Medicinal plants

Trade in medicinal plants in the past
Scope for international marketing
Scope for cultivating medicinal plants
Nature: The best teacher
Medicinal plants, present collection trends and current problems
General recommendations
Conclusion

by Raling Nawang
Project Manager
Integrated Forest Management Project, Bumthang
The Royal Government of Bhutan

A wide range of plant diversity covers Bhutan's two main mountain ranges, the Lho-Menjong and the Druk-Yul. From these rugged mountains come over 300 plant species traditionally used in preparing indigenous (Ayurvedic) medicine. Table 6 shows some of these plant species.

Medicinal plants collected from Bhutan's temperate and lower zones are known under the traditional broad classification as "THRO-MEN," while plants from the country's alpine zone are known as "NGO-MEN."

In the case of "THRO-MEN" plants, specific parts of the plants (e.g., the roots, bark, wood, leaves, flowers or fruit) are generally collected, while for "NGO-MEN," the whole plant is gathered for its medicinal properties.

Trade in medicinal plants in the past

In Bhutan's past, medicinal plants, such as manjito (Rubia cordifolia), chereta (Swertia cherita), pipla (Piper nigrum and Piper longum), sarpagandah or nakbhel (Rauvolfia serpentina) and putishing/kutki (Picorrhiza kurroa), among others, were sold to India. The sales method used was the leasing of large tracts of land through tenders or auctions. The highest bidder was given full access to and jurisdiction over seasonal collection in the area allotted. Such produce was classified as minor forest produce (MFP) and could be exported to India upon issuance of a "Certificate of Origin" by the Divisional Forest Officers concerned.

The Royal Government of Bhutan realised that in the long run, however, such nonscientific harvesting of plant species would bring more harm than the revenue generated. Hence the ban on exporting MFP - which included medicinal plants - imposed in the early 1980s, remains valid to date.

Scope for international marketing

A number of medicinal plant species growing naturally in Bhutan have international market value. Among these are agar wood (Aquilaria agallocha), Rauvolfia serpentina, tshe (Ephedra gerardina), Himalayan yew (Taxus baccata), chutsa (Rheum nobile), chumtsa (Rheum accuminita), kutki/putishing (Picorrhiza kurroa), pangpoi (Nardostachys jatamansi), tsenduk rig (Aconitum spp.), and yartsa-gunbu (Cordyceps sinensis). All are in high demand for pharmaceuticals.

Owing to the great volume of competitive synthetic products currently marketed, the trade in medicinal plants and their derivatives has declined in many industrialised countries (Study on the Market for Selected Medicinal Plants and Their Derivatives, Geneva, 1982.) Trade in botanicals, however, has risen following their relatively recent increased use by the food and cosmetics industries. A renewed interest in traditional medicine in Asia, and the introduction of health foods in Europe and North America, has between them provided new outlets for many botanical products.

Over 400 botanicals are used commercially in Western Europe, with Hamburg as the centre for the trade. Of the Western nations, the United States is the major importer of medicinal plants. Japan is the major importer among Asian countries.

Scope for cultivating medicinal plants

The National Institute of Traditional Medicine (NITM) has a programme for research on, and propagation of, medicinal plants. During the reign of Bhutan's second king, His Majesty Jijme Wangchuck (1926-52), the people of the Bumthang Valley cultivated two medicinal plant species - manu (Innula helenium) and ruta (Saussurea lappa). Both these plants were used for producing "sowa-rigpa" medicine and incense. Unfortunately, the present generation in Bumthang knows little of these two plants.

The menu plant, however, is in demand from NITM in Thimphu. The plant has survived years of neglect and is now cultivated in Ura by one family for supply to the Indigenous Hospital in Thimphu. The fate of the second plant, ruta, is not known. A survey is needed to determine if it still exists in the valley.

During Bhutan's Fourth Five-Year Plan (1972-77), the planting of agar wood in lower Kheng villages, such as Panbang, Shilingtot, Mamung, and Pantang, was encouraged by the late Dasho Keiji Nishioka on his family's private land. The agar wood plants have now grown to over 10 metres in height and 12 to 15 centimetres in diameter (measured during the author's visit in January, 1993). Some villagers are growing 20 to 3(:) or more trees, and say the trees are not difficult to propagate. Only those plants infected by a particular fungus, through a yet unknown mechanism, however, produce the highly-valued agar wood. No report has been received so far as to whether some of the planted trees have produced this most valuable type of agar wood.

Ipacac (Cephalus ipacacaunha) and Dioscorea deltoides are cultivated on large plantations in India just across the Bhutanese border. Proceeds from these plantations reportedly amount to over 10 million rupees, or some US$ 319,000, per annum. Similar plantations are quite possible within Bhutan.

Nature: The best teacher

Most plants readily propagate naturally. For example, pipla (Piper spp.) is very common in Bhutan's southern belt and Rheum accuminita and Aconitum sp. frequently occur in the sub-alpine and alpine belts of the country's northern region. The abundance of these plants is entirely due to a well-balanced ecosystem within which these plants flourish.

Nature is the best teacher. In the absence of technical know-how for the propagation of many important medicinal plants, studies must be undertaken and data gathered on the how these. plants can be cultivated and made economically beneficial. The environmental conditions - geology, soil, plant association, climate, etc. - must also be studied and used as a guide and reference for their large-scale propagation.

Medicinal plants, present collection trends and current problems

Upon request by NITM to collect medicinal plants, the Forestry Services Division (FSD) issues permits on a case-by-case basis. The location for collection and quantity to be collected are specified in the permits. But often the collection of the permitted quantity is not possible as the required species is not available in adequate volume.

NITM shows samples of the medicinal plants to local labourers, who are then requested to collect and bring in the required quantity of each species. The collectors are paid on a daily basis, or sometimes contracted under lump-sum agreements. The required permits are given to the collectors, who are paid only upon receipt of the produce. Payment is generally made for each kilogramme collected. For quality control, "dungtshoes," or indigenous technicians, supervise the collection whenever possible. It is virtually impossible, however, for Bhutan's scant core of technicians to reach every collection area for screening. In most cases, meeting the collection target for the year is more important to collectors than is scientific harvesting on a sustainable basis. Lacking technical directives and proper guidelines, this is to be expected. This is the probable reason why some species have decreased by almost 50 percent over the past 20-25 years in localities where they once grew abundantly (personal communication with locals and NITM, 1994).

But this should not lead one to conclude that all harvesting is necessarily destructive. Quite the contrary, many plant species benefit when mature plants are removed and space is created for new plants to grow.

Generally, alpine plants flower in August, which coincides with the NITM team's collection schedule for herbal plants. At this time, even the fruits from the earlier-flowering plants are not yet ripe or mature enough for their seeds to be shed. For many herbs, the whole plants are collected, including both flowers and fruit. This method of collection reduces the chances for regeneration and hence threatens the very existence of some species. If such methods continue, some species may become extinct.

General recommendations

· Collect detailed information on the extent and frequency of occurrence of species. Priorities should be set for each species.

· Develop efficient and cost-effective methods for propagating rare and important medicinal plants, as well as for such species as agar wood, important on the international market.

· Legalise and promote cultivation of commercial medicinal plants on private farms under a social forestry scheme. In the initial stages, the Government should establish an export market and "buy-back" system to encourage private entrepreneurs to undertake mass cultivation. Thus the Indigenous Hospital's requirements would be met, while the surplus could be exported. Establishing plantations for medicinal plants would also reduce wasteful harvesting from the natural forest.

· The Forest Research Division should co-operate with NITM's Research and Propagation Programme, including in the exchange of information and technical know-how. At the same time, FSD should develop a mechanism to monitor NITM's methods, the quantities it collects, and the species harvested annually. At present, FSD is completely uninformed on these matters.

Conclusion

If present trends in ad-hoc harvesting/collection continue, the scope for the economical harvesting of all medicinal plants from the wild, on a sustainable basis, will become practically nil. The only option remaining is to introduce large-scale cultivation through artificial propagation. Natural resources are presently being depleted in the natural forests due to annual and non-scientific collection of the various species on an ad hoc basis. New settlements and the expansion of land under cultivation also threatens the survival of natural forests. Unless artificial propagation is adopted, it is only a matter of time before some of these plants become extinct.

Table 6 Medicinal Plants in Bhutan

Botanical name	Family name	Medicinal name	Local name	Form	Distribution	Parts used	Remarks
Meconopsis simplicifolia	Papaveraceae	Upel	-	Herb	Rare; scattered locations in Soi, Barshong and Lingshi; 4,300 m.	Whole plant	-
Aconitum orochryseum	Ranunculaceae	Bongkar	Bong-nga (Sh)	Herb	Rare; scattered locations in Shoduk and Lingshi; 3,500-4,500 m.	Tubes	-
Onosma hookeri	Boraginaceae	Drimok	Muktsi (Sh)	Herb	Rare; scattered locations in Bumthang and Thimphu; 2,600-3,500 m.	Root	Used for religious purposes
Pedicularis oederi	Scrophulariaceae	Lukru-serpo	-	Herb	Rare; scattered locations in Lingshi and Soi; 3,600-4,500 m.	Onosma plant	-
Pedicularis longiflora siphonantha	Scrophulariaceae	Lukru-mukpo	-	Herb	Rare; scattered locations in Bumthang and Lingshi; 3,500-4,500 m.	Whole plant	-
Saxifraga mucronulata	Saxifragaceae	Dritasazin	-	Herb	Rare; scattered locations in Bumthang and Paro; 4,500 m.	Whole plant	-
Salvia sp.	Labiatae	Jeeptsi	-	Herb	In pockets in Thimphu and Bumthang; 2,500-3,600 m.	Flower	-
Polygonatum verticillatum	Polygonaceae	Rangey	-	Herb	In pockets in Paro and Thimphu; 2,400-4,000 m.	Root	Can be cultivated
Nardostachys jatamansi	Velarianaceae	Pangpoi	Pangpay (Dz/Sh)	Herb	Rare; scattered locations in Haa, Paro, Thimphu and Bumthang; 4,000-4,500 m.	Root	Used as incense
Delphenium brunonianum	Ranunculaceae	Jagoidpae	-	Herb	Extremely rare; found in Nelela and Chheewla; 4,500-5,300 m.	Whole plant	Used as incense
Senecio chrysanthemoides	Compositae	Gudee	-	Herb	Rare; found in Bumthang and Thimphu; 2,500-3,500 m.	Whole plant	-
Gentiana urnula	Gentianaceae	Ganga-Chhung	-	Herb	Extremely rare; found in Yaalela and Nelela Chhewla; 4,500-5,000 m.	Whole plant	-
Juniperus recurva	Cupressaceae	Shuk-tsher	Shup (Dz), Shukpashing (Sh)	Tree	In pockets in Pelela, Laya and Chelela; 3,400-4,500 m.	Leaves	Used as incense
Picorrhiza kurroa	Scrophulariaceae	Honglen and Ngo-Honglen	Puti-shing (Dz), Kutki (N)	Herb	Rare; found in Dagala, Memla and Nelela; 4,500 m.	Root	Marketted to India
Aconitum patulam	Ranunculaceae	Menchhen and Bongnak	Manchhen (Sh), Tsenduk (Dz)	Herb	In pockets in Bumthang, Merak, Laya, Soi, Paro and Haa; 2,700-4,000 m.	Root	-
Gyamnadenia crassinervis	Orchidaceae	Wanglak and Wangpoilakpa	Wanglak (B)	Orchis/Herb	Rare; found in Bumthang, Soi and Lingshi; 3,400-4,000 m.	Root	-
Helene elliptica	Gentianaceae	Chaktik	-	Herb	In pockets in Thimphu, Haa and Bumthang; 2,300-3,800 m.	Whole plant	-
Codonopsis foe tens	Campanulaceae	Luded-Dorji	Gaytangru (Sh)	Climber/creeper	Rare; scattered locations in Chebesa and Lingshi; 4,300 m.	Whole plant	-
Pulicaria sp.	Compositae	Mingchen-nakpo	-	Herb	Rare; in pockets in Lingshi; 4,000 m.	Flowers	-
Taraxacum tibeticum	Compositae	Khenkar	Khenpa-karpo (Dz/Sh/B)	Herb	Rare; scattered locations in Bumthang, Paro and Haa; 4,000 m.	Whole plant	Used as incense
Podophyllum emodi	Podophylaceae	Yolmosey	Goegabetapi (Sh)	Herb	Scattered locations in Gunitsawa and Thimphu; 2,500-3,500 m.	Root	-
Fritillaria nanum	Liliaceae	Aambhi and Ambhikha	Lily (C)	Herb	Rare; scattered locations in Selela and Barshong; 3,800-4,300 m.	Bulb	-
Bistortia coriacium	Polygonaceae	Pangram	-	Herb	Abundant in Bumthang, Haa and Barshong; 3,100-4,500 m.	Root	-
Angillica cyclocarpa	Umbelliferace	Tunak-tsawa, Tunak	-	Herb	In pockets in Dolamjencho and Barshong; 3,000-3,600 m.	Root	-
Acer ricephalus	Compositae	Lukmig	-	Herb	Scattered locations in Bumthang and Laya; 4,600 m.	Flower	-
Fritillaria delavaye	Liliaceae	Karpochhikhup	Tsika (Dz)	Herb	Extremely rare; found in Chhewla and Yaalela; 4,500-5,200 m.	Bulb	-
Pedicularis amas	Scrophulariaceae	Langna	-	Herb	Scattered locations in Zambuhang and Soi; 3,800 m,	Whole plant	-
Ranunculus nuichillus	Ranunculaceae	Chesha	-	Herb	In pockets in Soi and Zambuthang; 3,800 m.	Achsuc/fruit	-
Taraxacum officinale	Compositae	Khurmang	-	Herb	Abundant in Thimphu and Phajoding; 2,500 m.	Whole plant	-
Angelica sinensis	Umbelliferace	Tangkuen	-	Herb	In pockets in Laya, Soi and Dhur	Root	-
Astragalus yunnanensis	Linguminosae	Sedkar	-	Herb	Abundant in Thimphu and Barshong; 2,400-3,500 m.	Whole plant	-
Gentiana grandiflora	Gentianaceae	Ngodewa	-	Herb	Scattered locations in Soi, Laya and Dhur; 3,500-4,500 m.	Whole plant	-
Arenaria denissima	Caryophyllaceae	Atong	-	Herb	Rare; found in Laya and Lingshi; 3,600-5,500 m.	Whole plant	-
Anisedus luridus	Solanaceae	Thangthrom	-	Herb	Scattered locations in Selela and Phading; 3,500-4,000 m.	Fruit	-
Androsase hookeriana	Primulaceae	-	Gatik-mukpo	Herb	Scattered locations in Shoduk and Soi; 3,500-4,500 m.	Whole plant	-
Galium aparine	Rubiaceae	Zangtsi-karpo	Zangtsi-rokpu (Sh)	Creeper	Scattered locations in Trashigang, Bumthang, Thimphu and Paro; 800-3,000 m.	Whole plant	-
Rubia cordifolia	Rubiaceae	Tseod	Tsey (Dz), Laniru (Sh), Majito (N)	Creeper	Abundant in Pemagatshel, Wamrong and Trashigang; 1,000-2,000 m.	Root	Used as dye
Herecleum candicans	Umbelliferae	Tukar	-	Herb	Scattered locations in Bumthang and Lingshi; 3,500-4,000 m.	Root	-
Publicaria insignis	Compositae	Mingchen-serpo	-	Herb	Rare; found in Barshong and Gunitsawa; 2,600-3,800 m.	Whole plant/flower	-
Delphinium cashmerianum	Ranunculaceae	Jakang	-	Herb	Scattered locations in Paro, Thimphu and Dhur; 2,300-3,500m.	Whole plant	-
Erysisimum bhutanica	Cruciferae	Gongthokpa	-	Herb	Rare; found in Thimphu, Paro and Lingshi; 3,600-4,100m.	Whole plant	-
Silene setisperma	Caryophylleae	Luksuk	-	Herb	Rare; found in Gunitsawa and Barshong; 3,500 m.	Whole plant	-
Piper longum	Piperaceae	Pipling	Pipli (N)	Climber	Abundant in South Jongkha, Sarpang and Samtse; 150-500m.	Fruit	Marketted to India
Oroxylum indica	Bingnoniaceae	Tsampaka	Tsampaka (Dz), Namkalingshing (Sh)	Tree	In pockets in Trashigang, Samtse and Panbang; 200-1,500m.	Flower/seed	Religious, rare
Pinus roxburghii	Pinaceae	Shelta	Resin from pine (C), Thetong (Dz), Reynangshing (Sh)	Tree	Abundant in Trashigang, Mongar, Wangdue and Punakha; 500-1,500m.	Resin	-
Taxus baccata	Taxaceae	-	Keyrangshing (Sh)	Tree	Rare; scattered locations in Haa, Paro, Thimphu and Bumthang; 2,100-3,300 m.	Bark/leaves	-
Lanceae tibetica	Scrophulariaceae	Paayak	-	Herb	Rare; found in Chebesa and Gangyul; 3,800-4,200 m.	Whole plant	-
Silajit sp.	-	Dakzhun	-	Rock	Extremely rare; found in Haa and Thimphu; 1,800-2,500 m.	Rock exude	-
Zingiber officinale	Zingiberaceae	Menga	Saga (Dz/Sh), Aaduwa (N)	Herb	In pockets in Samtse, Sarpang, Phuntsholing and Khen; 150-1,500 m.	Rhizome	Cultivable
Hedychium spicatum	Zingiberaceae	Gacha	Borangsaga (Sh)	Herb	In pockets in Wangdue, Punakha, South Jongkha and Trashigang; 200-1,500 m.	Rhizome	-
Amomum subutatum	Zingiberaceae	Kakola	Ailanchi (N)	Herb	Abundant in Geylephug, Shemgang and Samtse; 200-1,500 m.	Fruit	Easily cultivated
Xanthoxylum alatum	Rutaceae	Yaarma	Thi-ngey (Dz), Gee (Sh), Timber (N)	Medium-sized tree	In pockets in Thimphu and Trashigang; 1,500-2,100 m.	Fruit	Easily cultivated
Areca catechu	Palmae	Goyu	Doma (Dz), Gugay (Sh)	Palm tree	In pockets in South Jongkha and Samtse; 150-300 m.	Fruit/seed	Easily cultivated
Phyllanthus emblica	Euphorbiaceae	Churu	Chhorgengsoi (Sh)	Tree	In pockets in Wangdue, Punakha and Trashigang; 800-1,500 m.	Fruit	-
Kaempferia galanga	Zingiberaceae	Gacha	Borangsaga (Sh)	Herb	Scattered locations in Punakha, Wangdue and Trashigang; 800-1,500 m.	Rhizome	-
Asparagus racemosus	Liliaceae	Ngeyshing	Ngalakom (Sh), Ngakhacho (Dz)	Herb	In pockets in Punakha, Wangdue and Trashigang; 800-1,500 m.	Root	Easily cultivated
Rhus chinensis	Anacardiaceae	Datik	Chokashing (Dz), Roptangshing (Sh), Bhakimlo (N)	Small tree	Found in large quantities	Fruit	-
Erythrina stricta	Papillionaceae	Khalmashosha	Chhasey (Dz), Faleydo (N), Kharshing (Sh)	Tree	In pockets in Trongsa, Punakha, Trashigang and Chimakothi; 500-1,500 m.	Seed	-
Adhatoda vasica	Acanthaceae	Thro-Bashaka	Bashakha (Dz), Khateermu (Sh), Bashak	Shrub	In large quantities in Punakha, Wangdue, South Jongkha, Panbang and Manas; 200-1,000 m.	Flower	-
Herocleum wallachii	Umbelliforae	Tumakarpo	-	Herb	Scattered locations in Lingshi, Laya, Bumthang; 2,500-4,000 m.	Root	-
Herocleum dissectum	Umbelliforae	Tunak	-	Herb	Scattered locations in Lingshi, Laya, Bumthang and Barshong; 25-1,000 m.	Root	-
Cremanthodium humile	Compositae	Mingchenserpo	-	Herb	Rare; found in Barshong, Dolamkencho and Gunitsawa; 2,500-3,500 m.	Flower/whole plant	-
Pedicularis longiflora	Scrophulariaceae	Motoklangna	-	Herb	Rare; found in Lingshi; 4,000 m.	Flower whole plant	-
Euphorbia sikkimensis	Euphorbiaceae	Tharnu	-	Herb	Abundant in Soi and Lingshi; 3,800-4,500 m.	Tubes	-
Euphorbia griffithii	Euphorbiaceae	Durjeet	-	Herb	Scattered locations in Thimphu, Paro and Bumthang; 2,200-3,800 m.	Root	-
Gentiana veitchiorum	Gentianaceae	Pangen-metok	Gangi-Pangenmotok (Dz)	Herb	Scattered locations in Bumthang, Laya and Soi; 3,800-4,500 m.	Flower/whole plant	-
Rhododendron anthopogon	Ericaceae	Dalimetok, Balu	Balu (Dz/B/Sh)	Shrub	In pockets in Phajoding, Bumthang and Merak; 3,800-4,500 m.	Flower	Used as incense
Rhododendron setosum	Ericaceae	Sulu	Sulo (Dz/Sh/B/T)	Shrub	In pockets in Haa, Paro, Thimphu, Laya, Lingshi and Merak/Sakten; 3,600-4,500 m.	Flower	Used as incense
Juncus grisbachii/hippris	Juncaceae	Dambukara	Juncus (C)	Herb	Scattered locations in Thimphu and Paro; 500-3,500 m.	Whole plant	-
Cotoneaster microphylla	Rosaceae	Japhotsitsi	Cotoneaster (C)	Shrub	Abundant in Thimphu, Paro, Haa and Bumthang; 2,200-4,000 m.	Fruit	-
Cirsium sp.	Compositae	Jarokngungma	-	Herb	Rare; found in Jhomolhari and Lingshi; 4,000 m.	Flower/whole plant	-
Malcolmia sp.	Cruciferae	Jeewolaphu	-	Herb	Found in Thimphu and Bumthang; 2,200-3,500 m.	Whole plant	-
Soroseris hookerianum	Compositae	Solgongpa	-	Herb	Rare; found in Soi and Dungshola; 4,000-4,500 m.	Whole plant	-
Cuscuta sinensis	Convolvulaceae	Serkuet	Bayding/dukpoo-ru (Sh)	Creeper	Scattered locations in Wamrong, Gedu and Chhatshilakha; 500-2,000 m.	Whole plant	-
Artemisia severaiana	Compositae	Tsa-aatong	-	Herb	Abundant	Whole plant	Used as antiseptic
Chrysanthemum tateianense	Compositae	Aajak	-	Herb	-	Flower/whole plant	-
Pedicularis deorissima	Scrophulariaceae	Lukru-marpo	-	Herb	In pockets in Bumthang and Laya; 4,000 m.	Whole plant	-
Datura metel/stramonium	Solanaceae	Thangthrom-karpo	Dungmomnang (Sh), Devil's plant (C)	Herb	In pockets in Wamrong, Trashigang, South Jongkha and Thimphu; 200-2,400 m.	Fruit	Grows on fallow land
Scopolia lucida	Solanaceae	Thangthrom-nakpo	-	-	In pockets	Fruit	-
Hyecoum leptocarpum/exectum	Cruciferae	Parpata		Herb	Rare; found in Trashigang, Khaling, Bumthang and Thimphu; 300-2,800 m.	Whole plant	Grows in fields
Ixeris gracilis	Compositae	Tsathri-chhok	-	Herb	Rare; found in Barshong and Bumthang; 2,500-3,500 m.	Whole plant	-
Hippophae rhamnoides	Rhamanceae	Tarboo	Seabuck-thorn (C)	Small tree	Abundant in Paro, Dechhencholing and Bumthang; 2,500-3,300 m.	Fruit	-
Cassia tora	Caesalpinaceae	Thekadorji		Herb	Found in South Jongkha, Sarpang, Samtse and Punakha; 200-111,500m.		-
Acorus gramineus	Aroideae	Shudak-karpo	Silijam (Dz), Bortsl (Sh)	Herb	In pockets in Trashigang and Thimphu; 500-3,000 m.	Rhizome	-
Cassia fistula	Caesalpineae	Donga	Dongkoshing (Sh)	Tree	Scattered locations in South Jongkha, Sarpang, Punakha and Trashigang; 200-1,500 m.	Fruit/seed	-
Brassica sp.	Cruciferae	Yoongkar	Yoongkar (Dz)	Herb	Rare; found in Samrang; 200-1,500 m.	Pod/seed	Cultivable
Terminalia chebula	Combretaceae	Aaru	Aaru (Dz/Sh)	Tree	In pockets in Samtse, Sarpang, South Jongkha and Shamgang; 200-1,000 m.	Fruit	-
Terminalia belerica	Combretaceae	Baru, Barura	Baru (Dz/Sh/T/B)	Tree	In pockets in Samtse, Sarpang, Wangdue, South Jongkha and Kheng; 200-1,500m.	Fruit	-
Morus laveaegata	Urticaceae	Sengdengshing	Sengdengshing (Sh), Tshendey (Dz), Kimbu (N)	Tree	In pockets in South Jongkha, Sarpang, Samtse, Shemgang and Punakha; 200-1,500m.	Extracts from heartwood	Cultivable
Enteda gigantea	Leguminosae	Twiner	Kolokpu-sae (Sh)	Twiner	Rare; found in Deothang, South Jongkha, Kheng, Shemgang and Manas; 200-1,200m.	Seed	-
Symplocus craraegoides	Styraceae	Zhungkhen	Pangtsi (Dz)	Small tree	In pockets in Punakha and Thimphu; 1,300-2,500 m.	Leaves	-
Aristolochia griffithii	Aristolochiaceae	Baleyka	Pitcher plant (C)	Twiner	Scattered locations in Haa and Chendebjee; 1,800-2,500 m.	Flower	-
Embelia ribes	Myrsinae	Getangka	-	Small tree	Rare; 2,500-2,900 m.	Seed	-
Bombax ceiba	Malvaceae	Pemageyser	Pemageyser (Sh)	Tree	Abundant in South Jongkha, Sarpang, Samtse, Manas and Trashigang; 200-1,500 m.	Flower	-
Erythrina arborescens	Papilioneae	Khelmazhosha	Chhasey (Dz), Phaledo (N), Kharshing (Sh)	Medium-sized tree	Abundant in Chimakothi, Punakha, Trashigang and Wamrong; 500-1,500m.	Seed	-
Cucurbita pepo	Cucurbitaceae	Kabet	-	Climber	Abundant, 100-800 m.	Fruit	-
Aquilaria agallocha	Thymelaeaceae	Aagurushing	Aagurushing (Dz, Sh, T)	Medium-sized tree	Extremely rare; found in Samrang, Manas, Panbang, Samdrup Jongkha and Kheng; 150-1,500 m.	Heartwood	-
Tinospora cordifolia	Minispermaceae	Seydey	-	Shrub	Abundant, 200-1,000m.	Fruit/seed	-
Canarium sikkimensis	Burseraceae	Peykar	Poskar shing (Sh)	Tree	Rare; found in Deothang, Pankhar, Kheng and Zhemgang; 500-1,500 m.	Exude or resin	Used as incense
Punica granatum	Rosaceae	Sadey	Sindu (Dz), Thalim (Sh), Dalim (N)	Small tree	Abundant in Trashigang, Depthang, Wangdue, Punakha and Trongsa; 500-1,500 m.	Fruit/seed	Domesticated
Innula helenium	Domesticated	Manu		Herb	Rare; found in Bumthang (cultivated); 3,000-3,500 m.	Root	-
Saussurea lappa	Compositae	Ruta	-	Herb	Extremely rare; 3,000-4,000 m.	Root	-
Capsella bursa	Cruciferae	Sokapa		Herb	In pockets in Thimphu, Bumthang and Wamrong; 800-3,000 m.	Whole plant	Grows as weed
Berginia celiata	Saxifragaceae	Dakcham	-	Herb	Rare	Root	-
Chrysospleitium coronosum	Saxifragaceae	Yaakima	-	Herb	Rare; found in Soi and Lingshi; 3,600-5,200 m.	Whole plant	-
Dryopteris fragrans	-	Rayral	Baynang-gogalapu (Sh)	Fern	In pockets in Wamrong and Trashigang; 500-2,200 m.	Stem	-
Uncaria rhynchophylla	Rubiaceae	Chhusindermo	-	Fern	Rare; found in Tangu and Barshong; 2,000-3,500 m.	Whole plant	-
Myricana rosea	Myrshinaceae	Wombu	-	Herb	Abundant in Paro and Gunitsawa; 3,000-4,400 m;	Whole plant	-
Aegle marmelos	Rutaceae	Belwa	-	Medium-sized tree	Rare; found in Gaylegphu and Samtse; 150-400 m.	Fruit	Cultivable
Butea monosperma	Leguminosae	Marutsey	Flamingo tree (C)	Medium-sized tree	In pockets in Manas, Gaylegphug and Samtse; 150-500 m.	Fruit	-
Mucuna prurien	Ceasalpinae	Khelzhosha	-	Strong twiner	Rare; 150-400 m.	Seed	-
Iris nepalensis	Iridaceae	Dema	-	Herb	Abundant in Lingshi and Laya; 3,500-4,000 m.	Fruit	-
Calotropis gigantea	Asclipidaceae	Shri-khenda	-	Shrub	Rare; found in Gomtu; 100-500 m.	Latex	-
Jatropa curcas	Euphorbiaceae	Denrok-manpa	Ngera-kharshing (Sh)	Small tree	Abundant in South Jongkha, Sarpang, Samtse, Deothang and Punakha; 200-1,500m.	Seed	Hedge plant
Abies densa	Coniferae	-	Dungshi (Dz)	Tree	Abundant in Haa, Changkaphu and Ura; 3,500 m.	Leaf	-
Rheum mobile	Polygonaceae	Chutsa, Chukardongpo	Chuka (Dz)	Herb	Scattered locations in Dagala, Nelela, Jomolhari and Dhur top; 4,500-5,200 m.	Root	-
Rheum acuminata	Polygonaceae	Chumtsa	-	Herb	Abundant in Dagala, Phajoding and Dhurtshachhu; 3,000-4,000 m.	Root	International market
Clematis montana	Ranunculaceae	Emong	Lanitokaru (Sh)	Climber	Scattered locations in Wamrong and Trashigang; 1,500 m.	Seed/flower	-
Anemone rivularis	Ranunculaceae	Sukpa	-	Herb	Scattered locations in Zambuthang and Lingshi; 3,800 m.	Fruit/achene	-
Rosa sericea	Rosaceae	Sewaimetok	-	Shrub	Abundant in Haa and Thimphu; 2,400 m.	Flower	-
Rosa macrophylla	Rosaceae	Sewaudebu	Wild rose (C)	Twining shrub	In pockets in Bumthang and Ura; 3,300m.	Fruit	-
Sikkimia laurela	Lauraceae	-	-	Shrub	Scattered locations; 3,000 m.	Leaf extracts	-
Astilbe rivularis	Asteroideae	-	Tongsergugay (Sh), Buroakhoti (N)	Herb	Abundant in Gedu and Khaling; 1,500m.	Root	-
Mandragora officinarum	Solanaceae	-	-	Herb	Rare; found in Chelela and Selela; 3,600-4,000 m.	Root	-
Cordyceps sinensis	-	Yaartsa-gunbu	Yaartsa-gunbu (Dz)	Mushroom (C)	Extremely rare; found in Laya and Lingshi; 3,500-4,500 m.	Whole plant	-
Quercus griffithii	Fagaceae	Moenchhara	Sisi (Dz), Benangshing (Sh)	Tree	In pockets in Raling, Trashigang, Trongsa and Thimphu; 800-2,000 m.	Seed/acorn	Cultivable
Corydalis crispa	Fumariaceae	Khamlu-bashaka	-	Herb	Rare; found in Lingshi; 3,500 m.	Whole plant	-
Geranium lambertii	Geraniaceae	Ligadur	Geranium (C)	Herb	In pockets in Barshong and Dhur; 2,500-3,500 m.	Root	-
Cymbopogon flexuosus	Gramineae	-	Solubang (Sh), Lemon grass (C)	Grass	Abundant in Trashigang and Mongar; 1,500m.	Leaf extract	-
Dichroa fibrifuja	Hydrangeaceae	-	Borang-yangshabu (Sh)	Shrub	Abundant in Wamrong and Mechhuna; 1,500-2,000 m.	Root	-
Eriophyton wallachii	Labiateae	Pangtshen puru	-	Herb	Rare; found in Nelela, Yaalayla and Chhewla; 4,000-5,000 m.	Whole plant	-
Phlomis rotata	Labiateae	Taapak	-	Herb	Rare; found in Soi, Lingshi and Laya; 3,300-3,800 m.	Whole plant	-
Salvia campanulata	Labiateae	Jeeptsi-karpo	-	Herb	In pockets in Haa, Thimphu and Bumthang; 2,200-3,000 m.	Flower	-
Cinnamomum tamala	Lauraceae	Shingtsha	Tejpat (N)	Medium-sized tree	Rare; found in South Jongkha and Shemgang; 200-1,800 m.	Bark	Used as spice
Cinnamomum zeylanicum	Lauraceae	Shingtsha	Shingtsha (Sh), Dalchini (N)	Small tree	Rare; found in Deothang, Kheng and Panbang; 200-1,500 m.	-	-
Acacia catechu	Leguminosae	-	Jaseng (Dz), Khair (N)	Small tree	In pockets in Samtse, Sarpang and South Jongkha; 150-500 m.	Heartwood extract	-
Oxitropis japonica	Leguminosae	Sedngo	-	Herb	In pockets in Thimphu and Haa; 2,200-3,50W0 m.	Whole plant	-
Album spp.	Liliaceae	Lagok-rig	Lagok (Dz/Sh)	Herb	Found in Laya and Lingshi; 3.500-4,500 m.	Whole plant	-
Malva verticillata	Malvaceae	Niga and Halemetok	Halemetok (Dz)	Herb	Found in Thimphu (cultivated); 2,300 m.	Flower	-
Ricinus communis	Euphorbianeae	Denrok-chhok	Chamlingshing (Sh)	Small tree	Abundant in Trashigang, Wamrong, Deothang and Sarpang; 150-1,500 m.	Seed	Cultivable
Swertia chirata	Gentianaceae	Balting	-	Herb	In pockets in Wamrong, Deothang and Sarpang; 200-1,500 m.	Whole plant	-
Phytolacca acinoso	Phytolaccaceae	Pawo-serpo	Zalmathangru (Sh)	Climber	In pockets in Wamrong and Deothang; 200-1,500 m.	Bulb/root	-
Curcuma zedoaria	-	Pagoed	Zalmathangru-tsalu (Sh)	Climber	Found in Wamrong; 200-1,500 m.	Bulb/root	-
Dendrobium curcuminatum	Orchidaceae	Pusheltsey-chhog	Orchid (C)	Orchid	Scattered locations in Narphung and Deothang; 200-2,000 m.	Stem	-
Caelogyne oculata	Orchidaceae	Pusheltsey-meonpa	Churchurbu (Sh), Orchid (C)	Orchid	Scattered locations in Wamrong, Deothang and Thinleygang; 700-2,000 m.	Bulb/stem	-
Mucuna entada phaseoloides	Leguminosae	Lagorzhosha	-	-	Rare; 1,000 m.	Seed	-
Semicarpus anacardium	Anacardiaceae	Gojeela	-	-	Rare; 1,000m.	Seed	-
Holarrhena antidysenterica	Apocynaceae	Dukmongung-chhog	-	Small tree	In pockets in Manas and Panbang; 150-400 m.	Fruit	-
Rauvolfia serpentina	Apocynaceae	-	Surpagandah (Sanskrit)	Herb	In pockets in Samtse and Sarpang; 150-400 m.	Root extracts	Cultivable
Vinceloxicum album	Asclepiadaceae	Dukmongung/Ngodukmongung	-	Herb	In pockets in Gunitsawa and Dechhencholing; 2,000-2,500 m.	Fruit	-
Arisaema sp.	Araceae	Dowo	Dowo (Dz), Rungenengsae (Sh)	Herb	Scattered locations in Wamrong, Teybesa and Thimphu; 1,200-2,400 m.	Bulb	-
Panax pseudo-ginseng	Araliaceae	Dingi-raza	Ginseng (C)	Herb	Rare; found in Trashigang, Bumthang, Haa, Paro and Thimphu; 2,000-3,200 m.	Tuber/root	-
Eugenia cumini	Myrtaceae	Maak	Bjee (Sz), Dangbelingsae (Sh)	Shrub/small tree	Abundant in Paro, Thimphu and Bumthang; 2,000-3,300 m.	Fruit	-
Eugenia jambolana	Myrtaceae	Seydey	Ngasi (Dz)	Tree	Scattered locations in Manas and Punakha; 150-1,500m.	Fruit	-
Lapiserus wallachii	-	Dakpay	-	Fern	Rare	Whole plant	-
Lapiserus thunbergianus	-	Tsunmo-rayral	-	Fern	Rare	Whole plant	-
Berberis aristata	Berberidaceae	Kershun	Kerpatsang (Dz)	Shrub	Abundant in Bumthang, Haa, Paro and Thimphu; 2,000-3,500 m.	Bark/root	-
Erigeron multiradiatus	Compositae	Gelwaichen/Gel waimingchen	-	Herb	Rare; found in Soi, Lingshi and Bumthang; 3,100-4,000 m.	Flower	-
Saussurea gossypiphora	Compositae	Sukdra	-	Herb	Rare; found in Chhewla and Nelela; 4,500-5,200 m.	Whole plant	-
Tanacetum atkinsonii	Compositae	Genthabata	-	Herb	Rare; found in Chhewla and Yaalela; 4,000-5,000 m.	Whole plant	-
Dioscorea bulbifera	Dioscoreaceae	-	Yam (N), Tshema-kewa (Dz), Borang-Joktang/Fantang (Sh)	Creeper	Rare; found in South Jongkha, Sarpang, Samtse, Wamrong, Pemagatshel and Kheng; 150-1,500 m.	Tuber	Cultivable
Drocera peltata	Droceraceae	Tang-ngu	Drocera/insect plant (C)	Herb	In pockets in Thimphu; 2,400 m.	Whole plant	-
Pterocephalus hookeri	Dipsacaceae	Luktsidowo		Herb	Scattered locations in Soi, Lava, Ura and Dhur; 2,800-3,400 m.	Flower/whole plant	-
Dipsacus atratus	Dipsacaceae	Pangtsidowo	-	Herb	Scattered locations in Bumthang, Soi and Laya; 2,500-3,500 m.	Whole plant	-
Diospyrys lotus	Ebenaceae	Gundum-Nakpo	Gundum (Dz), Amdebu (Sh)	Small tree	Scattered locations in Punakha Raling; 500-1,700 m.	Fruit	Domesticated
Ephedra herardiana	Ephydraceae	Tshe, Tshedum	Tshe (Dz)	Herb	Rare; found in Dagala, Lingtshi and Soi; 4,500-5,200 m.	Whole plant	-
Mallotus phillipenensis	Euphorbiaceae	-	Sindhuri (Hindu)	Small tree	Scattered locations in Manas and Panbang; 150-1,500 m.	Bark	-
Euphorbia sieboldiana	Euphorbiaceae	Tren-bu	-	Herb	Rare; found in Soi, Naro and Lingshe; 3,500-4,500 m.	Tuber, root	-
Aconitum naviculare	Ranunculaecae	Bong-nga-Karpo	-	Herb	Rare; found in Shoduk and Lingshe; 3,500-4,500 m.	Tuber	-
Leontopodium sp.	Compositae	Tawai-Thok-gu	-	Herb	In pockets in Gangchhen tak and Nelaela; 3,500-4,800 m.	Whole plant	-
Hyoscymus sp.	Solanaceae	Langthang-tse		Herb	Extremely rare; found in Haa-la-chu-la; 3,500-4,000 m.	Fruit/whole plant	-
Elettaria cardamomum	Zingiberaceae	Sukmel	-	Herb	Rare, 200-500 m,	-	Cultivable
Meconopsis horridula	Papaveraceae	Tsher-ngoon	Blue poppy (Eng)	Herb	Rare; found in Soi, Naro and Lingshe; 4,000-4,500 m.	Whole plant	-
Piper nigra	Piperaceae	Phowari	Pipla	Creeping shrub	Scattered; abundant in southern belt; 200-500 m.	Fruit	-
Polygonum sp	Polygonaceae	Nga-la	Kochokmu, Barshong	Shrub	Scattered locations in Shoduk and Barshong; 3,000-4,500 m.	Root	-
Primula sikkimensis	Primulaceae	Shang-shang-drilba	Primula (Eng)	Herb	Scattered locations in Phajoding and Soi/Naro; 3,000-4,000 m.	Whole plant	-
Lycoperdon pyritormis		Phawa-go-go	Puff-ball (Eng)	Fungus	Rare; found in Shingkhar and Bumthang; 2,000-3,500 m.	Whole item	-
Plantago tibetica	Plantaginaceae	Thar-ram	Tsa-shokum-sh	Herb	Abundant throughout Bhutan; 300-3,500 m.	Whole plant	-
Curcuma longa	Zingiberaceae	Yungwa	Juung (Sh), Haldi (N), Yongka (Dz)	Herb	Cultivated in lower zone; 200-2,500 m.	Rhizome	Cultivable
Comarium carvi	Umbelliferae	Go-Ngod	-	Herb	Rare, 200-3,000 m.	Fruit	-
Megacodon scylophoru	Gentianaceae	Key-chay-karpo	Gintian (Eng)	Herb	Rare; found in Gunitsawa, Soi, Naro and Bumthang; 3,000-3,500 m.	Floral part	-
Corydalis dubia	Fumariaceae	Tongzil, Tongri-Zilpa	-	Herb	Rare; found in Soi and Lingshe; 3,500-4,500 m.	Whole plant	-
Thalspi arvense	Cruciferae	Dega	Jay-kha (Dz), Tirmu-Bumthang	Herb	Cultivated in Fromrong, Bumthang and Thimphu; 2,400-3,500 m.	Whole plant	-
Aster neo-elegans	Compositae	Yugushing	-	Herb	Abundant in Haa, Thimphu and Bumthang; 2,500-3,500 m.	Whole plant	-
Thaliotrum foliolosum	Ranunculaceae	Ngang-tse-tray	-	Herb	Scattered locations in Dolamkencho and Thimphu.; 2,200-3,500 m.	Root	-
Tinospora cordifoli	Minispermaceae	Seydey	-	Shrub	Rare, 200-1,000 m.	Fruit/seed	-
Cucurbita pepo	Cucurbitaceae	Kabet	-	Climber	In pockets, 100-800 m.	Fruit	-
Canarium sikkimensis	Burseraceae	Paykar	Poskarshing (Sh)	Tree	Rare; found in Deothang, Pangkhar, Kheng and Shemgang; 500-1,500 m.	Exude/resin	Used as incense
Aquilaria agalloocha	Thymelaeaceae	Aagarushing	Agurshing (Dz/Sh/T)	Medium-sized tree	Extremely rare; found in Samrang, Manas, Panbang, South Jongkha and Kheng; 150-1,500 m.	Heartwood	-
Punica granatum	Rosaceae	Sadey	Sindu (Dz), Thalim (Sh), Dalim (N)	Small tree	Abundant in Trashigang, Deothang, Wangdue, Punakha and Trongsa.; 500-1,500 m.	Fruit/seed	Domesticated
Innula helenium	Compositae	Manu	-	Herb	Rare; found in Bumthang (cultivated); 3,000-3,500 m.	Root	Domesticated

Note:

Dz = Dzongkha
Sh = Sharchop-kha
T = Tongsap (Mangdep)
B = Bumthap
N = Nepali
C = Common
Eng = English

A traditional paper production factory in Thimphu. The bark is soaked in water for cleaning and separating into smaller pieces.