afforestation programmes to date. Craftsmen demonstrate considerable knowledge of the characteristics of the trees they use, both in terms of utilisation suitability and their ecology. Such knowledge could be used to evaluate the practicality of any interventions in the craft sector, including those involving species substitution or enhancement.

Whether expanding current levels of craftwork should be encouraged or not will depend on local conditions; prior to beginning a programme, site specific research will be required to assess the sustainability of current exploitation rates of craft species. Questions regarding the benefits and costs for various interest groups and the community at large will also have to be addressed. What is clear is that local communities, as those most affected by alterations to the forest resource, should be at the centre of any planning activities, and their concerns and priorities should be of paramount importance.

6.5 Medicines

There is also probably plenty of potential for the development of medicinal products from the woodlands of Zimbabwe. The development potential would only be realised if the ethnobotanical survey expertise and the pharmaceutical research establishment were strengthened. Zimbabwe has an excellent overview of medicinal plants (Gelfand et al., 1985); what is required is more detailed information about specific plants.

6.6 Institutional arrangements for the exploitation of new forest products

The success of any programme is partly dependent on providing an enabling institutional framework. Because of the CAMPFIRE programme, which was largely established for the exploitation of communally-held wildlife resources, Zimbabwe has the potential to establish institutional structures which could be used to exploit the full potential of indigenous woodlands. There are now established mechanisms for returning profits to the community, for establishing natural resource committees and for ensuring communication between government and local institutions. The local institutions could ensure that there is a degree of participatory planning and that local indigenous knowledge is channelled into the programme.

7. Problems and constraints

Prejudices against certain non-wood forest products are evident amongst rural dwellers (McGregor, 1991, and Wilson, 1990). These prejudices may be entrenched at higher institutional levels (Sene, 1985; FAO, 1991), but no data on this for Zimbabwe are available.

Legislation on non-wood forest products is too restrictive. The international ban on trade in ivory is preventing further development of the wildlife industry in communal areas and is likely to result in the collapse of some of the wildlife schemes that were initiated, as the considerable value of ivory formed the basis of the economic justification for the schemes. In Zimbabwe, the CITES regulation will have the opposite of its intended effect in the absence of elephant economic value, elephant numbers (and other wildlife) will be reduced and domestic livestock will become more common. Local legislation is also overly restrictive to the exploitation of these products and has not promoted development of trade.

There is often a lack of data on the importance or otherwise of non-wood forest products. To some extent, this is due to methodological obstacles to the valuation of nonmarket products (Scoones et al., 1992; Campbell et al., 1991; Campbell, 1993), but it is also due to the lack of collection of the appropriate statistics, often due to the absence of a single institute responsible for non-wood forest products and due to monetary and personnel constraints in the current institutions.

Perhaps more important than the above, is the lack of data on how the value of non-wood forest products varies in time and space (Campbell, 1993; de Beer and Mcdermott, 1989; Scoones et al., 1992). How does value vary with such factors as year, season, gender, age, wealth status and ecological conditions?

The products are often collected from common property resource areas (Nhira and Fortmann, 1993; Scoones et al., 1992). How is access changing with time and how are access rules changing? Evidence suggests that as pressures on the commons increase, there is increased privatisation of land and forest products (Campbell et al., 1993; Wilson, 1990). In view of the dependence of the poorer sections of rural populations on non-wood forest products (e.g. Wilson, 1990), securing access to the products is important for maintaining livelihoods of the poor (Scoones et al., 1992).

Commercialisation of non-wood forest products cannot be seen as a panacea for development, as various studies have shown that commercialisation often results in the breakdown of indigenous management techniques leading to unsustainable extraction levels (Campbell et al., 1993; Cunningham, 1990). Furthermore, commercialization often benefits the wealthier sector of the rural population (de Beer and Mcdermott, 1989).

There is, as always, a lack of consultation with people in devising development plans. Any new programmes should be fully participatory, with programme development starting at the village level. Development of markets for non-wood forest products should benefit the rural poor, and the rural poor should be empowered to control access and management of the resource.

There is insufficient information exchange between countries. Exchange is important as much of the data on non-wood forest products are in the 'grey' literature. For instance, researchers in South Africa, Botswana and Zimbabwe have expressed interests in Sclerocarya, but there has been no or very little exchange of ideas. A related problem is that there is insufficient knowledge and awareness about non-wood forest products in the main government institutions. There is a need to conduct short courses for personnel from such institutions.

8. Recommendations

The following recommendation encompasses a broad vision, both for the short and long terms, for the development of the potential of non-wood forest products. However, should severe funding restrictions be encountered then individual components of the programme would have to be selected.

An institution either at the university or in the non-governmental sector should be identified to establish a programme on non-wood forest products. It would be best if the personnel of the institution work out of a government institute, perhaps Forestry Commission or Agricultural Development Authority, so that once the programme has been established it can be continued by the government institute. The selected institute would, in a 3-5 year programme, undertake the following:

a) run short courses on non-wood forest products to raise the policy profile of non-wood forest products;

b) devise and implement simple methods to improve and widen the collection of statistical data on the production, consumption and trade in non-wood forest products;

c) make a study of the experiences of the Binga Craft Centre in marketing craftwork;

d) undertake a research project on the sustainability of the exploitation of products for craftwork (case study in the Binga area);

e) set up two development projects, as follows:

i) Set up a craftwork marketing development project, building on the experiences of the Binga Craft Centre;

ii) Establish a non-wood forest products exploitation centre based on wild foods. The establishment would be carefully monitored so that the approach could be improved on and replicated in other areas in the future. This activity would have the following elements:

- select a site where the exploitation of a number of products is possible and where there is already some experience in institutional arrangements for the exploitation of communal resources (e.g. Mvurodonna Wilderness Area, where, over a short distance, one could imagine the exploitation of mushrooms, insects and wild fruits, particularly Sclerocarya).

- employ participatory methods to harness indigenous knowledge and to establish exact institutional arrangements for exploitation, and

- device and implement simple monitoring arrangements for investigating the production of the resource base.

9. Acknowledgements

Most of the data used in this report were collected as part of the project on Value of Tree-based Resources funded by the International Development Research Centre (Canada). Facilities at the Stockholm Environment, in particular the library, are gratefully acknowledged.

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Appendix 1: Lists of key plant species of importance for different functions

Wild fruits (data from Campbell, 1987, McGregor, 1991, and Wilson, 1990)

All species are important for the nutrition of children, those that are important for other purposes as well are noted accordingly.

Azanza garkeana
Berchemia spp. (e.g. B. discolor and B. zeyheri)
Diospyros mespiliformis
Ficus spp. (e.g. F. soldanella)
Grewia spp. (e.g. G. flavescens)
Parinari curatellifolia
Sclerocarya birrea (also used for nuts and making fruit drinks and wine)
Strychnos cocculoides (and other Strychnos species)
Uapaca kirkiana
Vangueria infausta
Ziziphus mauritiana (important for cash income)

Fibre (data from McGregor, 1991)

Brachystegia spiciformis
B. boehmii
B. glaucescens
Colophospermum mopane
Julbernardia globiflora