Vegetable oil and ornamental plants

Vegetable oil
Ornamental plants

by B.B. Chhetri
Divisional Forest Officer
Social Forestry and Extension Section, Thimphu
The Royal Government of Bhutan

Vegetable oil

Bhutan has many trees and shrubs which are potential sources of oil in both the country's sub-tropical and sub-temperate zones. There are a few common species traditionally used by villagers in different parts of the country, but no systematic study has yet been carried out to survey Bhutan's potential for producing vegetable oil. The socio-economic and ecological attributes, and marketing needs associated with such production, have also not been studied.

Bhutan consumes a high level of vegetable oils. The country's requirements are largely met by imports from India and other countries. Coconut oil, soyabean oil, and mustard oil with the trade name "Dalda," for example, are all from India, while palm oil comes from Malaysia. Some 80 percent of Bhutanese rural communities cannot afford to buy even their basic requirements in vegetable oils because of their high cost, ranging from Nu. 40 (US$ 1.27) to Nu. 70 (US$ 2.22) per litre. This problem could be overcome by small-scale industries producing vegetable oil from locally-available species. Surpluses, could easily be marketed in neighbouring countries. The quantity and quality of production are the two main factors governing successful marketing.

The major problem presently is the lack of a proper study on the potential for vegetable oil production in the country. A full-fledged systematic study on vegetable oils would, unfortunately, entail large financial and human resource investments. It is therefore recommended that a proposal be submitted for initiating a pilot project, with the Government providing technological support and financial assistance to interested and innovative farmers.

Following is a list of known vegetable-oil-yielding forest species in Bhutan:

· gante, bandre, dhorkho-shing (Gynocardia odorata)
· yikka-shing, chiuri (Aesandra butyracea)
· panche-shing, gunilo-kharaney (Symplocos paniculata)
· sal, sakhuna (Shorea robusta)

Curcuma parviflora Wall is one of Bhutan's numerous ornamental plant species.

Here is a brief description of each species:

Gynocardia odorata R. Brown

Local name: Gante or Bandre (Nepal); Dorkho-shing (Sharchop-kha).

Family: Flacourtiaceae.

Distribution: Samtse, Lower Chhukha, Sarpang and Samdrup Jongkha Districts.

Altitude: 300-1,000 metres.

Climatic zone: Tropical and subtropical.

Morphology: Gante is a tree with thickly-spreading branches that grows from 10 to 20 metres high. Its leaves are dark green, coriaceous, and oblong - poisonous to cattle. Gante's flowers are yellow or yellowish green, appearing in April until late May. The tree can be easily recognised by its hard, round, dark-gray, rough-textured fruit, growing on its stems and main branches.

Silviculture: Gynocardia odorata species is light-demanding and needs little care. It grows mostly on sloping land at Bhutan's higher elevations or on stream banks and gullies where there are no other tall trees. Plantations can be established by direct sowing or by planting seedlings. Seedlings are grown in raised nursery beds or in polythene bags.

Extraction method: Oil is extracted from the seeds. The seeds are beaten into a pulp, heated, then compressed in tightly-woven bamboo baskets. Raw oil is boiled until it no longer foams. After cooling, the oil becomes white and semi-solid.

Other uses: The tree's fruit pulp is poisonous and is often used to kill fish. The seed is covered with a thick, edible pulp. The fruit is also used in Ayurvedic medicine. Oil from the Nepali gante is sold under the trade name "Chulmugra," common in India's Ayurvedic medicine market.

Aesandra butyracea Roxb.

Local name: Yika-shing (Dzongkha), Yi-shing (Kurtoep), Chiuri (Nepal), Pinshing (Sharchop-kha).

Family: Sapotaceae.

Distribution: Mongar, Lhuntse, Trashigang, Shemgang and Tsirang. Sparsely distributed in Punakha and Wangdue.

Altitude: 500-1,500 metres.

Climatic zone: Sub-tropical, sub-temperate.

Morphology: Yika-shing is a medium-sized tree that generally grows with a crooked stem. The leaves form large clusters and its bark is light gray. It has milky sap and its wood is pinkish-white in colour.

Flowering time: December-January.

Silviculture: Aesandra butyracea is a light-demanding species, with some tolerance to frost. It normally grows on sloping land with deep soil, and can easily be grown in nurseries. The number of seeds per kilogramme averages 450 to 600. The seed is viable for only a short period, so it has to be sown immediately after collection. Planting bare-root seedlings gives poor results, but seedlings grown in polythene pots perform well.

Extraction method: Vegetable butter is extracted from the seeds. The seeds are heated and mashed into a pulp. The pulp is heated in a pan and then compressed in tightly-woven bamboo baskets. After cooling, the oil becomes white and semi-solid. It is locally-known as "pins" in Sharchop-kha and "yiga makhu" in Dzongkha.

Other uses: In solid form, the oil is burned in lamps and used for making "forma" (images made during religious ceremonies). After extracting the butter, the remaining cake is toxic and is used as fish poison.

Symplocos paniculata

Local name: Pangtshe-shing (Dzongkha); Zim-shing (Sharchop-kha); Gunilo (Nepal).

Family: Symplocaceae.

Distribution: Punakha.

Altitude: 1,500-3,000 metres.

Climatic zone: Sub-tropical and temperate.

Morphology: Pangtshe-shing is a medium-sized tree, which grows from 5 to 10 metres in height. A deciduous species, its bark is ash-grey with vertical fissures. Old bark scales off naturally. Some villagers scratch off the dead bark, believing that this helps produce better fruit. The tree flowers in April and May. Its flowers are white. Its fruit is ready for harvesting by June or July.

Silviculture: Symplocos paniculata is a light-demanding species that mainly grows in valleys and on slopes with moist soil. Its seeds have low viability. The fruit is sown, without removing the pericarp, in nurseries immediately after collection.

Extraction method: Vegetable butter is extracted from the seeds. The seeds are heated and mashed to a pulp. The pulp is heated in a pan then compressed in a tightly-woven bamboo basket. After cooling, the oil becomes white and semi-solid.

Other uses: The oil is also burned in lamps. The leaves are used for making dye.

Shorea robusta

Local name: Sal, Sakhuna.

Family: Dipterocarpaceae.

Distribution: Grows naturally in Kalikhola Sarpang and is planted in other southern districts.

Altitude: 200-1,300 metres.

Climatic zone: Tropical and dry-sub-tropical.

Morphology: Sal is a large tree, with ovate-oblong leaves. Its bark has deep, vertical fissures. The tree flowers from March to April. Harvesting of fruit is from June to August. The fruit is winged and usually has only one seed.

Silviculture: Shorea robusta species needs well-drained soil. Sowing seeds directly into the plantation site immediately after collection yields the best results as the seeds cannot be stored for more than a week.

Extraction method: Not known.

Other uses: Excellent timber; essential and edible oils.

Ornamental plants

Domesticated ornamental plants are widely-known to Bhutan's rural folk and are, therefore, unnecessary to describe in detail in this document. Wild varieties of ornamental plants are also abundant in Bhutan. Identification and classification of such plants, with respect to their aesthetic, economical and environmental value, however, is yet to be carried out and almost no information on them exists.

The Japan-Himalayan Company is the pioneer in the ornamental plant business in Bhutan. Established in 1990, it is a joint business venture with Japanese counterparts. The nursery occupies more than 1.25 hectares, or about three acres, located after the Dzong going to Taba. It employs five workers, two trained in Japan. Four plastic-covered propagating chambers are used to produce rooted cuttings of the following plants: Agapitus, Begonia, Corpus, Capitata, Cupressus, Edgeworthia, Hedera, Gaultheria, Peonia, Piteris and Viburnum. These are exported to Japan for landscaping highways. So far, 5,000 cuttings have been exported to Japan, sold at 60 to 100 yen each (US$ 0.73 to 1.21 per cutting), depending on the size and extent of the root system development. The rooted cuttings are washed in the nearby river to remove all sand. The cuttings are then packed in moss and sent by air freight from Paro to Bangkok, and from there to Japan. A package of 100 plants weighs up to 2 kilogrammes.

The forests of Bhutan contain numerous species of rhododendron which are increasingly in demand as ornamental plants.

The Japan-Himalayan Company is now conducting experiments to determine which species are most easily propagated by various simple methods, with or without growth regulators. At present, the company gets 50 percent rooting success with Cornus, using a Japanese rooting hormone. It also claims that Cupressus multiplies faster using cuttings rather than germinating seeds.

The company's current problems are all related to rooting. These problems, however, should not be difficult to solve. Suggested priority activities are the following:

1) Construct a mist system over a well-drained propagating bed to provide continuous high relative humidity to cuttings. Heating may be needed during winter.

2) Experiment with various concentrations of growth regulators and soaking or dipping time in relation to the percentage of rooting/shooting.

3) Experiment with cuttings of different maturities, for example, terminal, sub-terminal or basal in conjunction with point

2) above to establish the combinations which will give the highest percentage and number of roots and shoots.

4) Look into other markets; study the quarantine rules for plant entry into other countries.

5) Send key personnel abroad for training to keep abreast of the most recent trends in the ornamental plant industry.

This information is based on the experiences of the Japan-Himalayan Company (Master Plan for Forestry Development, 1990). There is a need to appraise and document information from other sources, including villagers, city corporations, other government organizations, etc.

Overall, more comprehensive studies on occurrence, flowering time, durability of flowers, availability, propagation techniques, and marketing prospects for wild varieties of ornamental plants are needed.

Following is a list and a table of ornamental plants in Bhutan:

ORNAMENTAL PLANTS IN BHUTAN

Magnolia campbellii Hook. f. and Thompson

Local name: Ghoge champ (Nepal).

Family: Magnoliaceae.

Distribution: Haa, Thimphu (Lamperi-Menchuna), Punakha, Wangdue, Trongsa and other districts with similar conditions.

Altitude: 900-2,500 metres.

Flowering time: March-May.

Climatic zone: Sub-temperate to temperate.

Morphology: Middle-sized, deciduous tree, 12 to 15 metres in height. Flowers are terminal, erect and yellowish white.

Silviculture: Light-demanding species, found in wet, evergreen forests. Seeds are collected from August to September.

Michelia excelsa Wall.

Local name: Rani champ.
Family: Magnoaceae.
Distribution: Chhukha, Trongsa, Tsirang, Trashigang, Mongar and Punakha Districts.
Altitude: 1,800-2,500 metres.
Climatic zone: Temperate, evergreen forests.
Silviculture: Evergreen species, associates with oak species.

Rhododendron kesangiae

Local name: Gurans (Nepal), Eto-meto (Dzongkha).
Family: Ericaceae.
Distribution: Chhukha, Trongsa, Tsirang, Trashigang, Mongar and Punakha Districts.
Altitude: 2,500-3,200 metres.
Climatic zone:

Rhododendron thomsonii Hook. f.

Family: Ericaceae.
Altitude: 3,0004,000 metres.
Flowering time: May-June.

Rhododendron triflorum Hook. f.

Family: Ericaceae.
Altitude: 2,700-3,000 metres.
Flowering time: April-June.

Cupressus cashmerina

Local name: Tshenden-shing (Dzongkha/Sharchop-kha).

Family: Cupressaceae.

Distribution: Planted in Mongar District as an ornamental tree.

Altitude: 1,800 metres.

Flowering time: May-July.

Climatic zone: Temperate.

Morphology: Large-sized tree with pendulous branchlets; scale-like leaves of branchlets are ovate foliage strongly glaucous.

Cupressus himaliaca C. corneyna (Syn.) Bhutan's national tree

Local name: Weeping cypress.

Family: Cupressaceae.

Distribution: Punakha, Trongsa, Wangdue and Bumthang Districts.

Altitude: 2,550-3,000 metres.

Flowering time: May-July.

Climatic zone: Temperate.

Morphology: Medium-sized tree that grows up to 30 metres; pendulous branches and scale-like leaves of branchlets.

Cassia fistula Linn.

Local name: Donkha-shing (Sharchop-kha); Rajbirchey, Sonalu, Bandarlata (Nepali).

Family: Leguminosae.

Distribution: Native of Malaysia. Cultivated in Phontsholing, Sarpang, Samtse, Samdrup Jongkha and Trashigang Districts.

Flowering time: April-June.

Morphology: Medium-sized, deciduous tree that grows from 5 to 18 metres high; leaves 15 to 40 centimetres in length, with three to four pairs of leaflets; yellow flowers.

Benthamidia capitata

Local name: Phatse.

Family: Cornaceae.

Distribution: Punakha, Wangdue, Mongar, Trashigang and Lhuntshi Districts.

Altitude: 1,200-3,400 metres.

Flowering time: May-June.

Climatic zone: Temperate.

Morphology: Small, deciduous tree with leathery leaves that are oblong-elliptic, pointed, blue green and minutely hairy beneath; flowers are very small, greenish-yellow, closely packed into hemispherical heads of 1 to 1.5 centimetres across and surrounded by four (rarely five) white or creamy, ovate, petal-like bracts.

Bergenia ciliata

Local name: Pakhanbet.

Family: Saxifragaceae.

Distribution: Phontsholing (Kamji), Deothang (Chungkhaar), Haa and Mongar Districts.

Altitude: 1,500-3,050 metres.

Flowering time: February-April.

Climatic zone: Sub-tropical to temperate.

Morphology: Flowers 1-20, 7-12 millimetres green lobes, acute, denticulate near the apex, petals

Bergenia purpurascens

Family: Saxifragaceae.

Distribution: Haa, Bumthang and Upper Kulong-chu Districts.

Altitude: 3,800-4,550 metres.

Flowering time: May-July.

Climatic zone: Temperate to sub-temperate.

Morphology: Leaves elliptic or ovate-elliptic, rounded, base cuneate or rounded, glabrous or ciliate near base; flowers 1 to 8 nodding, calyx 5 to 14 millimetres, dull crimson, lobes oblong, rounded.

Illicium griffithii

Family: Illiciaceae.

Distribution: Punakha and Menchunang Districts.

Altitude: 1,800-2,400 metres.

Flowering time: February.

Morphology: Glabrous shrub or small tree, leaves elliptic, acuminate base cuneate, petioles; flower on pedicels.

Hedychium garderianum Sheppard

Family: Zingiberaceae.
Distribution: Gedue and Sibsoo.
Altitude: 1,200-2,000 metres.
Flowering time: June-August.
Climatic zone: Sub-tropical; mixed broad-leaved forest.

Curcurma aromatica Salisb.

Common name: Wild tumeric.
Family: Zingiberaceae (herb).
Altitude: 150-1,600 metres.
Flowering time: June-August.
Climatic zone: Sub tropical/sub-temperate; open slopes or slopes with scattered vegetation.

Edgeworthia gardneri Wallich

Local name: Deshing (Dzongkha), Kagate.
Family: Thymelaeceae (shrub).
Distribution: Chukha District (Puhakha to Kamzi).
Altitude: 150-1,600 metres.
Flowering time: June-August.
Climatic zone: Sub-temperate/temperate.

Daphne bholua Buch

Local name: Deshing (Dzongkha), Kagate.
Family: Thymelaceae.
Distribution: Chukha, Deothang Haa, Thimphu, Punakha and Trongsa Districts.
Altitude: 1,800-3,100 metres.
Flowering time: October-April.

Luculia gratissima Wallich

Family: Rubiaceae.
Distribution: Wangdue and Mongar Districts.
Altitude: 1,200-2,000 metres.
Flowering time: September-October.

Hippophae rhamnoides L

Local name: Tare (Dzongkha).
Family: Elaeagnaceae.
Altitude: 2,000-3,000 metres.
Flowering time: April-May.

Vibernum grandiflorum Wallich

Family: Caprifoliaceae.
Distribution: Pele-la and Thrumshing-la.
Altitude: 2,700-3,600 metres.
Flowering time: April-May.

Vibernum nervosum

Distribution: Changkhaphu, Hele-la, Chhamina and Tharana.
Altitude: 2,700-3,300 metres.
Flowering time: April-May.

Aconitum spicatum Bruhl

Local name: Bgo-grod-spos (medicinal).
Family: Ranunculaceae.
Distribution: Thimphu, Trongsa, Gasa, Bumthang and Paro.
Altitude: 3,000-4,000 metres.
Flowering time: August-September.

Cypripedium himalaicum

Common name: Lady's slipper.
Family: Orchidaceae.
Distribution: Lingtshi, Barsong and Chebesa.
Altitude: 3,000-4,000 metres.
Flowering time: June.

Cymbidium hookeranum Rechh

Local name: Ola-chhoto (Dzongkha).
Family: Orchidaceae.
Distribution: Gedu, Punakha, Tsirang, etc.
Flowering time: February-May.

Dactylorhiza hatagirea

Local name: Panch umole, Wanglok.
Family: Orchidaceae.
Distribution: Lingtshi, Phajodhing and Chele-la.
Altitude: 3,700 metres.

Meconopsis grandis

Local name: Upel nginpo.
Family: Papaveraceae.
Altitude: 3,6504,200 metres.
Flowering time: June-August.

Allium wallichii Kunth

Local name: Zimbu.
Family: Liliaceae.
Distribution: Paro, Haa, Thimphu and Bumthang Districts.
Altitude: 3,000-4,200 metres.
Flowering time: August-September.

Lilium nepalense

Local name: Lily.
Family: Liliaceae.
Altitude: 1,800 metres.
Flowering time: July-August.

Lagerstroemia hirsuta Lamark

Family: Lythraceae.
Altitude: 300-600 metres.
Flowering time: May-June.

Lagerstroemia parviflora Roxb.

Local name: Sidha (Nepal).
Family: Lythraceae.
Altitude: 180-700 metres.
Flowering time: April-July.
Silviculture: Direct sowing in planting site immediately after collection of seeds.

Table 13 Other Ornamental Plants in Bhutan

Botanical name	Family name	Altitude	Flowering time	Habitat
Justicia adhatoda Nees	Acanthaceae	500-1,600m.	February-April	Wasteground, roadside
Barleria cristata. Linn.	Acanthaceae	500-2000 m.	June-September	In light forest
Amaranthus caudatus Linn.	Amaranthaceae	2,000-2,800 m.	June-October	Cultivated
Beaumontia grandiflora Wall.	Apocynaceae	150-1,400 m.	April	Foothills of subtropical forest (limestone areas)
Brassiopsis glomerulata Regel	Araliaceae	1,180-2,000 m.	March-April	Under shrubs in oak forests
Gamblea ciliata Clarke	Araliaceae	2,800-3,500 m.	June-July	Understory in Abies/Rhododendron forests
Aristolochia griffithii Hook. f.	Aristolochiaceae	1,800-2,900 m.	April-May	Climber on shrubs
Impatiens strenantha	Balsaminaceae	1,800-2,600 m.	July-September	Forest shrubberies
Impatiens sulcata	Balsaminaceae	1,800-4,000 m.	July-September	Shrubberies/cultivated areas
Bombax ceiba Linn.	Bombacaceae	200-1,400 m.	February-March	Dry, sub-tropical, and tropical zones; well-drained, bouldery areas, open forest
Mahonia nepalensis DC.	Berberidaceae	1,500-2,400 m.	October-April	Near small streams, under shrubs
Begonia griffithiana Hook.	Begoniaceae	up to 1,800 m.	June-July	Damp, rocky slopes in ravines
Opuntia vulgaris Muller	Cactaceae	1,000-1,800 m.	Throughout summer	Naturalised in cultivated areas/wasteland
Cardamine macrophylla Willd.	Cruciferae	2,100-3,600 m.	May-August	Forest; marshy areas
Codonopsis affinis Hook.	Campanulaceae	1,800-3,000 m.	June-September	Shrubberies
Codonopsis ovata Benth.	Campanulaceae	240 m.	July-August	Alpine pasture
Lonicera agustifolia Wallich	Caprifoliaceae	2,000-2,900 m.	May-June	Shrubberies
Lonicera hispida	Caprifoliaceae	2,000-3,300 m.	May-July	Shrubberies
Gypsophila cerastioides D. Don	Caryophyllaceae	2,800-4,100 m.	June-August	Open slopes, rocks, and roadsides
Ageratum conyzoides Linn.	Compositae	1,000-3,000 m.	Almost all year around	Cultivated areas
Hypericum choisianum Wallich	Hypericaeae	2,400-3,000 m.	May-August	On cliffs, rock
Deutzia bhutanensis	Hydrangeaceae	2,400-2,800 m.	April-June	Shrubberies
Ainsliaea aptera DC.	Compositae	1,400-3,000 m.	March-June	Shrubberies
Artimesia roxburghiana Basser	Compositae	200-4,000 m.	March-September	Cultivated areas/wasteland
Ipomea carnea Jacq.	Convolvulaceae	100-2,400 m.	April-August	Wasteland
Ipomea purpurea Linn.	Convolvulaceae	100-2,400 m.	April-October	Wasteland
Porana grandiflora Wallich	Convolvulaceae	1,500-2,400 m.	July-October	Wasteland
Dipsacus inermis Wallich	Dipsacaceae	1,800-3,500 m.	June-September	Cultivated/bushy land
Morina longifolia Wallich	Dipsacaceae	3,000-4,000m.	June-September	Alpine scrub
Agapetes serpens Wight	Ericaceae	1,500-2,800 m.	February-June	Damp, rocky slopes
Cassiope fastigiata Wallich	Ericaceae	1,500-2,800 m.	February-June	Evergreen scrub, rocky wet areas
Enkianthus deflexus Griffith	Ericaceae	2,500-3,300 m.	May-June	Mixed conifer forests
Elaeagnus parvifolia Wallich	Elaeagnaceae	2,600-3,000 m.	April-June	Cultivated land, wasteland
Euphorbia sikkimensis Boiss	Euphorbiaceae	2,400-2,900 m.	April-May	Open forest
Euphorbia wallichii Hook. f.	Euphorbiaceae	2,400-3,000 m.	April-May	Wasteland, scrub forests
Geranium procurrens Yeo	Geraniaceae	2,400-3,600 m.	May-September	Open slopes
Geranium nepalense Sweet	Geraniaceae	1,400-3,000 m.	February-July	Roadside in warm and cool broad-leaved forests and blue pine forests
Geranium lambertii Sweet	Geraniaceae	2,300-4,000 m.	July-September	Open areas in blue pine forests
Gentiana oranta G. Don	Gentianceae	3,000-4,500 m.	August-October	Alpine meadows
Gentiana depressa D. Don	Gentianceae	3,000-4,500 m.	August-October	Alpine meadows
Hypericum hookeranum Wight	Hyperiecaeae	2,600-3,000 m.	June-September	On cliffs, rock
Philadelphus tomentosus Wallich	Hydrangeaceae	2.000-2,800 m.	May-June	Mixed conifer forests
Hypoxis aurea	Hypoxidaceae	2,500-3.000 m.	April-July	Dry, open ground
Iris clarkei Baker	Iridaceae	3,000-3,500 m.	June-July	Damp, open hillsides
Iris cf tectorum maxim	Iridaceae	2,500.3,000m	April-may	Marshy areas
-	Lahiateae	3,500-4,500 m	June-August	Alpine pasture
Colquhounia coccinea Wallich	Lahiateae	2,000-3,000 m.	August-September	Shrubberies
Oxytropis lapponica Gay	Leguminosae	3,800-4,600 m.	July-August	Sandy loam
Porochetus communis D. Don	Leguminosae	1,500-3,900 m.	March-September	Moist places and beside streams
Allium macranthum Baker	Liliaceae	3,000-4,000 m.	August-September	On top of ridges
Allium sikkimense	Liliaceae	3,000-4,500 m.	July-October	Wet slopes
Woodfordia fruticosa Linn.	Lythraceae	600-1,500 m.	March-May	Scrub on dry slopes
Michelia doltsopa DC.	Magnoliaceae	1,800-2,700 m.	March-April	Broad-leaved forests in temperate zones
Melastoma normale D. Don	Melastomataceae	305-1,830 m.	December-June	Moist areas, alongside streams
Osbeckia nepalensis Hooker	Melastomataceae	610-1,800 m.	July-September	Warm, broad-leaved, open forests
Thespesia lampas Cav.	Malvaceae	150 m.	October-February	Sub-tropical wasteland
Jasminum dispermum Wallich	Oleaceae	900-2,500 m.	April-May	Mixed evergreen forests
Jasminum multiflorum Burm. f.	Oleaceae	300-1,500 m.	March-October	-
Jasminum officinale Linn.	Oleaceae	1,200-3,000 m.	May-July	-
Aerides multiflora Roxb.	Orchidaceae	200-100 m.	May-June	-
Aerides odorata Lour.	Orchidaceae	200-1,200 m.	May-June	-
Calanthe plantaginea Lindley	Orchidaceae	1,500-2,100 m.	March-April	-
Cephalanthera longifolia	Orchidaceae	1,800-3,000 m.	May-August	-
Coelogyne corymbosa Lindley	Orchidaceae	2,000-3,000 m.	April-June	-
Coelogyne ochracea Lindley	Orchidaceae	1,500-2,500 m.	April-May	-
Oxalis latifolia Humb.	Oxalidaceae	1,200-1,600 m.	July-September	-
Corydalis gerde Fedde	Papavaraceae	3,500-4,500 m.	July-September	-
Corydalis latiflora Hook. f.	Papavaraceae	400-5,000 m.	July-August	-
Corydalis thyrsiflora Prain	Papavaraceae	3,000-4,300 m.	July-August	-
Meconopsis horridula Hook.	Papavaraceae	3,500-5,000 m.	July-August	-
Meconopsis grandis Prain	Papavaraceae	3,500-5,000 m.	July-August	-
Meconopsis paniculata Prain	Papavaraceae	3,000-4,000 m.	July-August	-
Polygala arillata Bach	Polygalaceae	2,000-2,800 m.	June-July	-
Bistorta macrophylla D. Don	Polygonaceae	3,000-4,000 m.	July-September	-
Rheum acuminatum Hook. f.	Polygonaceae	3,000-4,000 m.	July-September	-
Rheum nobile Hook.	Polygonaceae	3,600-4,500 m.	July-August	-
Androsace primuloides Duby	Primulaceae	3,000-4,300 m.	July-August	-
Primula boothii Craib	Primulaceae	2,800-3,200 m.	April-May	-
Primula buryana Balf. f.	Primulaceae	3,000-4,200 m.	April-May	-
Pyrola corbieri Leve	Pyrolaceae	2,200-3,500 m.	July-August	-
Aconitum hookeri Stapf	Ranunculaceae	3,500-4,500 m.	August-September	-
Aquilegia nivalis Fale	Ranunculaceae	2,800-4,000 m.	August-September	-
Aconitum spicatum Bruhl.	Ranunculaceae	3,000-4,000 m.	August-September	-
Cotoneaster microphyllus Wallich	Rosaceae	2,800-4,000 m.	May-June	-
Fragaria nubicola Lindley	Rosaceae	1,800-3,000 m.	April-June	-
Potentilla peduncularis D. Don	Rosaceae	3,000-4,000 m.	June-July	-
Luculia gratissima Wallich	Rubiaceae	1,200-2,000 m.	September-October	-
Hippophae rhamnoides Linn.	Rhamnaceae	2,000-3,000 m.	April-May	-
Sambucus adnata Wallich	Sambucaceae	1,500-3,300 m.	July-August	-
Viburnum erubescense Wallich	Sambucaceae	1,500-3,000 m.	April-May	-
Viburnum grandiflorum Wallich	Sambucaceae	2,700-3,600 m.	April-May	-
Bergenia stracheyi Hook. f.	Saxifragaceae	3,000-4,300 m.	June-August	-
Saxifraga asarifolia Sternb.	Saxifragaceae	3,000-4,300 m.	July-August	-
Datura suaveolens Humb.	Solanaceae	1,000-1,700 m.	May-November	-
Lagotis cashmeriana Royle	Scrophulariaceae	3,300-4,500 m.	June-August	-
Lancea tibetica Hook. f.	Scrophulariaceae	3,000-4,300 m.	May-August	-
Mazus surculosus D. Don	Scrophulariaceae	1,500-3,000 m.	April-July	-
Daphne mucronata Royle	Thymelaeaceae	1,500-2,700 m.	April-May	-
Angelica cyclocarpa Norman	Umbeliferae	3,000-3,600 m.	July-August	-
Heracleum nepalense D. Don	Umbeliferae	2,000-3,600 m.	July-August	-
Clerodendron japonicum Thunb.	Verbenaceae	Up to 1,800 m.	June-September	-
Viola biflora Linn.	Violaceae	2,600-4,300 m	May-July	-
Viola bhutanica Hara	Violaceae	2,700-3,500 m	May-August	-
Costus speciosu Smith	Zingiberaceae	1,800-2,600 m.	June-August	-
Hedychium densiflorum Wallich	Zingiberaceae	1,200-2,000 m.	June-August	-
Roscoea alpina Royle	Zingiberaceae	2,600-3,600m.	May-June	-

Source: Flowers of Eastern Himalaya, Flora of Bhutan, Trees of North Bengal, and Kanjilal Flora.

Bhutan has many different types of forests. All of them provide a diversity of non-wood products.