by K.D. Chamling
Assistant Director
Forest Photo Interpretation and GIS Unit
Forest Resources Development Section, Thimphu
The Royal Government of Bhutan
Background
Bhutan uses the bark of two tree species in the manufacture of traditional paper ("deh-sho"): dhenap (Daphne) and dhekap (Edgeworthia).
Resources
Bhutan has five species of Daphne and one of Edgeworthia (Table 7). All six are found throughout the country, but their distribution and frequency varies - a constraint in providing a continuous supply of raw materials to local cottage industries (Table 8). The ad hoc collection of this raw material would not only deplete existing stocks, but threaten its sustainable management as well. Detailed surveys have yet to be carried out.
Processing
The method used to produce paper from bark is quite simple and does not involve the use of chemicals. The plants are stripped and dried and then taken to production centres. In the traditional system, a few strips of the fibre are soaked in a pond and then beaten with a mallet on a flat stone. The fine pulp is placed on a bamboo screen and allowed to spread evenly by suspending it in water. The screen is then dried in the sun. Today the process has become more mechanised, using imported equipment and screens. Besides the greater quantity produced, the paper's quality has also improved. Table 9 gives the annual raw material requirements of Bhutan's paper-making units. The country has a number of family-operated paper-making units. The only semi-mechanised unit is the Jungshi Hand-made Paper Factory, in Thimphu.
Table 7 Raw Material Sources for Traditional Paper
|
Botanical name |
Local name |
Distribution |
Forest type and altitude |
|
Edgeworthia gardneri |
De shing (Dz) |
Kamji, Chukha, Punakha, Putlibhir, Chasilakha and Trongsa (Tashiling and Shemgang) |
Wet, sub-tropical forest; 1,670-2,400 m. |
|
Daphne involucrata |
Seti barwal, Chhota, Argaule, Bimbiri (N) |
Chukha, Marichong and Tala |
Mixed broad-leaved forest; 1,200-2,000 m. |
|
D. bholua |
De shing (Dz) |
Chukha, Punakha, Deothang, Haa, Thimphu and Trongsa Districts |
Evergreen oak, blue pine, spruce, hemlock and fir forests; 1,980-3,400 m. |
|
D. sureil |
Kagate, Argayle, Bhale and Kagate (N) |
Chukha, Punakha Deothang, Trongsa and Trashigang Districts |
Warm, broad-leaved and evergreen oak forests; 1,220-2,130 m. |
|
D. retusa |
|
Thimphu and Bumthang; Upper Mo-chu and Upper Bumthang-chu. |
Rocky hillsides and wet ravines; 3,700-4,200 m. |
|
D. ludlowii |
|
Bumthang Phepe (Peipe) la |
Mixed rhododendron, hemlock, and spruce forests; 3,350-3,580 m. Endemic to Bhutan. |
Source: Flora of Bhutan, Vol. 2, Part 1.Note:
(Dz) = Dzongkha
(Sh) =Sharchop-kha
(N) = Nepali
Table 8 Availability of Raw Material for Traditional Paper-making in Bhutan
|
Location |
Area (acres) |
Quantity (kg.) |
|
Korila |
80 |
1,600 |
|
Gasawang-Khengkhag |
30 |
600 |
|
Yalang |
2,500 |
50,000 |
|
Trashiyangtse |
||
|
Khamdang |
||
|
Phongmey |
||
|
Bikhar |
||
|
Wamrong |
250 |
5,000 |
|
Dremtsi |
50 |
1,000 |
|
Dhag-sa-Manang |
498 |
9,960 |
|
Total |
3,408 * |
68,160 |
Source: Forestry Services Division video No. DF/Ga-3-6/94/3954 dated 25 February, 1994.* This figure was obtained from information gathered from raw material surveys. These surveys are conducted when an entrepreneur proposes to establish a paper-making unit in a particular area. The actual availability of Daphne in Bhutan is much more than shown here. Since the demand is growing, the Forestry Services Division is planning to carry out a more comprehensive survey of the resource throughout the country. Guidelines are being prepared for carrying out this assessment, and for the silvicultural management of Daphne.
Table 9 Paper-making Units and Raw Material Requirements in Bhutan
|
Factory/unit |
Location |
Annual raw material requirement at full capacity (kg) |
Agent |
Remarks |
|
National Women's Association of Bhutan (NWAB) |
Kurizampa (Mongar) |
24,000 |
NWAB |
|
|
Jungshi Hand-made Paper Factory |
Thimphu |
32,000 |
Norbu Tenzin |
|
|
Paper Factory |
Chorten Kora (Trashiyangtse) |
Not yet fixed |
Tshewang Norbu |
|
|
Paper Factory |
Raptey (Trashiyangtse) |
10,000 |
Thinley Wangchu |
|
|
Paper Factory |
Chazam |
2,000 |
Tow Tshering |
|
|
M/S Dewang Hand-made Paper Unit |
Kabjisa (Thimphu) |
94,000 |
|
|
|
Paper Factory |
Shingkhar Lauri |
Not yet fixed |
Jamtsho |
|
|
Paper Factory |
Thramgom and Khaling |
16,000 |
Sherub Tenzin |
|
|
Paper Factory |
Radhi |
24,000 |
Tawpo |
|
|
Paper Factory |
Bomdheyling |
- |
Thinley Dorji |
Under process |
|
Paper Factory |
Thimphu |
- |
Nakchung Tshering |
|
Note: As the above table clearly indicates, the demand for Daphne for producing local paper is very high. Thus, more entrepreneurs are applying for licenses to establish local paper factories. The volume of raw materials required for an individual unit varies, depending on its size and the number of workers available. Some entrepreneurs prefer to operate a small unit for a few years to produce only a few hundred sheets of local paper for a specific purpose. Others intend to operate large enterprises on a continuing basis. The method of paper processing, therefore, varies from one paper unit to another. Only a few units are presently operating, while others are being established. Quantifying actual demand and production on an annual basis is, therefore, difficult.
Products from the Jungshi Hand-made Paper Factory in Thimphu are now exported to many countries.
Uses
Paper quality depends on the species used. Daphne gives strong, dark paper, while paper from Edgeworthia is whiter and more fragile. Since all paper produced is durable and attractive, it is used for gift wrapping, greetings cards, prayer books and important deeds.
Marketing
Hand-made paper sells well on both the domestic and foreign markets. Demand from Sweden and the United Kingdom amounts to about 30,000 sheets a year. Japan, Austria and the U.S. have also purchased a few thousand sheets as samples (personal communication with the manager of Jungshi Hand-made Paper Factory in Thimphu).
Production
Figures for Bhutan's total paper production are not presently available. The only reliable figure is for Jungshi Hand-made Paper Factory, which produces about 1,500 sheets per day.
Background
Essential oils, also known as 'volatile oils.' are odoriferous substances widely distributed throughout the plant kingdom. They occur in some 60 plant families and almost any part of a plant may yield oil.
Extraction
Depending on the quantity and stability of the compound, essential oils are mainly extracted by three methods:
· distillation by hot water or steam· pressed by hand or using machinery
· extraction using such volatile solvents as hot oils, fats (maceration), or cold neutral fats (enfleurage)
Uses
Because of their odour and high volatility, essential oils have a variety of uses, for example, soaps and cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, confectionery, aerated water, scented tobacco and incense, among others.
Grass Oil
Lemon Grass Oil
Source: Lemon grass (Cymbopogon flexuosus) is found over large areas in Mongar and Trashigang Districts (Diagram 1). It is common in chir pine forests, especially on sandy or gravelly, sloping areas. Lemon grass contains citral - its major constituent. Lemon grass oil quality is judged by its citral content and its solubility in alcohol.
Properties and uses: The oil is of a reddish-yellow to reddish-brown colour, with a strong, lemon odour. It is used in the perfume, soap and cosmetics industries. Lemon grass forms the starting material in the manufacture of synthetic Vitamin A. It is also used in pharmaceutical preparations, such as pain balm, disinfectants, and mosquito-repellent creams.
Diagram 1 Lemon Grass Area in Bhutan
Production and trade: Bhutan's production and trade of lemon grass oil was introduced and initially carried out by the Aromatic and Phytochemicals Section of Tashi Commercial Corporation in 1983 and 1984. The oil was processed by steam distillation, using a low-cost, cottage-type distillery made from second-hand petrol drums. Tashi Commercial Corporation now has a large distilling unit at Kurizampa and has sold large numbers of smaller units to the farmers from whom the company now buys the oils. The company also buys lemon grass collected from the wild and delivered to road sides.
The FAO-supported "Production of Essential Oils by Small Holders in Remote Areas" project helped establish two essential oil distilleries at Pakhadrang (Monger District) and Lungtenzampa (Trashigang District) in 1990, with a total capacity of 2.5 tons of lemon grass per eight-hour working day. The project also helped in establishing germplasm and multiplication nurseries at Gyelpoizhing (Monger District) and Chhali (Monger District), using plant materials from India and Europe. Trials on mentha, citronella, vetiver, palmarosa grass and Basilicum are presently being conducted.
Scope: To obtain higher quality essential oil, wild lemon grass must be replaced by improved varieties. Palmarosa grass, the most promising alternative, should be planted in areas presently under lemon grass. Palmarosa oil sells for almost double the price of lemon grass oil on the international market.
A few field experiments have been carried out on the native lemon grass growing wild in Bhutan's eastern region. Experiments on different harvest dates, commencing the end of July and spaced at monthly intervals, were conducted to estimate the effects on the biomass and the subsequent oil yields.
The findings showed that the September harvest of native lemon grass yielded the highest biomass (3.22 tons per hectare) and oil yield (9.83 kilogrammes per hectare), with 0.31 percent oil recovery. These experiments, however, have to be repeated to confirm these findings.
A further experiment on the effects of burning on the biomass production and oil yield of native lemon grass (C. flexuosus) was carried out on a 40-square-metre plot in Doyang, at an elevation of about 990 metres. The following results were obtained:
|
Treatment |
Biomass yield (tons/ha) |
Oil yield (kg/ha) |
Citral (%) |
height (cm) |
Tiller/hill |
Hills/ha |
|
With burning |
1.625 |
7.0 |
85 |
48 |
45 |
59,500 |
|
Without burning |
3.250 |
5.25 |
84 |
55 |
55 |
56,750 |
Source: "The Effect of Harvest Date on Biomass Production and Oil Yield of Native Lemon Grass (C. flexuosus)," by D. Dhungel (Renewable Natural Resources Workshop, 1993).
Palmarosa Oil
Source: Palmarosa oil is obtained from rosha grass (Cymbopogon martini var. motia). It is a tall, perennial, sweet-scented grass, which grows from about 1.5 to 4 metres in height. It can also be cultivated.
Distillation: The process is similar to that used for lemon grass.
Properties and uses: Palmarosa oil is a pale-yellow liquid with a characteristic geranium odour. Oil quality is based on the total geraniol content. Palmarosa oil is used as a base for perfumes and cosmetics, for flavouring tobacco, and in mosquito repellent ointments.
Leaf Oils
Winter Green Oil
Source: Commercial winter green oil is derived by water-distillation of the leaves of Gaultheria procumbens. Prior to distillation, the leaves are exposed to the enzymatic action of warm water. During this process, the aromatic chemical, methyl salicylate, is formed. Fresh leaves are practically odourless, containing no methyl salicylate whatever. Winter green oil, which was once popular and well-known in the perfumery industry, is becoming obsolete due to its substitution by synthetic methyl salicylate. The main producer of the oil is the United States.
Properties and uses: Winter green oil is a pale yellow or pinkish liquid of intensely sweet-aromatic odour and flavour. The oil is still used in pharmaceutical preparations as a flavour corrector. In candy, chewing-gum, tooth-paste, and other products, the oil has been completely replaced by synthetic methyl salicylate, which is much less expensive. The use of methyl salicylate in root-beer (an American carbonated, non-alcoholic beverage) has made its flavour extremely popular. Bhutan has nine species of Gaultheria as shown in Table 10.
Table 10 Distribution of Gaultheria Species
|
Botanical name |
Local name |
Distribution |
Remarks |
|
Gaultheria fragrantissima |
Chamze kam (Dz) |
S: Gelephu, and Doethang C: Thimphu, Punakha, Trongsa, Mongar and Trashigang 1,700-2,500 m. |
|
|
G. discolor |
|
Orka la (Bhutan/Arunachal Pradesh border) 1,830-2,130 m. |
Similar to G. fragrantissima: branches sparsely setose, lobes white beneath: fruit is edible |
|
G. griffithiana |
|
S: Chhukha C: Punakha, Trongsa, Mongar and Trashigang N: Upper Mo-chu 2,000-3,050 m. |
|
|
G. semi-infera |
Shogshingma-shing (Sh) |
C: Thimphu, Punakha, Trongsa and Trashigang N: Upper Mo-chu and Gasa 2,100-3,000 m. |
|
|
G. hookeri var. angustifolia |
|
S: Gelephu (above Sham Khara) C: Mongar (Pangkar) and Trashigang (Chorten-kora) 2,100-3,000 m. |
|
|
G. pyroloides |
|
C: Trongsa (Rinchen-chu and Phobjikha), Trashigang (Preng la) and Sakten (Orka la) N: Upper Kulong-chu (Me-la) 3,650-4,570 m. |
|
|
G. trichophylla |
Laya: Zum |
C: Thimphu, Trongsa, Mongar and Trashigang N: Upper Mo-chu, Upper Phochu, Upper Bumthang-chu and Upper Kulong-chu 1,800-3,500 m. |
|
|
G. nummularioides |
Tronsa: Khwe shokpa |
S: Chhukha and Gelephu C: Thimphu, Trongsa and Trashigang 2,900-4,270 m. |
|
|
G. sinensis |
|
C: Mongar (east side of Rudo la) N: Upper Kulong-chu 2,900-3,650 m. |
Similar to G. trichophylla: Mossy rocks and waterfalls. |
Note:S = South, C = Centre, N = North
(Dz) = Dzongkha, (N) = Nepali, (Sh) = Sharchop-khaSource: The Flora of Bhutan, Vol. 2, Part I.
Wood Oils
Agar Oil
Source: Agar oil is distilled from the resinous portions of the wood of Aquilaria agallocha. This resinous wood is traded under the names "agar," "aloe wood" or "eagle wood." The tree occurs in patches in Bhutan's southern hills, in Assam in India, and in parts of West Bengal. Very little is known regarding why irregular portions of dark wood, highly charged with oleo-resin, appear in some trees but not in others, especially in and around old wounds and hollows. It is known that resinous infiltration occurs because of fungal attack, but the specific fungus responsible for the formation of agar wood has not yet been identified. Attempts to impregnate trees by driving pegs from trees already containing agar wood into trees not yet infected have not been successful.
Only mature trees, 50 to 60-years-old and infected with fungus, are exploited. The average resin yield is 3-4 kilogrammes per tree. Agar wood is classified as either real agar or "chum" agar. The former is hard and brown, while the latter is soft and varies in colour from light yellow to almost white. True agar is largely used as such, while agar oil is almost entirely distilled from chum agar, which has no value as wood.
Distillation: The distillation process for agar oil consists of soaking agar wood in water for 60-70 hours. The wood is then disintegrated into powder in a chopper. The powdered wood, suspended in water to which 5 percent by weight of common salt has been added, is placed in a retort and heated over a furnace. The retort has a swan neck with a device for replenishing the water, without removing the lid, during distillation. A Florentine flask made of glass or copper constitutes the receiver for the distillate. Distillation takes 30-32 hours. Because distillation takes place at atmospheric pressure, the process of total exhaustion of the wood is lengthy. The oil boils at high temperatures and the distillation waters are cohobated (i.e., returned to the still and re-distilled) to produce a reasonable yield. The oil yield ranges from 0.75-2.5 percent of the wood.
Properties and uses: True agar is heavier than water and has a peculiar yet agreeable odour, comparable to sandalwood. It is highly prized and in great demand in Arab countries for burning as incense. "Agar-bathis," or incense sticks, are prepared from the exhausted and distilled agar wood. Agar oil is used for diluting perfume oil from sandalwood oil or vegetable oils. It is a valuable perfume-retainer and prized by perfumeries for blending in their high-grade perfumes.
The Bhutanese experience: Agar wood is still found in Bhutan's forests, though now considerably less abundant than it once was. Despite the Forest Department's vigilance, many trees have fallen to the poacher's axe. Agar is not presently being exploited commercially. Because of its high market value, however, a few trial plantations were established in Panbang and Samdrup Jongkha in the 1980s. These trial plantations have been successful in terms of growth, but efforts to inoculate the trees with infected branches have not been encouraging.
Oil from Other Sources
Pine-needle Oil
Source: Pine-needle oil is obtained not only from pine-needles (Pinus spp.), but also from the needles or leaves of various spruces and firs. Distillation of needles from young twigs and stems seems to yield higher levels of oil.
Uses: The oil is used for treating rheumatism and related complaints. In the perfumery industry, it is used in the manufacture of bath crystals and soaps. It is also used in hospital disinfectants and room sprays, deodorants, general disinfectants and similar products. Once the oil is recovered, the exhausted needles are used for a variety of purposes. "Pine wool," for example, is manufactured from the needles. This type of wool can be woven into fabrics, knitting yarns, quilts, etc.
Cedar Oil
Source: Cedar oil is manufactured by distilling shavings and sawdust from Juniperus macropoda (Indian Juniper, Himalayan Pencil Cedar). Following oil extraction, the shavings can be converted into linoleum. The potential for extracting cedar oil from J. recurva, which grows in Bhutan, should be explored.
Champ Oil
Source: Champ oil is extracted from the flowers of Michelia champaca, a large, handsome tree. The oil is obtained from the fragrant, deep yellow flowers by maceration or extraction.
Uses: The oil is one of the most famous perfumes of India and other Asian countries. It rivals ylang-ylang in its fragrant odour and is much used in the local perfume industry.
Calamus Oil (calamus perfume)
Source: Calamus oil is obtained from the rhizomes of the plant Acorus calamus through steam distillation. It contains the glucosidic bitter principle, "acorin." The plant is found in marshes up to 2,400 metres in altitude.
Uses: The oil is largely used in perfumery and also in spice blends and in the flavouring of alcoholic beverages.
Ginger Oil
Source: Ginger oil is obtained from the rhizomes of Zingiber officinale.
Uses: The oil is used in pharmaceutical preparations, and by the cosmetics and perfumery industries. A private project to produce ginger oil has been established in Samtse.
Keora Oil
Source: Keora oil is derived from the flowers of Pandanus tectorius (P. odoratissimus Roxb.), a small evergreen shrub, or small tree, with a many-branched stem, supported by a number of stiff aerial roots. The flowers are usually large - a single flower can weigh Up to 150 grammes - and powerfully fragrant. The flowers appear in July and the plant continues flowering till mid-December. Flowers are particularly abundant from August to September.
Uses: The oil is used in the preparation of cosmetics and perfumes.
Remarks
Bhutan has many potential sources for essential oils which have yet to be exploited. The main obstacles are lack of technical know-how and the paucity of information on the extent of the resources. The Ministry of Agriculture is now exploring the possibilities of tapping these various sources. They represent great potential as exports and future sources of foreign exchange earnings.
Background
Resins are obtained from mature chir pine (Pinus roxburghii) greater than 40 centimetres in diametre, using the "French cup and lip" method. Diagram 2 shows the distribution of chir pine forest in Bhutan. Trees above 70 centimetres in diametre are given two blazes per year. In Bhutan, tapping of chir pine is primarily carried out by Tashi Rosin & Turpentine, a branch undertaking of Tashi Commercial Corporation, under a 50-year lease running from 1972 to 2022.
Distribution and Resource Availability
An area of 420 square kilometres has been leased to Tashi Rosin & Turpentine Company. However, the company is only allowed to tap in the areas shown in Table 11.
Production
Bhutan's yearly resin production peaked at 1,760 tons in 1985. The tapping methods used, however, were not sustainable and were damaging to the country's delicate environment. Resin tapping rules have now been revised and, with better control over tapping methods, the yield has declined to a sustainable level of just 272 tons per year.
Diagram 2 Chir Pine Forest in Bhutan
Table 11 Area Available to the Tashi Rosin & Turpentine Company for Resin Tapping
|
District |
Location |
|
Trashigang |
Khengthongmani, Oozurong and Rollong |
|
Mongar |
Rollong, Sheree-chu, Thangrong and Kurizampa |
|
Lhuntse |
Autsho |
|
Trongsa |
Lamthel |
|
Pemagatshel |
Shaliyang, Satang, Firi, Chongmashing, Dagor and Bainang |
|
Tsirang |
Pataley gewog (Keroni - between Wakhley tar and Buri-chu) |
|
Zhemgang |
Tingtibi |
Source: Review on Resin Tapping Operations in the Chir Pine Forest of Bhutan., by M.R. Moktan, 1994.Note: Bhutan's chir pine forests cover an area of approximately 810 square kilometres. Only about half of this area is tapped as the terrain is difficult for commercial extraction and the distribution of mature trees is widely scattered. The major obstacle Tashi faces at present is an insufficient number of labourers on a dependable basis. Rural Bhutanese are too occupied with their own fields during crop seasons, and tend to view resin tapping as a supplementary source of income normally pursued only during the agricultural off-season.
Processing
Resin collected from the various field depots is transported to the Rosin and Turpentine Factory in Samdrup Jongkha for processing into rosin and turpentine. The processing plant's production capacity is 300 tons of resin per annum (Master Plan for Forestry Development, Annex Report No. 8).
|
Production output: | ||
|
| ||
|
|
Rosin |
78 percent |
|
|
Turpentine oil |
14 percent |
|
|
Waste |
8 percent |
All products are sold to India, with the price for rosin ranging from Nu. 20.00 (63 US cents) to 24.00 per kilogramme (76 US cents) and the price for turpentine oil at Nu. 11.00 per litre (35 US cents).
Uses
Rosin is used in the paper, paints and varnish, soap and ink industries. Turpentine is used in the production of camphor and paints, and in the pharmaceutical industry (Table 12).
Table 12 Resin Products
|
Rosin |
% | |
|
|
Paper |
39.06 |
|
|
Paints, varnish and synthetic resins |
24.99 |
|
|
Soap |
18.00 |
|
|
Benzoin and Agar-bathis |
7.60 |
|
|
Shoes |
0.59 |
|
|
Waterproofing |
1.21 |
|
|
Sealing wax |
1.45 |
|
|
Phenyl |
2.72 |
|
|
Ink, varnish |
0.85 |
|
|
Linoleum |
0.85 |
|
|
Cables and bangles |
1.12 |
|
|
Jute, wax, bleaching soaps |
1.13 |
|
|
Miscellaneous industries |
0.43 |
|
Turpentine |
| |
|
|
Camphor and terpene chemicals (mineral turpentine does not yield these products) |
85.00 |
|
|
Boot polish, paints, varnish, and the pharmaceutical industry |
15.00 |
Source: Manual on Resin Tapping for Chir Pine Areas Under Tapping in Bhutan.
The Economic Aspects of Resin Tapping in Bhutan
Under normal circumstances, one chir pine tree with one resin channel should yield 1.5 kilogrammes of resin per annum, if the work is carried out efficiently and the weather is favourable. But with Bhutan's shortage of trained labourers, difficult working conditions, and mountainous terrain, the yield is not more than 1 kilogramme per channel. As only trees above 70 centimetres in diametre have two channels, the large majority of Bhutan's chir pine trees have only one channel.
Given the above assumptions, the present economics of resin tapping in Bhutan are estimated as follows:
Estimated Economics of Resin Tapping
|
Yield of resin per tree (raw basis) |
1 kilogramme |
|
Labour costs for tapping; provision of tools and empty tins; and establishment of depots, including contractor's commission |
Nu. 7.00 per kilogramme (22.26 US cents) |
|
Transport costs from forest by road to head depot depends on distances, e.g., from Dagor to Kherigonpa |
Nu. 1.50 per kilogramme (just over 4.7 US cents) |
|
Transport costs from road head to factory also depends on distances, e.g., Kherigonpa to |
|
|
Samdrup Jongkha. |
Nu. 0.80 per kilogramme (2 US cents) |
|
Total production costs (i.e., up to delivery at the factory site) equals from. |
Nu. 9.30 per kilogramme (29.5 US cents) |
|
to a maximum of. |
Nu. 10.00 per kilogramme (31.8 US cents). |
|
Market value of resin (average) |
Nu. 15.00/kilogramme (US$ 47.7 cents) |
|
Net profit to lessee |
Nu. 5.00 per kilogramme (15.9 U.S. cents) |
Source: Review on the Resin Tapping Operations in Chir Pine Forests of Bhutan, by M. R. Moktan, 1994.
Remarks
Based on the above assumptions, resin production generates gross revenue of about Nu. 4.1 million per year (272,000 kilogramme x 15 Nu. per kilogramme), or about US$ 130,143.
When the rhododendron blossoms in spring, Bhutan's hillsides and forests blaze with colour.
