India

B.N. Gupta
Director
Institute of Deciduous Forests (ICFRE)
Jabalpur

Introduction
Status of various categories of non-wood forest products
Export of non-wood forest products
Organization for collection and processing
Employment generation and social benefits
Future directions to promote NWFPs
References

Introduction

India is a country of vast diversity lying at the juncture of the big-geographic provinces of Afro-Eurasia and the Orient. Because of the country's diversified climatic and physiographic factors, India is blessed with all types of vegetation: tropical, subtropical, temperate, and alpine. Due to its wide-ranging environmental regimes and diverse biological communities, the country is one of the world's top 12 "megadiversity" nations.

Of the nearly 425 families of flowering plants in the world, 328 families with 21,000 species occur in India. From this varied emporium, non-wood forest products (NWFPs) are derived from over 3,000 species. For convenience, these products are classified as: (i) leaves; (ii) bamboos; (iii) gums, resins and oleoresins; (iv) oil seeds; (v) essential oils, including oil-yielding grasses; (vi) fibers and flosses; (vii) grasses other than oil-yielding grasses; (viii) tans and dyes; (ix) drugs and spices; (x) animal products; and (xi) edible products.

The royalties realized through the sale of NWFPs exceeded Rs1,000 million in 198586 and have gone up since. The value of NWFPs is seriously under estimated in official records. It is estimated that 60 percent of all NWFPs are consumed locally and are not accounted for in the calculation of revenues. There also are many products which are not extracted fully or which go to waste because of insufficient knowledge of their use or because they occur in inaccessible locations.

The basic objectives of the National Forest Policy of 1988 include conserving the national flora and fauna, meeting the needs of rural and tribal populations, and encouraging efficient utilization of all forest produce. The policy states that NWFPs which provide sustenance to local communities should be protected and improved. It provides for research into the conservation and management of forest resources and for increasing productivity through the application of modern scientific and technological methods. The survey of forest resources is to be given high priority.

Status of various categories of non-wood forest products

Leaves

Diospyros melanoxylon

Local names: Commonly known as "tendu," but also called "abnus" in Andhra Pradesh, "kendu" in Orissa and West Bengal, "tembru" in Gujarat, "kari" in Kerala, "tembhurni" in Maharahstra, and "bali tupra" in Tamil Nadu.

Uses: Leaves are used as wrappers of tobacco to produce bidi. Off-cuts of leaves are burned and the ash is used in tooth powder.

Distribution: The species is abundant in Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal. It generally grows in dry mixed deciduous forests, occurring alongside Shorea robusta and Tectona grandis.

Regeneration: Under natural conditions, seed germinates in the rainy season and seedling production is plentiful. Seedlings tolerate considerable shade, but for optional development more light is required. Seedlings resist frost and drought, but are vulnerable to excessive dampness. The profusion and tenacity of root suckers ensure the survival and spread of the species without planting.

There is wide variation in the quality of leaves from different locations. Superior-quality leaves of large size, papery texture, and inconspicuous veins fetch up to 5 times the price of inferior-quality leaves. There is, however, vast opportunity for propagating better strains artificially. About 40 percent of fresh seed germinates. Germination starts after 36 days and is complete in 80 days. It is best to raise seedlings in long narrow baskets and transplant the seedlings with the second rains. Seed can also be directly sown in lines.

For coppicing, the ideal girth of plants is 15 centimeters. Coppicing yields the best quality leaves and also facilitates easy collection. A light burning just before sprouting stimulates the dominant leaf buds and favors a better flush of numerous tender leaves. The best coppicing results are attained when stems are cut 15 centimeters above the ground, but cutting at such height is difficult. Therefore, the common practie is to cut flush with the ground Cutting occurs between January and March There is a bumper production of leaves once in four years.

Collection of leaves: Leaves are plucked just after they have turned from crimson to bright green and have a leathery texture Generally, collection starts from the second fortnight of April and continues until the onset of the monsoon. Bundles of 50, 70, or 100 leaves (depending on drying conditions) are assembled and tied with strings or fibers from bark. These bundles are brought by laborers to collection centers where they art sold.

Drying and curing of leaves: Proper drying of leaves is important. Too much moisture makes the leaves black and mouldy with foul odor. Too much drying makes the leaves brittle, resulting in loss during handling. To dry, leaf bundles are spread or the ground, keeping the dorsal sides up for three to four days. The bundles are then turned upside down. Drying is complete in about 8 to 10 days. In solar leaf driers, the drying is complete in about 18 hours and the greenish color of the leaves is retained These leaves fetch a higher price and damage from termites is avoided. Solar drying, however, can only be done where electricity is available for the air blower.

Packing and storage: Dried leaves are packed in gunny sacks for storage in godowns until sold or used for making bidis The number of leaves in one standard bag varies from state to state. Before filling the bags, water is sprinkled on bundles to softer the leaves for easier packing.

Annual production and value: Around 300,000 tons of bidi leaves are produced annually in India, of which over 85 percent is collected from Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh (Table 1).

Table 1. Annual production of tendu leaves

State	Production (1000 tons)	Value (Million Rs)
Madhya Pradesh	123.0	1,845.0
Orissa	50.0	750.0
Maharahstra	46.0	690.0
Andhra Pradesh	39.0	585.0
Bihar	24.0	360.0
Rajastan	6.5	97.5
Uttar Pradesh	5.0	75.0
Gujarat	5.0	75.0
Tamil Nadu	2.0	30.0
West Bengal	0.5	7.5
Total	301.0	4,515.0

The value of these leaves is based on an average price of Rs15,000 per ton, but rates vary from state to state, according to demand, availability of leaves, and location of bidi-making industries.

Bauhinia vahlii

Local names: "mahul" in Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh, "siali" in West Bengal and Orissa.

Uses: Leaves are used for making cups and plates and for wrapping food.

Distribution: Bauhinia vahlii is a giant climber and one of the most abundant Indian Bauhinia species. The species is distributed in the Sub-Himalayan region up to 3,000 meters above sea level and in Assam, Central India, Bihar, Eastern and Western Ghats. Commercial collection of leaves is done in Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, and Andhra Pradesh.

Regeneration: The species grows naturally in the forests. No efforts to regenerate it artificially are made. It is usually considered a weed because of the damage it does to healthy trees by climbing and spreading over them.

Collection of leaves: Leaves vary in size from 20 to 40 centimeters in diameter, and are bilobed at the apex. Collection takes place two to three months after the rains. Leaves are collected by tribals and other forest dwellers and packed and tied with fibers obtained from the same species. No standard practice exists as to the number of leaves in each pack. Average collection per person per day is 5 to 6 kilograms. Green leaf packets are sold in the market without additional processing.

Annual production and value: Countrywide data on the collection and value of leaves are not available. In Madhya Pradesh, about 780 tons of leaves are collected, valued at approximately Rs 2 million. In Orissa, over 160 tons of dried leaves and 86 million leaf plates are marketed annually. Collectors receive only about Rs1.50 per kilogram and earn only Rs8.00 to 10.00 per day. Therefore, collection of Bauhinia leaves is done only as a last resort during the low-income season.

Bamboos

General: Over 100 species of bamboo occur naturally in India. Bambusa arundinacea, B. tulda, B. polymorpha, Dendrocalamus strictus, D. hamil-tonii, Melocanna baccifera and Ochlandra travancorica are the most important species because of their wide availability. Dendrocalamus strictus and Bambusa arundinacea are the two principal economic species.

Uses: Because of its fast growth, easy propagation, soil-binding properties, and early maturity, bamboo is an ideal species for afforestation, soil conservation, and social forestry programs.

Bamboo is strong, straight, and light. It is hard and hollow, and easy to work. It comes in many sizes and has long fibers. Such characteristics make bamboo highly versatile. Table 2 indicates the consumption pattern of bamboos for various uses (Purshotham, 1962).

Table 2. Consumption of bamboo in India

Uses	Percentage of total Consumption
Pulp	35.00
Housing	20.00
Non-residential construction	5.00
Rural uses	20.00
Fuel	8.50
Packing, including baskets	5.00
Transport	1.50
Furniture	1.00
Other wood-working industries	1.00
Others, including ladders, staff mats etc.	3.00
Total	100.00

New uses of bamboo include parquet (block) flooring, laminated bamboos, strips for aircraft, bamboo reinforced concrete, and artificially shaped bamboo for decorative items. Among bamboo's medicinal properties is banslochan, a secretion found in the culms used as a cooling tonic, aphrodisiac, and as a treatment for asthma, and coughing (Raizada and Chatterjee, 1956).

Distribution: Bamboo is found almost everywhere. Its distribution is governed largely by rainfall, temperature, altitude, and soil conditions. Most bamboo requires a temperature of 8° to 36°C, a minimum of 1,000 millimeters of rainfall annually, and high humidity for good growth. Bamboo is an important constituent of many deciduous and evergreen forests and extends from tropical to mild temperate regions. It grows on flat alluvial plains up to altitudes of 3,050 meters above mean sea level.

Regeneration: Between seeding periods, reproduction of bamboo is by asexual means. In bamboo clumps, rhizomes grow underground and produce new culms as annual shoots. This process continues until the plant produces flowers and seeds, then dies.

The most common method of vegetative reproduction is by rhizomes, or offset planting. Layering, propagation through nodal cuttings, marcotting, and culm cutting are also practiced in some species.

Bamboo flowers gregariously after long periods, although sporadic flowering occurs almost every year. During the years of gregarious flowering, the forest floor is carpeted with seedlings and the areas are naturally regenerated.

Management: New culms are produced every year and one-year-old culms are already able to support the growth of new culms. Culms mature after three years and are commonly harvested at that time. After five years, culms begin to die. On a three-year cycle, a good plantation may yield 3 to 4 tons of bamboo per hectare at the first cut, 5 to 6 tons at the second cut, and 8 tons from the third cut on. The total expected yield per hectare is estimated at 70 to 74 tons over the entire life of a plantation (Rag, 1980).

Table 3. Area of bamboo and potential annual cut

State	Bamboo area (hectares)	Potential annual cut (1000 culms)
Andhra Pradesh	1,979,000	255
Arunachal Pradesh	777,900	200
Assam	1,000,000	1,210
Bihar	529,400	200
Gujarat	193,600	46
Himachal Pradesh	10,400	3
Karnataka	600,000	475
Kerala	63,100	108
Madhya Pradesh	1,486,400	800
Maharashtra	850,000	300
Manipur	250,000	200
Orissa	1,050,000	489
Punjab	NA	9
Tamil Nadu	538,800	NA
Tripura	284,900	215
Uttar Pradesh	400,000	41
West Bengal	16,400	8
Total	10,029,900	4,559

Annual production and value: The area of bamboo in each state and the potential annual cut are shown in Table 3 (Tewari, 1981).

Although no precise data are available, observations suggest that bamboo areas are declining because of gregarious flowering and consequent dying of clumps. A large quantity of seeds fall on the ground, producing innumerable young germinants, but effective protection of seedlings from fire and other biotic damage is not ensured in many areas.

The price of bamboo varies with its end use. Most of the annual cut is used in making paper or rayon, for which producers receive about Rs300 per ton. The value of the potential annual cut is Rs1,367 million.

Gums and resins

General: Gums are translucent, amorphous substances which are degradation products of the cell wall of woody species. They exude spontaneously from trees and are soluble in water. Resins also are exudates but are soluble in alcohol, not water. Closely related to true gums are gum resins, which are also produced by plants. Since these are a combination of gum and resin, they do not dissolve in water completely. Resins often occur mixed with a high percentage of essential oils known as oleoresins. When oleoresins include some gum, as in the case of exudation from Boswellia serrata, they are called gum oleoresins. Table 4 gives the classification of these important products in world trade (Anon, 1972).

Table 4: Classification of Indian resins and gums

Category	Typical product in world trade		Source of typical Indian products
True gums	Gum arabic		Acacia nilotica spp. indica
	Gum tragacanth		A. catechu
			A. modesta
			A. Senegal
			Anogeissus latifolia
			Bauhinia retusa
			Cochlospermum religiosum
			Lannea coromandelica
			Pterocarpus marsupium
			Sterculia urens and S. villosa
			Several minor species
Hard resins	Copal Dammar		Canarium strictum
			Hopea odorata
			Shorea robusta
			Vateria indica
	Amber
	Lacquer
	Shellac
	Sandarac
	Mastic
Oleo-resins	Turpentines		Pinus roxburghii and three other Pinus species
	Balsams
		of Peru
		of Tolu
		of Styrax orStorax	Boswellia serrata
		other oleo-resins	Dipterocarpus turbinatus
		Copaiba	Kingiodendron pinnatum
		Elemi
Gum resins	Gamboge		Garcinia morella
	Assafoetida
	Galbanum
	Myrrh
	Olibanum or		Commiphora mukul
	Frankincense

Uses: Commercial gums enter the market in the form of dried exudates. The varieties having the least color and highest adhesive power and viscosity are the most valuable. The finer grades are used in clarifying liquors, "finishing" silk, and in the preparation of quality water colors. Intermediate grades are used in confectionery, pharmaceuticals, and printing inks, in sizing and finishing textile fabrics, in dyeing, and in the paint industry. In the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industry, gums serve to emulsify or bind mixtures in creams, lotions and ointments. Many gums add body and bulk to foodstuffs (e.g. commercial ice cream).

Resins are used in the manufacture of lacquers and varnishes. Resinous substances can be used for waterproof coatings. Resins dissolve readily in alkali to form soaps. They are used in medicines, for sizing paper, for incense, and in the preparation of sealing wax and other products.

Important oleoresins are turpentines, balsams, copaiba, and elemi. These are used in perfumery and medicines, for making varnishes, and lacquers, as fixatives, and in scenting soaps.

Gum resins have varied uses. Gamboge is Used to color golden lacquers, as watercolor pigments, and in medicines. Assafoetida is used for flavoring curries and other food products, and also as a drug. Galbanum is Used in medicine. Myrrh is used in incense, perfume, and embalming. Frankincense is used primarily as incense.

Collection and marketing: Although spontaneous exudation of gums occurs from unhealthy trees, artificial incisions are made in healthy trees to increase the yield of gums. Harvesting is done by hand picking. Larger lumps are broken with a wooden mallet and foreign bodies removed. Grading, based on color, size, and transparency of the tears is done manually.

Resins ooze out through the bark, hardening on exposure. These are collected mostly from artificial wounds or fossil material. The importance of natural resins has declined in recent years because synthetic resins have become cheaper.

In India, Pinus roxburghii trees yield the highest amounts of oleoresin. Blazes on the tree trunk are cut to facilitate the flow of oleoresin from resin canals. Traditionally, oleoresin is collected by the cup-and-lip method from March to early November. The rill method for tapping, though more scientific, has not found favor in the field. Treatment of blazes with acid or 2-4D solution reportedly increases and prolongs the flow of resin. The yield is highest in June, when the sun is hottest. The oleoresin collected in cups is transferred to tins every time the cups are filled. The tins are transported to depots, then to factories for processing.

Salai gum (a gum oleoresin) is an exudate obtained by tapping Boswellia serrata trees. The fresh exudation from the punctured resin ducts comes in 5- to 8- centimeter long tears. It hardens in about four days. Tapping extends from November to June.

Among the above products, gum from Acacia nilotica (called "gum arable") and from other Acacia species such as A. catechu, A. modesta, and A. senegal are collectively categorized as Acacia gums. Gum karaya, or katira, from Sterculia urens, and oleoresin from Pinus roxburghii, are tapped in significant quantities to be of commercial importance.

Annual production and value: Madhya Pradesh has the potential to produce as much gum karaya as the rest of India combined. However, tapping of Sterculia urens in the state was banned in 1982 for a period of 10 years. Approximately 1,400 tons of gum karaya are collected annually from other states, valued at about Rs60 million. After 1991, when tapping is resumed in Madhya Pradesh, production should be doubled. Production of other gums is about 1,900 tons, fetching Rs12 million annually. About 46,000 tons of oleoresin are obtained from Pinus roxburghii each year, valued at approximately Rs2.8 million.

Oil seeds

General: India has about 86 different oil seed tree species. A substantial amount of oil seed is collected from Shorea robusta, Madhuca indica, Mangifera indica, Garcinia indica, Azadirachta indica, Pongamia glabra, Schleichera trijuga, Salvadora oleoides, S. persica, and Actinidaphne hookeri.

Uses: Sal (Shorea robusta) seed cotyledons yield the well known sal butter used for cooking and lighting. It is a useful confectionery fat and can be used in soap making.

Mahua (Madhuca indica) seed: Almost the entire production of oil from this seed is used in the production of washing soaps (Awasthi, 1971). Refined mahua oil can be utilized for cooking, confectionery and in chocolate making (Anon, 1962). Refined oil is used in the jute industry and in the manufacture of lubricating greases, candles, bathing oil, fatty alcohols, and stearic acid. Mahua oil has emollient properties and is used in treating skin disease, rheumatism and headaches. It is a good laxative and is used in treating habitual constipation, piles, and hemorrhoids (Nagarajan, et al., 1988).

Karanj oil (Pongamia glabra): Both the seed and oil are poisonous but they possess remarkable medicinal properties. The seed is carminative, purifies and enriches the blood, and is used for inflammation, earache, lumbago, and chest ailments. The oil is styptic, anti-helminthic, and good for rheumatism and cutaneous infections, and as a remedy for scabies and herpes. Undistilled oils can be used in high-quality laundry soaps, while the distilled oils can be used in the manufacture of toilet soap (Lakshmikanthan, 1988). The oil cake is a good fertilizer.

Kusum (Schleichera trijuga): A major part of the kusum oil produced is utilized by the soap industry. The oil compares favorably with other oils in softness and lathering. It is also used in hair dressing, and in medicines used in treating skin diseases, rheumatism, and headaches.

Neem (Azadirachta indica): Seed oil is used in soap and local medicines. Seed oil cake is used as fertilizer (Gupta, 1944; Agarwal, 1955).

Mango (Mangifera indica): Seed oil is used as a cocoa butter substitute.

Khakan (Salvadora oleoides) and pisa (Actinodaphne hookeri): These oils are used in making soap. The fruit of khakan is edible, and is fed to cattle to increase milk yield.

Distribution: Sal forests occur in the central Indian belt (accounting for 90 percent of the sal forests) and at the foot of the Himalayas. Mahua trees grow in almost of all parts of India. There are two species, Madhuca latifolia grows in the north and M. longifolia thrives in south India. However, no distinction is made in the trade of their seeds or fats. Mango trees grow throughout India except in the high Himalayas. Kusum trees occur mainly in forests in sub-Himalayan tracts in north and central India, and parts of eastern India. Karanj is found in dry deciduous forests and prefers saline soil. Neem grows wild in dry forests and is cultivated throughout India. Salvadora is a shrub or a small tree growing wild in arid and sandy areas. Pisa trees occur in subtropical hilly forests of the Western Ghats, some parts of Assam, Orissa, and Sikkim.

Seed collection: The times and methods of seed collection for various species are:

Sal: Mid-May to end of June. Seeds are collected from the forest floor.

Mahua: May to July. Mature fruit is collected from the ground.

Mango: April to September. Pits are collected from villages and city waste dumps.

Kusum: June to July. Seeds are obtained by picking bunches of fruit. They are depulped by soaking and rubbing them in water.

Neem: June to July. Bunches of fruit are picked from trees or from the ground.

Karanj: Throughout the year. Trees are climbed and the branches are beaten to shake loose the seeds. Seeds are then collected from the ground.

Salvadora: May. The fruits are picked or felled by shaking the branches.

Pisa: May to June. Fruit-bearing twigs are plucked and berries are collected.

Processing, storage, and marketing: Only the sal seed trade is organized. After collection, the fruit is piled and lightly burned. Through a rubbing process called "decortication," the seeds are separated from the wings and pericarps. The seeds are brought to depots of forest departments or corporations for sale. The purchasing agency stores the seeds in bags for disposal, normally by auction.

The pulp surrounding neem seeds is removed by rubbing the fruit against rough surfaces. The remaining adhering pulp is then removed by washing in water. Mango stones are sold to purchasers who arrange for manual decortication and sun drying of kernels. Dried karanj pods are usually split with a hammer or stick and the shells are removed by winnowing. Kusum seed coats are brittle and break under slight pressure, exposing the kernels. Pisa fruit is rubbed to separate the kernel from the outer shell, both of which yield oils of different properties. All of these seeds and fruits are purchased by agents and taken for crushing.

Annual production and value: Sal seed is collected and marketed on a commercial scale. The potential production is estimated at 5.5 million tons but current collection is only 100,000 tons, valued at Rs200 million. Mahua has a potential kernel production of 1.1 million tons but the annual collection is around 25,000 tons, valued at about Rs17 million. Production of other species has not been systematically monitored. Estimates of the production and value of some seeds presented in Table 5.

Table 5. Annual seed production of selected tree species in India

Species	Potential production (1000 tons)	Current production (1000 tons)	Value of current produce (Million Rs.)
Kusum	200	30	112
Pilu	50	10	NA
Pisa	1	NA	NA
Karanj	110	26	78
Neem	400	100	150

Essential oils

General: Essential oils, also called volatile oils, are liquids which possess a pleasant taste and strong aromatic odor. They occur in about 60 plant families and are frequent or abundant in the Labiatae, Rutaceae, Geraniaceae, Umbellifereae, Asteraceae, Lauraceae, Graminae, and Fabaceae families. Any part of the plant may be the source of essential oil. They are used in making perfumes, soap, and other toiletries. Many are used as flavoring agents or as essence for tooth paste and tobacco. Many have therapeutic and antiseptic properties. Several others are used as solvents in the paint and varnish industries, as insecticides and deodorants, and in the manufacture of synthetic scents and flavors.

The important essential oils produced in India are oils of sandalwood, lemon grass, palmarosa, eucalyptus, khus and linaloe. These oils are distinguished from fatty oils because they evaporate or volatilize when they come in contact with air.

Classification of Indian essential oils: An economic classification of plants yielding essential oils based on their end use is exceedingly difficult as the uses often overlap. For example, sandalwood oil is used for perfumery, medicine, and many other uses. In numerous cases, the same oil is used for flavoring and in medicine. For convenience, the essential oils are classified according to source:

(a) Grass oils: These are mostly obtained from tropical grasses rich in aromatic essential oil, belonging mostly to the Andropogon and Cymbopogon genera. Indian grass oils include (i) lemon grass oil, (ii) palmarosa oil, (iii) ginger grass oil, (iv) citronella oil, and (v) vetiver oil.

(b) Wood oils: (i) sandalwood oil, (ii) agar oil, (iii) deodar oil, and (iv) pine oil.

(c) Leaf oils: (i) Eucalyptus oil from E. globulus and E. citriodora, (ii) camphor and camphor oil, (iii) cinnamon leaf and bark oils, (iv) pine needle oil, (v) mint oil, and (vi) wintergreen oil.

(d) Root oils: (i) Costus oil from Saussuria lappa (Kuth), and (ii) Indian valerian oil from Valeriana wallichii.

(e) Flower oils

(f) Essential oils of lesser importance.

Industrial uses of essential oils: Essential oils are used in the following industries:

(i) Soap and cosmetics;
(ii) Pharmaceuticals;
(iii) Confectionery and aerated water; and
(iv) Attars, scented tobacco, agarbattis, incense, etc.

Collection of raw material and recovery of essential oil: Plant parts containing oil are collected from the field, and essential oils are extracted in different ways depending on the quantity and stability of the compound involved. The following methods are commonly practiced:

(i) Distillation: applicable to materials in which the aroma is not spoiled by hot water or steam;
(ii) Expression by hand or machinery: applicable especially to fruit rinds;
(iii) Extraction by volatile solvents, hot oils, fats (maceration), or cold neutral fats (enfleurage).

Production of essential oils: Estimated production of some of the important essential oils produced in India is presented in Table 6.

Table 6. Estimated production of essential oils

Essential oil	Production (tons)
Lemon grass oil	1,200
Sandalwood oil	1,300
Palmarosa oil	90
Vetiver oil	50
Eucalyptus oil	50
Cinnamon oil	33
Deodar wood oil	2
Linoloe oil	3
Cinnamon oil	2
Total	2,830

Fibers and flosses

Fibers

General: Fibers fall into three categories: soft, hard, and surface. Soft fibers are obtained from the best or stem of plants; hard fibers from the leaf; and surface fibers are those which are borne on the surfaces of stems, leaves, seeds, etc. Based on their general use, they are classified as textile fibers, brush fibers, plaiting and weaving fibers, filling fibers, natural fabrics and paper making fibers. The most important fibers coming from the forests of India are from the families of Bombacaceae, Sterculiaceae, Tiliaceae, Fabaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Myrtaceae, Moraceae, Urticaceae, Palmaceae, Musaceae, and Gramineae.

The following species are commonly Used by cottage industries: Agave sisalana, Abroma augusta, Abutilon spp., Ananas cosmosus, Antiaris toxicaria, Boehmeria nivea, Borassus flabillifer, Canabis sativa, Cordia dichotoma, C. rothii, Giradinia heterophylla, Grewia glabra, G. elastica, G. optiva, Hibiscus spp., Malachra capitata, Marsdenia tenacissima, M. volubilis, Phormium tenax, Sensivieria roxburghiana, Sesbania bispinosa, Sida rhombifolia, Sterculia foetida, S. urens, S. villosa, Themeda arundinacea, Trema orientalis, Typha elephantina, Urena lobata, Oreocnide integrifolia.

Of the above species, only Agave sisalana and Sterculia villosa have commercial importance. Agave fibers are Used in making ropes and mats. The fiber is also useful for cordage, twines, and nets.

Agave plants usually grow in semi-arid tropical regions. They are propagated from rhizomes or bulbils, planted at a spacing of 2.4 to 2.7 meters. It takes 2 to 6 years for the plant to grow to harvestable size. Leaves are harvested from the plant until it dies after flowering. Yields range from 1.0 to 2.8 tons of fiber per hectare. Fiber stripping is done within 48 hours of harvest.

Sterculia villosa is mainly found in Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala, although it is scattered throughout most of India. The species yields coarse, strong fiber which strips off the tree in long broad flakes. The flakes have a characteristic net-like appearance. The fiber is used for making ropes. In West Bengal and Tamil Nadu, it is used for making elephant harnesses and drag ropes and for securing rafts. Fiber yields from Sterculia villosa vary from 4.5 to 5.5 tons per hectare.

Annual production and value: It is estimated that around 2,500 tons per annum of agave fibers are produced in the country, with a present value of Rs45 million. Overall production data for Sterculia villosa are not available.

Flosses

General: Flosses are obtained from certain wild fruits. Important species are Bombax ceiba and Ceiba pentandra.

Distribution: Bombax ceiba grows throughout the Indian plains and Deccan plateau. Ceiba pentandra trees are found in Western and Southern states and the Andaman Islands.

Uses: The floss from Bombax ceiba is obtained from capsules and is known as "Indian kapok." The floss is soft and strong and used in life-saving devices for boats, stuffing for cushions, pillows and mattresses, thermal insulation, and soundproof covers and walls. It is a preferred filling material for padded surgical dressings.

Flosses obtained from the fruit of Ceiba pentandra (kapok or silk cotton) are elastic and are used in the manufacture of life belts and buoys.

Collection and processing: The capsules are collected green from the tree as the floss loses much of its resilience after the capsules are open. The capsules are then dried in the sun and split open with mallets. The floss, mixed with seeds, is again dried in the sun and the seeds are separated by beating with sticks. The collection and processing is crude and needs improvement to avoid waste and to improve quality.

Annual production and value: About 300 tons of kapok are produced annually in India, with a value of Rs30 million.

Grasses

General: Grasses are used for paper making, cattle fodder, matting, ropes, thatching, and in manufacturing furniture, baskets, and screens. These uses are discussed below:

(i) Grasses for paper making: Eulaliopsis binata (sabai grass) is the chief species, distributed in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, and Himachal Pradesh.

(ii) Fodder grasses: Andropogon grows in dry regions of India and is a principal constituent of wild forage. Cenchrus ciliaris, Bothriochloa ischaemum, B. intermedia, B. pertusa, and Bromus spp. are important fodder grasses growing in the wild.

(iii) Grasses for matting: The culms of Phragmites spp. and Arundo spp. are split and used for matting. Saccharum munja, Typha elephantina and Cyperus corymbosus are also preferred.

(iv) Grasses for ropes: Eulaliopsis binata, Desmostachya bipinnata, Saccharum munja, S. spontaneum, and Themeda arundinacea are the main species.

(v) Thatching grasses: Imperata cylindrica is the main species; Saccharum munja, S. spontaneum, and Heteropogon contortus are also used.

(vi) Grasses for miscellaneous uses: Furniture is made out of Saccharum munja stems. Screens of Vetiveria zizanioides roots are used in houses and offices as room coolers during summer. These are kept wet for a fragrant cooling effect. Thysanolaena maxima grass is valued for brooms and fodder.

Regeneration: Eulaliopsis binata, Saccharum munja, Cenchrus ciliaris, Vetiveria zizanioides, Thysanolaena maxima and some other fodder grasses are planted using cuttings, slips or seeds.

Collection and processing: Fodder grasses are commonly grazed directly by cattle in the forests. Others are collected and stall-fed to animals or sold in bundles. Some grasses are cut, collected, and baled for transportation to depots. These are grasses usually utilized by paper mills or for cattle fodder during times of scarcity.

Annual production and value: Some 0.3 to 0.4 million tons of grass could be harvested annually in India (Sharma, 1977), but the figures for actual production are not available. Some 60,000 to 80,000 tons of sabai grass are purchased each year by paper mills. The price of sabai grass is around Rs300 per ton.

Tannins and dyes

Tannins

General: Tannins are polyphenolic compounds widely distributed among India's flora. They occur in varying concentrations in all plant material, but only certain plants contain concentrations permitting commerical exploitation. Tannins are classified as condensed or hydrolizsable. The former, called catechol-type tannins, are based on polymeric flavan -3.01. The latter, also called pyrogallol tannins are based on esters of Gallic acid and/or hexahydroxy diphenic acid and its analogous acids, with a variety of polyols and alicyclic acids. Different parts of plants may contain different types of tannins.

Classification: Tannins produced in India can be classified as fruit tannins, bark tannins, or leaf tannins. Fruit tannins are generally obtained from myrobalans, though pods of Acacia nilotica and drupes of Emblica officinalis and Zizyphus xylocarpa are also used locally. The main tree species yielding bark tannins are Acacia nilotica, A. mollisima, Cassia auriculata, and Shorea robusta. The leaves of Anogeissus latifolia and Carissa spinarum are also harvested for tannin production.

Uses: 90 percent of the total vegetable tannins in the world are used by the leather industry. India has the largest livestock population (about 415 million head) in the world (Anon., 1982). Prospects for the leather industry are therefore bright.

Important tannin yielding plants:

Terminalia chebula

General: The fruit of Terminalia schebula, commercially known as chebulic myrobalan, yields important tannin material. Chebulic myrobalan trees are found throughout the mixed deciduous forests and dry forests. Myrobalans are the most important tanning materials of the pyrogallol type. These tannins produce a brownish colored deposit on leather called "bloom." Catchol type tannins do not produce a bloom. Myrobalan tannins are not very astringent, and penetrate the hide very slowly. When used alone, they produces a soft, mellow and rather spongy leather which lacks good wearing properties. Myrobalans in India are largely used in combination with Acacia nilotica and Cassia auriculata tannins.

Time of collection: January to March is the best period for fruit collection, with January harvests yielding optimum tannin content. The tannin content varies from 12 to 49 percent, although average tannin content is around 32 percent.

Grading: Grading generally consists of separating inferior fruit which constitute a second grade, the remainder being the first grade. The following grades are recognized, based on their origin (Anon, 1972).

· Bimlies (Bs) exported from Bimlipatam (Andhra Pradesh);
· Jabalpur (Js) exported from Jabalpur (Madhya Pradesh);
· Rajpores (Rs) exported from Kolhapur (Maharashtra);
· Vingloras (Vs) exported from Maharashtra; and
· Coast Madras, or Madras, exported from Tamil Nadu forests.

The myrobalans from Salem district (Tamil Nadu) are regarded as the best in the country for color and tannin content.

Processing: Collected fruit is sun dried. It is important to store the fruit properly as it easily rots. Crushed myrobalans and solid extract of myrobalans regularly enter the commercial trade. The extract is prepared in factories and is exported in solid blocks containing 50 to 60 percent tannin. Most tanners prefer to make their own liquors with 30-35 percent tannin content.

Annual production and value: Around 78,000 to 100,000 tons of myrobalan nuts are estimated to be produced annually, valued at Rs15 to 20 million.

Acacia mollissima (wattle)

General: Tannin is obtained from the bark of this tree. It gives astringent liquor with good penetrating properties. It blends well with acid-producing tanning materials, such as myrobalans, giving a pleasing biscuit color to leather. If used alone, it gives pink color, which darkens on exposure to light. Wattle is planted in Kodaikanal and in the Ooty hills of Tamil Nadu, covering about 20,000 hectares.

Collection and processing: Wattle is managed under the coppice system. Coppice shoots are regularly cut and the bark is stripped and dried. Drying involves standing the pieces on end against each other or against a rough trestle, with the outer bark exposed. This must be done in fine weather or under cover, as rain water leaches away tannin. The dried bark contains 18 to 35 percent tannin, depending upon the age and the part of the tree from where bark has been collected. Tannin liquors are extracted from the bark by applying steam in specially prepared wooden vats. These can be purified and mixed with other extracts to give the desired color or quality to leather.

Annual production and value: Over 23,000 tons of wattle bark are harvested every year, valued at Rs38 million.

Acacia nilotica (babul)

General: In northern India, the bark of A. nilotica forms the most important tannin-yielding raw material. It is a common tree found in forest, wastelands, and cultivated fields throughout India. Babul bark is very good for tanning heavier leathers. In combination with myrobalans, it gives an excellent finished leather.

Collection and processing: Bark is available to the tanning industry as a by-product when trees are felled for timber or fuel. Bark is dried and despatched in bundles to the tanning factories. The most important consumption center for this bark is Kanpur. The tannin content of babul bark varies considerably, with the average being 12 percent. The bark from older trees is richer in tannin and deeper in color.

Production and value: An average 15-year-old plantation yields about 12.5 tons of bark. About 22,000 tons of babul bark are produced annually, valued at Rs55 million.

Cassia auriculata (avaram)

General: Avaram is a small bush which grows wild in south India. It thrives on dry stony hills and on black soils, along road sides, in degraded forests, and on wastelands.

Collection and processing: Bark is collected by cutting coppice shoots off at the base. Shoots can be harvested annually. The bark is stripped and dried. The bark contains an average of 18 percent of tannin. The leather tanned by unstripped twigs is as good as that from stripped bark. The tannin from the bark penetrates hide quickly and produces a special form of lightly tanned, pale colored leather with an elastic grain and good tensile stength.

Annual production and value: Annual production of avaram bark is estimated at 23,000 tons, valued at about Rs35 million.

Dyes

General: Over 2,000 plant pigments are known, of which only a few are of a commercial importance. Vegetable dyes have not been able to successfully compete with artificial dyes in recent years.

Classification:

(i) Wood dyes: Kutch dye from Acacia catechu and other dyes from Artocarpus heterophyllus, A. lakoocha, Pterocarpus santalinus, and Caesalpinia sappan.

(ii) Bark dyes: Obtained from Terminalia tomentosa, Acacia concinna, A. farnesiana, A. ieucophloea, Alnus spp. Casuarina equisetifolia, Manilkara littoralis, Myrica esculenta, and Ventilago madraspatana.

(iii) Flower and fruit dyes: This is the most important group of natural dyes. Flower and fruit dyes are commonly obtained from Mallouts philippensis, Woodfordia floribunda, Bixa orellana, Butea monosperma, Toona ciliata, Nyctanthes arbortristis, Mammea longifolia, Wrightiatinctoria, and Carocus stativus.

(iv) Root dyes: Root dyes are obtained from Berberis aristata, Datioca cannabina, Morinda tinctoria, Punica granatum, and Rubia cordifolia.

(v) Leaf dyes: Indigofera tinctoria and Lanssonia inermis are important species.

The above plant parts do not provide significant livelihood to forest dwellers because the procurement price in the markets is extremely low. There is no organized trade for collection, processing and marketing of vegetable dye stuffs.

Drugs and Spices

General: India's medicinal plant wealth is comprised of about 1,500 species. Knowledge of the medicinal properties of these plants has been recorded in "Materia-Medica" a description of indigenous systems of medicine which have become extensive and heterogenous over the centuries. Every region of India has contributed to its development.

Systematic studies and research have been carried out on only a few of the countless drugs used in indigenous systems of medicine. Drugs have been classified depending upon the plant organ from which they are derived: roots and other underground parts, bark, wood, leaves, flowers, and fruit and seed.

Cultivation of important species: Due to continuous use, many medicinal plant species have become scarce in the forests and efforts are being made to cultivate them.

Dioscorea deltoidea and D. trazeri grow in northwest Himalayas and northeastern India, respectively. Both species yield diosgenin but grow very slowly and their production cannot meet the demand. D. floribunda, a Central American species, has been introduced for commercial cultivation in Assam, Goa, Bangalore, and Koorg districts of Karnataka. The crop is raised from seeds, single-node leaf cuttings or tuber pieces. On average, a two-year-old plant yields 2.5 to 3 kilograms of tubers, or 50 to 60 tons per hectare. The content of diosgenin is 3 percent on dry weight basis (Bammi and Rao, 1982).

D. composita, also a native of Central America, is now being cultivated in Jammu. Tubers begin to increase in size from the third year on. This species yields about 2 to 3 percent diosgenin. The highest diosgenin content is obtained in July when the plants are about to flower, but it varies considerably from one locality to another. Propagation from rhizome cuttings gives better results than from seeds or seedlings. With a planting density of 40,000 per hectare, yields of up to 54.8 tons per hectare after 16 or 17 months (the ideal age for harvesting) are possible. An income of Rs 4,500 to 5,000 per hectare accrues to the cultivator (Sobti et al., 1982).

Solanum khasianum occurs in northeast, northwest, southern and central India. It is cultivated through seeds or nursery-raised seedlings. The crop takes about 6 months to mature. Two improved varieties have been developed at the Regional Research Laboratory, Jammu, yielding 7.5 and 8.3 tons fresh berries, respectively. Solasodine content ranges from 1.55 to 1.89 percent from the fruit. (Kaul and Zutshi, 1982).

Costus speciosus is widely distributed in India. In the plains, the plant occurs as a weed in orchards, boundaries of cultivated fields, and in wastelands. In Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, and in tropical rain forests in Tamil Nadu, it grows on the forest floor.

Datura stramonium, D. innoxia and D. metel are important medicinal species. The first is rich in hyoscyamin, while the latter two are rich in scopolamine. D. innoxia is a coarse bushy annual which grows in the western Himalayas, the hilly region of peninsular India, and a few other places in the country. D. metel is a spreading herb growing throughout India. All can be raised by seeds. In the case of D. innoxia, fully grown, but green, fruits yield 1.2 to 1.7 tons of dry seeds per hectare, with alkaloid content varying from 0.2 to 0.35 percent. For D. metel, maximum alkaloid yield is obtained by harvesting tender branches and leaves in June and July. The plant regenerates and it is possible to harvest twice more in late August and October. In addition to foliage, a large number of fruits are also harvested when ripe. Two improved varieties of D. metal developed by the Regional Research Laboratory, Jammu, yield 21 to 29 tons of green herb and 1.5 to 2.4 tons of seeds per hectare. The alkaloid content varies from 0.24 to 0.36 percent in leaves and from 0.098 to 0.19 percent in seeds (Sobti and Kaul, 1982).

Atropa acuminata (belladonna) occurs in the western Himalayas, particularly in Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. Its leaves and roots are used in the pharmaceutical industry. About 70 tons of dry leaves are needed annually to meet the country's demand. In recent years, the natural stocks of the species have dwindled because of over-exploitation. The Kashmir Forest Department has therefore been promoting its cultivation. It is raised from seeds. J. eaves are harvested at the time of flowering when the content of active ingredients is at its peak. Maximum yields are obtained by cutting the entire plant 7.5 centimeters above the ground. After cutting, the plants sprout again. Two to four quintals of leaves are obtained from each hectare (Gulati et al., 1982).

Rauwolfia serpentina is one of the most important medicinal plants in India, occurring throughout the country. The plant which can be propagated from seeds, stem cuttings, or root cuttings, is a perennial shrub growing up to 50 centimeters in height. The root should be harvested 15 and 36 months after planting to obtain the optimum yield of alkaloid.

The major trade centers for Rauwolfia roots are Calcutta, Bombay and Patna, which in turn are supplied by a number of primary trade centers throughout the country. The market value per ton of roots varies from Rs2,000 to Rs4,000 depending upon the quality.

Cassia angustifolia (senna): is found in Tamil Nadu, and on a smaller scale in Karnataka and Maharashtra. Sennosides are extracted from leaves and pods, and made into tablets. The plant can be raised from seeds, and is ready to harvest after 2 months. Sennoside content is maximum (11.92 percent) in 3 to 5 days old pods, while in leaves it is maximum (6.93 percent) in immature leaves (Gupta et al., 1977).

About 7 quintals of leaves and a quintal of pods are obtained from one hectare under rainfed conditions, and 14 quintals of leaves and 1.5 quintal of pods are obtained under irrigated conditions. Senna leaves, pods or their powder retain their biological activity even after 5 years of storage. About 5,500 hectares of land are under senna cultivation in India, yielding around 7,150 tons of leaves and pods annually, valued at Rs57 million.

Spices:

Spices are aromatic vegetable products characterized by pungency, strong flavors and sweet or bitter taste. They occur naturally in some forests and are also cultivated in some regions. The important spice-yielding plants are Alpinia glanga (greater galangal), Cinnamomum zeylanicum (cinnamon or dalchini), Curcuma spp. (haldi), Elettaria cardamomum (cardamom), and Piper longum and P. nigrum (pepper).

Animal products

Lac, honey and wax, silk, horns, ivory, bat guano, edible birds' nests, and bees' dammar are some products that are obtained from forests. Of these, the former three are most important.

Lac

General: Commonly known as "shellac" in its refined flake form, lac is a resinous secretion from the insect Laccifer lacca, which feeds on the plant sap.

Uses: Lac is presently used for various purposes in plastics, electricals, adhesives, leather, wood finishing, printing, polish and varnish, ink and other industries. It is also the principal ingredient of sealing wax.

Lac crops: Two main strains of lac insect are recognized: "rangeeni" and "kusumi". The rangeeni crop is raised on several host plants, the important being Butea monosperma and Zizyphus mauritiana. The kusumi strain is raised on Schleichera oleosa. There are two crops of lac produced by both strains each year. In addition, there are many other plants species which are of local or specific importance. Only species with near neutral or slightly acidic sap are good hosts for lac insects.

Cultivation of lac: To get good results, the insects must be provided with succulent shoots. Lac sticks, which have mature female insects (called "brood lac") ready to give rise to next generation, are cut and tied on the branches of the new host plants. To get the maximum benefit, lac cultivation is done on a rotational basis so that the host plants, whose vitality is drained off by lac insects, are given sufficient periods to recover.

Collection and storage of stick lac: Lac is collected in two forms, "ari" and "phunki." The former is cut from the host plant and the latter is collected from the brood lac, after being used for inoculation. The lac is then sold "as is," or freed from the sticks and then sold. The lac removed from the sticks is commercially known as "sticklac."

Sticklac is spread in shade about 15 centimeters thick and turned over once or twice a week until it dries. After drying, sticklac is winnowed to free it from foreign matter. The granular substance, obtained from sticklac after washing away the insect bodies and the dye is called "seed lac," which after bleaching is used in the manufacture of interior floor polishes. Shellac is manufactured from seed lac by either a heat process or a solvent process. The yield of shellac is roughly 55 percent by weight of the sticklac.

Annual production and value: About 14,500 to 20,000 tons of stick lac is produced annually in India. Its price varies from Rs4,500 to 16,000 per ton depending upon quality; most of the produce sells around Rs14,000 per ton. Thus, the total value of the annual production in India is Rs203 million to Rs280 million.

Honey and wax

General: Honey forms a natural nutritious food for the rural people. It is also used widely for medicinal purposes. Two species of bees, Apis dorsata (rock bee) and Apis indica (Indian bee) produce honey. The former is wild in montane and sub-montane regions throughout India. It is a good honey gatherer and a single comb may yield up to 35 kilograms of honey and one kilogram of wax. The latter is amenable to domestication, but it is not a good honey gatherer. The yield per hive ranges from 3 to 13 kilograms of honey in the hills and 3 to 8 kilograms in the plains.

Annual production and value: About 250 tons of rock bee honey and 98 tons of Indian bee honey are produced annually. At a price of Rs40 per kilogram, the total value of honey produced is Rs139 million.

Bee's wax is used in the manufacture of furniture and floor polishes, dressing and water proofing of leather goods. It is also an ingredient of shoe polish, cosmetics, lipstick, and face cream. About 28 tons of wax are produced annually, valued at approximately Rs1.6 million.

Silk

India produces four kinds of silk: mulberry, tassar, muga, and eri. Silk is obtained from cocoons of silk worms. Its production has four components; i) cultivation of host plants for silk worms, ii) rearing silk worms up to cocoon stage, iii) reeling of cocoons into continuous filaments called raw silk and, iv) silk throwing and weaving by which filaments are twisted and woven into fabrics (Anon, 1976).

The silk worm Bombyx mori is fed on mulberry leaves cultivated in plantations. There are other silk worms which are found wild on forest trees, the best known of these is Antheraea paphia, which produces the famous "tassar" silk of India. It feeds on several trees such as Anogeissus latifolia, Terminalia tomentosa, T. arjuna, Lagerstroemia parviflora, and Madhuca indica. Two or three crops of cocoons are usually obtained each year and about 12 grams of silk are obtained from 15-20 cocoons. Other wild silk worms are Antheraea assamensis, producing "muga" silk, and Philosamia synthia ricini, producing "eri" silk. In some areas silk worms are introduced on host plants to enhance the production of silk. Estimated annual production of tassar silk is 130 tons. Production of other types of silk exceed 10,000 tons.

Edible plant products

General: Natural forests supplement the food supply for human beings. Several forest fruits and seeds, flowers, rhizomes, tubers, roots, barks, etc. are consumed by people during periods of food scarcity and in normal times. A number of tree species provide such edible products. Important fruits are from Buchanania lanzan (chironji), Anacardium occidentale (kaju), Pinus gerardiana (chilgoza), Emblica officinalis (aonla), Tamarindus indica (tamarind), Aegle marmelos (bel), Feronia elephantum (kaitha), Artocarpus lakoocha (barhal), Syzygium cuminii (jamun), Annona squamosa (custard apple), Carissa opaca (karaunda), Juglans regia (akhrot), Moringa oleifera (drum stick), and Zizyphus jujuba (ber). Edible flowers came from Madhuca indica (mahua), and M. longifolia (mahua). Roots and tubers of Amorphophalus campanulatum, Dioscorca belophylla, D. oppositifolia, and Ipomoea aquatica are also important.

The following forest species are particularly important in producing delicacies consumed by rural people:

Buchanamia lanzan is commonly known as chironji, achaar or char. It is frequently found in dry mixed deciduous forests of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Maharashtra, West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh.

It is a medium-sized tree, attaining a height of over 15 meters and a girth of 120 centimeters. Natural regeneration is poor and artificial cultivation is difficult. People hack the branches to collect the fruits, a practice that weakens the tree.

The species flowers from January to March and the fruit ripens from April to June. The fruit is eaten by the local people and kernels are extracted and dried for sale in the market. Kernels have a mixed flavor of pistachio and almond, and are eaten raw or roasted. They are commonly used in preparing desserts. The market price is about Rs120 per kilogram.

Anacardium occidentale is a small tree, known as cashew nut or kaju. It was introduced to India from Mexico, Central and South America, and eastern Brazil. In India, it is grown in Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Goa and western Maharashtra.

Cashew is an erect, spreading evergreen tree, growing to a height of 10 meters. The tree begins to flower in December. Mature fruit is collected from February to May.

The tree is usually propagated from seedlings raised in baskets, although it can be propagated by grafting and layering. The tree starts bearing fruits from the third or fourth year, but the best production starts from the tenth year and continues for another 20 years. The average yield of kernels per tree ranges from 9 to 18 kilograms. The kernels vary in size, ranging from 100 to 425 per kilogram (Verma, 1988).

The nuts are separated from cashew apples immediately after harvest. They are then dried in the sen and shelled. The dried nuts are roasted either in open pans over furnaces or in rotary cylinders with oilbaths. India, with an annual production of about 60,000 tons of raw nuts, is the largest producer of cashew nuts in the world (Murthy and Subrahmanuam, 1989). The price of raw kernel is Rs30 per kilogram and that of processed nut is from Rs80 to 120 per kilogram.

Pinus gerardiana is an evergreen pine known as "chilgoza" or "neoza," attaining a height of 17 to 27 meters and girth of 2 to 4 meters. The species is endemic to a part of Himachal Pradesh in the Himalayan dry temperate forests. The tree flowers in May-June and female cones ripen during September-October of the following year. Good seed years alternate with poor ones. A tree on an average yields about 7.4 kilograms of seeds. Collection is best done in September-October when the cones are still green. On heating, the cone scales open and the seeds are shaken out. Seeds are also separated by drying the green cones in the sun.

Natural regeneration is limited because local inhabitants aggressively collect the cones to extract the chilgoza nuts. Attempts to raise chilgoza plantations by sowing have not succeeded because the seeds are readily eaten by various animals. Some success has been achieved, however, in planting seedlings and by heteroplastic grafting. Collection rights are given to local villagers, who supply nuts to the markets in the plains. About 140 tons of nuts are produced every year. They are priced at approximately Rs100 per kilogram (Gupta and Sharma, 1975).

Export of non-wood forest products

The economic contribution of NWFPs exceeds 70 percent of the total value of forest-based exports from India. NWFPs are primarily exported as raw materials. If proper facilities for processing were available, earnings could be much higher.

Export figures for the period 1984 to 1988 are shown in Table 7.

Organization for collection and processing

In 1980, the Central Board of Forestry suggested the following plan of action for procurement and processing of NWFPs to enhance the economic situation of tribal people.

(i) Adopt ways and means to ensure smooth, adequate and sustained supply of NWFPs for domestic use and also for trade and processing.

(ii) Develop and utilize NWFP resources for the benefit of tribals and also for the contribution to the national economy.

(iii) To ensure fair wages, the collection and initial processing of NWFP should be done either by direct recruitment of labor or through Large-Size Multipurpose Cooperative Societies (LAMPS). Intermediaries should be abolished.

Table 7. Export of important non-wood forest products

Product	1984-85		1985-86		1986-87		1987-88
	Quantity (tons)	Value (million Rs)	Quantity (tons)	Value (million Rs.)	Quantity (tons)	Value (million Rs.)	Quantity (tons)	Value (million Rs.)
Tendu leaves	2503	30.3	4487	54.1	5103	66.5	5942	83.5
Bamboo	132,3	0.8	1.4	0.007	4.7	0.03	0.7	0.004
Acacia gum	149.4	4.7	46.7	1.6	16.8	0.5	NA	NA
African gum	4.1	0.02	NA	NA	10.0	0.2	NA	NA
Arabic gum	0.9	0.0.4	58.2	0.9	11.9	0.2	6.3	0.38
Karaya gum	3044	82.9	2505	71,0	2124	57.4	2801	64.20
Asafoetida	111	4.6	140	5.3	102	5.3	140	8.3
Myrrh	3.0	0.06	16.9	0.3	7.0	0.3	NA	NA
Other gum resin	11.9	0.30	70.6	1.9	42.1	1.1	102.4	2.7
Sal oil	3822.7	82.1	8751.0	231.0	192.6	5.4	532.0	12.4
Myrobalan	60.2	0.20	5.8	0.02	378.9	1.2	304,7	2.6
Belladona leaves and roots	0.4	0.008	3.0	0.036	3.1	0.9	NA	NA
Kuth roots	20.0	0.24	42.7	1.1	3.6	0.3	0.5	0.02
Psyllum husk	11019	365.2	1095	336.4	8865	233.8	12641	479.6
Psyllum seed	2071.2	28.6	2499,5	23.3	2994.1	25.6	2265.2	34.4
Serpentina roots	3.9	0.04	8.0	0.06	55.9	0.4	NA	NA
Senna leaves and pods	3313,4	29.2	5705.9	52.40	5672.2	48.2	5270.4	34.9
Henna leaves and wood	5250.2	29.9	8067.0	48.10	5157.9	40.0	4783.1	42.1
Chiraita	8.1	0.05	6.8	0.03	38.2	0.09	58.5	1.7
Cassia pods	1007,6	7.5	723.7	3.2	901.4	6.3	NA	NA
Soap nut	27.9	0.17	271.2	0.9	69.3	0.6	35.6	0.2
Green pepper	98,7	4.2	76.3	5.4	179.0	15.6	114.8	15.7
Black pepper, garbled	18622	410.6	38580	1754.4	35771	1947.3	41332	2463.0
Black pepper, ungarbled	41.1	1.2	724.8	32.9	404.8	19.8	433.8	24.3
Pepper, long	4.4	0.16	NA	NA	11.5	0.2	NA	NA
Cinnamon bark	5.4	0.09	2.2	0.04	1.3	0.02	NA	NA
Cardamom, large	245.2	9.3	387.8	19.3	271.6	12.1	256.1	14.0
Cardamom, small	948.8	281.8	1657.9	264.6	1014.3	136.2	227.2	29.0
Tamarind, fresh	956.4	4.5	1046.2	7.2	1287.0	6.9	1160.0	3.1
Tamarind, dried	3110.4	20.1	724.8	32.9	2792.0	25.9	NA	NA
Shellac, hand-made	763.4	34.1	580.1	38.6	543.4	20,0	637.6	28.0
Shellac, machine-made	1712.7	78.7	4175.9	299.0	3944.5	156.0	3655.2	121.5
Seed lac	310-9	10.3	272.6	12.5	146.0	4.3	NA	NA
Button and garnet lac	28.5	2.2	3.1	0.2	1.7	0.09	NA	NA
Other lacs	1939.5	66.7	1121.3	70.7	2629.9	101.3	NA	NA
Cashew kernel, broken	2453.1	113.0	7182.4	377.9	3222,9	234.7	2804.7	214.8
Cashew kernel, whole	3002.6	137.7	29913.8	1863.1	39780.5	3040.7	3142.0	2894.7

In view of the above, the Tribal Development Federation (TRIFED) has been formed as an apex body at the national level to help the state-level federations and forest development corporations with marketing of NWFPs procured from tribals. TRIFED purchases all such produce from the state-level federations or corporations, with the condition that the state bodies pay tribals a fixed minimum price for their produce.

The institutional framework created for collection and marketing of NWFPs differs from state to state:

Andhra Pradesh tribals have the right to collect, consume and sell NWFP items. The Girijan Co-operative Corporation (GCC) has monopoly rights over procurement and marketing of NWFPs. GCC engages primary cooperatives at the grass root-level for collecting and processing the produce. The corporation pays royalties to the forest department.

In Bihar, tendu leaves and oil seeds (Shorea, Pongamia, Madhuca, and Schleichera) are nationalized items. Collection of Diospyros melanoxylon leaves is undertaken by the forest department itself. The Forest Development Corporation has monopoly over oil seeds and their procurement is done through LAMPS and other agencies. Though lac is an important NWFP item, it is not nationalized. Some lac is procured through LAMPS and marketed by the Bihar State Cooperative Lac Marketing Federation. Other NWFPs are purchased directly by agents.

Gujarat has established the Gujarat Forest Development Corporation, which procures NWFPs like Diospyros leaves, Madhuca flowers, and other seeds and gums on a monopoly basis. The corporation trains tribals in improved methods of collection and processing and has increased collection and sale from Rs5.1 million in 1976-77 to over Rs30 million in 1987-88. Employment (primarily of children, women and elderly tribals) from the collection of NWFPs has increased from 889,000 person-days in 197677 to 3,795,000 person-days in 1984-85. Gujarat is the only state where most of the forest coupes are being worked by Forest Labour Cooperatives (FLCs). There are about 141 FLCs in the state, of which 132 are in tribal areas. The membership of FLCs totals 63,000 of which 59,000 are tribals.

In Kerala, the right to collect all NWFPs has been given to tribals (Girijans). A cooperative society has been established in each forest area, with membership reserved only for Girijans. State forest departments purchase all the collected NWFPs at procurement prices fixed for each collection season by a committee constituted by the State Government.

In Madhya Pradesh, Diospyros leaves, Shorea seeds, Terminalia chebula nuts, gums (five types), Acacia catechu wood, and bamboos are nationalized items specified for monopoly state trading. Gums, catechu wood, and bamboos are collected through the departmental agency. Shorea seeds and Terminalia nuts were largely handled through purchaser-agent systems until recently, but the Madhya Pradesh Government has now switched over to a direct tender system.

The state of Madhya Pradesh is the largest producer of tendu (Diospyros melanoxylon) leaves. The average annual production of tendu leaves in the state is 123,000 tons, which accounts for over 60 percent of the total production in the country. Tendu leaf trade has been fully controlled by the state government since 1964. Tendu leaf growing areas of the state have been divided into units, from where Minor Forest Product Cooperatives collect the leaves. After necessary curing and treatment, leaves are packed in bags and stored in godowns. They are later sold by the forest department through sealed tenders from registered bidi manufacturers and tendu pasta traders. After expenses are deducted, the profits are distributed among the members of the Minor Forest Produce Cooperatives.

The trade of sal seeds, myrobalans, and mahua flowers in Madhya Pradesh is nationalized and the task of collection and disposal is entrusted to the State Forest Produce Trading and Development Cooperative Federation, which is a subsidiary organization of the forest department. The Federation has a large number of Tribal Cooperatives and Primary Agricultural Cooperatives as its members. About 30 LAMPS are also engaged in procurement of myrobalans on a commission basis.

For other NWFPs, local inhabitants obtain rights to collect from the forest department by paying a nominal royalty. After collection they sell the produce to traders.

Since the Maharashtra Tribal Economic Condition Improvement Act, 1976, trading of NWFPs in tribal areas has been entrusted to the Maharashtra State Cooperative Tribal Development Corporation on a monopoly basis. This corporation presently is trading in gums, Madhuca indica flowers and fruits, Terminalia chebula, and Buchanania lanzan seeds, after procuring them from tribals. Where the Tribal Development Corporation is not functioning, collection of NWFPs is contracted to Forest Labour Cooperative Societies or auctioned to contracters. Tendu leaf trade has been nationalized in the state since 1969, leaves being collected under the purchaser-agents system.

In Orissa, collection of NWFPs follows a multi-dimensional pattern. Diospyros leaves and sal seeds are nationalized and the state has monopoly over their trading. The idea behind the government taking over the trade is to remove the middleman and ensure better wages to primary collectors. Tendu leaves are collected by the forest department through tribals and after processing and packing they are handed over to the Orissa Forest Corporation for marketing. Other NWFPs are collected by local inhabitants and sold to traders who pay royalties to the forest department and process and market the produce.

In the tribal areas of Rajasthan, the NWFP collection monopoly has been given to the Tribal Area Development Cooperative Federation (TADCF). LAMPS and Cooperative Societies are involved in collection of grasses, gums, fruits, medicinal plants, etc.

In Uttar Pradesh, tendu leaf trade has been nationalized. The Tarai Anusuchit Janjati Vikas Nigam has started involving tribal people in the collection of tendu leaves. Other items are auctioned to contractors.

In West Bengal, the collection and trade of NWFPs is managed by the West Bengal Tribal Development Cooperative Corporation (WBTDCC). The corporation involves tribals through LAMPS in collecting the produce. LAMPS are provided with working capital in the form of cash credit since these are the primary societies of WBTDCC. The corporation is responsible for marketing the produce through open auction or tender. Tribals have been given the right to collect all NWFPs for their own consumption or sale. LAMPS procure Diospyros leaves, oil seeds (Shorea, Madhuca, Pongamia, Schlichera, Azadirachta, etc.) Madhuca flowers, sabai grass, and Terminalia belerica fruits from tribal collectors.

Employment generation and social benefits

In India, unemployment has always been a concern for planners and policy makers. The forestry sector, with 23 percent of the country's geographical area, provides 2.3 million person-years of employment. Of this total, 1.6 million person-years is related to NWFPs. Employment generated by various NWFPs is presented in Table 8.

It is estimated that NWFPs are capable of generating 4 million person-years of employment annually, if their full potential were exploited. The government is committed to increasing employment opportunities, so NWFPs should be one of the first items to be considered. A special national drive has been launched to intensify collection, procurement, processing, and marketing of NWFPs.

Most NWFPs currently provide employment during only part of the year because processing of NWFPs is still poorly developed. Improved labor-intensive technologies for processing NWFPs would increase the employment opportunities for longer periods of the year and ensure higher prices for the produce.

The Constitution of India enjoins the state to promote the educational and economic interests of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, and to protect them from social injustice and exploitation. It also requires the protection of the forests and wildlife of the country. The National Forest Policy, 1988, also stresses the conservation of the country's natural heritage and the efficient utilisation of all forest produce. The policy suggests that NWFPs which provide employment to the population residing in and around forests should be protected, improved, and managed for increased production. It emphasizes the need for research in the conservation and management of forest resources and the application of advanced scientific and technological measures.

Today, all the states of the country have forest corporations dealing with collection, processing and marketing of forest produce. Poor forest laborers, who were previously unorganized, have been brought under the umbrella of various organizations like the Forest Labour Cooperative Societies, the Large-Area Multipurpose Societies (LAMPS), the Tribal Development Corporations (TDC), the Minor Forest Produce Federations (MFPF), and other organizations.

Table 8. Production and employment generation from non-wood forest products in India

Product	Collection period	Production (thousand tons)		Employment (thousand person-years)
		Current	Potential	Current	Potential
Fibers	March-May	2.5	45	4.4	79
Kapok flosses	May-June	3	4.5	10	15
Grasses	Oct-March	350	535	1,200	1,800
Bamboo	Continuous	1,932	4,309	48.3	110
Canes	Continuous	14	21	0.7	1.05
Lemon grass oil	May-June	1,3	1.95	21.7	32,55
Palmaros oil	Oct-November	0.09	0.135	1.5	2.25
Eucalyptus oil	Continuous	0.14	0.21	2.32	3.48
Cinnamon oil	Continuous	0.003	0.004	0.05	0.07
Sandal wood oil	Continuous	0.15	0.225	1.5	2.25
Deodar oil	Continuous	0.015	0.023	0.15	0.23
Pine oil	Continuous	NA	100	NA	100
Mahua seed	April-June (Northern) Oct-Nov (Southern)	85	490	28.6	163
Neem seed	May-June	6	418	1	70
Karanj seed	June-Oct	56	111	19	37
Kusum seed	June-July	30	90	6.7	30
Sal seed	April-June	240	5,504	53	1,123
Kokum seed	May-June	0.5	2	0.167	0.7
Khakan seed	May-June	NA	46.3	0.570	15.3
Nahor seed	May-June	1.7	5.7	NA	1.9
Undi seed	April-June & Sept-November	NA	3.8	NA	NA
Babul bark	Continuous	27.4	50	4.57	8.3
Avaram bark	Continuous	30	45	5	7.5
Wattle bark	Continuous	30	45	5	7.5
Myrobalans	Jan-March	100	150	6.6	9.9
Karaya gum	April-June	15	22.5	50	75
Ghatti & babul gums	April-June	2	3	7	10.5
Resins	March-June	74.2	150	30	60.2
Lac & lac products	Oct-Jan & April-July	22	33	7.3	10.95
Tassar silk	Aug-Dec	0.3	1.9	1.5	9.5
Tendu leaves	April-June	210	300	74.9	107
Sarpagandha	Variable	0.6	1	16	42.67
Kuth	October	0.6	1	16	26.67
Cinchona	Variable	1.42	2	23.635	33.335
Edible products	Variable	NA	NA	NA	NA
	Total	3,235.8	12,492.2	1,647.2	3,995.8

Source: Gupta and Guleria (1982). Non-Wood Forest Products in India. Oxford and IBII Pub. New Delhi

The Tribal Federation (TRIFED), a government agency, is protecting the interests of the tribals by providing marketing support to state-level corporations, federations, and cooperatives involved with tribal collection of NWFPs. The State Forest Departments are permitting NWFPs to be collected, consumed, or marketed directly by the tribals, unless they are nationalized.

Future directions to promote NWFPs

The present status and potential of many NWFPs is not fully understood or appreciated. Since these products occupy an important place in the international markets, ample opportunities exist for enhancing export earnings by developing appropriate facilities for processing, drying, storage, packaging, and marketing.

Survey and documentation of the NWFP-yielding plants is urgently needed. It is essential to know phenology of different species, their growth behavior, and utilization patterns by local inhabitants. Although these facts are well appreciated, systematic studies have not been carried out.

It is essential to first inventory selected forest areas in different eco-climatic zones. Based on the results of surveys, the state forest departments should preserve selected areas for in-situ conservation. Seeds and progagules of important species, especially those threatened with extinction, should be collected, and nurseries and herbal gardens should be established. This should be followed by source and provenance trials, genetic improvement, and further cultivation of improved varieties.

Plantations of desired species should be raised for meeting the needs of industries and the rural population. Training tribals and the rural poor on improved cultivation practices, scientific collection, processing and marketing of NWFPs should be an important component of the future program.

The majority of NWFPs are obtained from government forests. Many plants have been over-exploited and are gradually disappearing. Crude collection methods, such as burning the forest floor, hacking of branches, uprooting herbs or shrubs, and digging of roots and tubers, have seriously degraded the resources. Therefore, cultivation of NWFP-yielding species on private and communal lands is important.

Most of the NWFPs are collected in a particular season although they are utilized all year round. Therefore, proper storage methods must be developed. Currently, as much as 50 percent of NWFPs spoil during storage. Scientific studies to develop suitable processing and storage techniques for these products should be undertaken and well-designed warehouses should be built in the interior areas to facilitate proper storage.

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Acknowledgement

The author is deeply indebted to Dr. D.N. Tewari, IFS, Director General, Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education, Dehradun, for his valuable suggestions and encouragement in preparing this paper.