Maarten Nieuwenhuis is Senior Lecturer
in the Department of Forestry, National
University of Ireland, Belfield, Dublin, Ireland.
Niall O'Connor is Programme Coordinator,
Concern Universal, Sunyani, Brong Afaho, Ghana.
Recommendations for improving the practices and economic viability of small-scale nurseries supplying seedlings to local agroforestry systems, based on a survey in Murang'a District, Kenya.
In the highland regions of East Af-rica, cultivated and managed trees have assumed an important place as one of the many land use options available to small landholders (Dewees, 1991).
Most of the seedlings planted by farmers are produced in local small-scale tree nurseries, which have an important role in the sustainable development of the local communities. This article reports on the results of an in-depth survey of the cultural, management and marketing practices in small-scale nurseries in the Murang'a District in the highlands of Kenya. The objective of the survey was to identify the constraints affecting the capacity of nurseries to produce the range and quality of seedlings needed to fulfil the many and varied functions of trees in the region. A number of recommendations are made on ways to help small-scale nursery owners and managers obtain the knowledge, skills and resources necessary to run their nurseries economically and efficiently.
To assess the ecological, social and economic conditions faced by nursery managers, a survey of 84 nurseries was carried out in the upper midlands region of Murang'a District in Kenya, a zone representative of the agro-ecological and social conditions found in many of the highland regions of East Africa (Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, 1982). The particular study site, consisting of tea, coffee and marginal coffee zones (O'Connor, 1997), was chosen based on an earlier census of tree nurseries in the region (Roothaert and Tuwei, 1993).
In the Murang'a District, as in many of the highland regions of East Africa, agricultural activities are central to economic well-being but also create problems such as soil erosion, soil nutrient depletion and fuelwood and timber shortages (Ngugi and Brabley, 1986). These problems are accentuated by very high population densities (often as high as 800 per km2), intensive cultivation methods, a preponderance of smallholdings because of repeated subdivision of family lands and a rapid decrease in land available for farming (Ministry of Planning and National Development, 1988). To remedy this situation, farmers have begun to plant trees on their farms, either in small woodlots or in boundary plantings. Most of the seedlings used by the farmers are produced in local small-scale tree nurseries.
Three main nursery types were identified in the survey: private nurseries, women's group nurseries and school nurseries. Together these accounted for over 80 percent of the nurseries surveyed (O'Connor, 1997). The size and the capacity of the nurseries in these groups varied little, except that school nurseries tended to be smaller.
The objectives of the nursery managers varied greatly. The primary objective of private nurseries, which by and large were managed by males, was the generation of cash income. As a result, managers of private nurseries devoted more time to nursery upkeep and management, thereby ensuring greater crop survival rates. One of the main observations made with regard to private nurseries was that they tended to produce few species. Few private managers were willing to take chances with alternative species, unless they knew that a demand existed for those species.
In contrast, women's groups appeared to be more eager to diversify. As MacKenzie (1990) had already noted, women's groups worked more at community level and were among the first to notice fuelwood shortages and soil erosion problems. Their objectives included the provision of free seedlings to the local community (with assistance from non-governmental organizations) in an attempt to alleviate social and environmental problems. Since the shortage of fuelwood and other wood products was greatest in the main coffee-growing zone, the women's groups established a particularly large number of tree nurseries in this zone. Women's groups also were more eager to try new multipurpose tree species. Many of the women's groups indicated that income from the nursery was important to the successful management of the nursery, yet few actually made a profit.
Overall, the objectives set by women's groups have only been achieved to a moderate extent. The private nurseries reported greater success in achieving their objectives. This may be because operating in a male-dominated society made it more difficult for women to achieve their goals, and the women may also have been more likely to admit their difficulties.
A district agroforestry extension officer surveys a badly managed nursery run by a church group
- M. NIEUWENHUIS
School nurseries served the purpose of educating young people in tree planting and management techniques in order to help overcome environmental problems such as deforestation and soil erosion which were becoming more serious with the increasing population. Simple trial plots, together with short classes discussing trees, their benefits, their potential and best management practices, are used to encourage the youth to widen the utilization of (multipurpose) trees. The nurseries are also used to establish school woodlots to generate income from timber sales for the upkeep of the schools. Excess seedlings are given to students who are encouraged to plant them on their parents' farms.
Because of the large number of nurseries in the region there is an element of competition among them, which has had a negative impact on the viability of some of the nurseries by decreasing market size and sales. However, competition has also encouraged more intensive management and the production of higher-quality planting stock, leading to fewer losses on the farms. It has also increased diversification, as nursery managers have realized that they have to secure a market.
To date, very few nursery managers have received professional training and advice. Although extension agents have occasionally visited some of the nurseries, the nursery managers themselves decided in all cases on which species to produce. Because of a lack of knowledge about alternative species, especially within the farming community, a vicious circle has developed in which nurseries only supply what farmers want, and lack of knowledge prevents the farmers from demanding alternative and potentially more beneficial multipurpose trees. The establishment of a communication network among agricultural extension agents, forestry extension agents, nursery managers and farmers is required to eliminate this lack of understanding.
A medium-size private nursery illustrating high management standards; managers of private nurseries tend to devote more time to nursery upkeep and management
- M. NIEUWENHUIS
In summary, private nurseries, run on a commercial basis, mainly by male managers, were more efficient and cost effective than other types. However, these private nurseries lacked many of the positive traits of nurseries run by women's groups. Thus the ideal nursery would appear to be one run on a private commercial basis, yet under the influence of women's knowledge and concern for social and environmental issues.
A well-managed women's group nursery situated on the land of a tea processing plant
- M. NIEUWENHUIS
Over the three-year period from 1995 to 1997, the average nursery production increased from 3 000 to over 10 000 seedlings per year. The increased production was mainly the outcome of an increased demand as a result of a growing awareness of the social and environmental problems arising from overpopulation and the intensive cultivation of a limited land resource.
In order for small-scale nurseries to be run efficiently, the availability of basic production factors is essential. Water supply was a limiting factor in over one third of nurseries, regardless of the size of the nursery or the agro-ecological zone in which it was located. Although water storage tanks were available on the market, few nurseries could afford to buy them. As it is now standard nursery practice to sow in the dry season to ensure that seedlings are ready for planting out at the onset of the rains, the importance of a continuous water supply must be stressed even more than in the past.
The soil used in seedbeds and polytubes was generally collected locally. It was not sterilized and was of only moderate fertility. Many managers indicated that they would like to incorporate inorganic fertilizers in the soil to increase the nutrient status. However, the cost of fertilizer was almost always prohibitive. Many other ingredients were used in the absence of inorganic fertilizers, including cow manure and compost. As a result of the increased population density in the district, the volume of manure available to each household and nursery has been decreasing, resulting in soil nutrient depletion. To help relieve this situation, research is necessary to evaluate the suitability of alternatives to cow manure (e.g. coffee husk compost).
Local influences have created an almost total dependence on one seedling production system, consisting of seedbed germination followed by transplanting to polytubes. The success of this production system, based on the fact that polytubes retain moisture for long periods, has reduced confidence in other production methods. Yet the majority of the nursery owners, regardless of the type of nursery, considered the cost of polytube seedlings to be an economic constraint and realized that in order to reduce costs, alternatives would have to be found. A significant extension effort is required to convince farmers that other production and container systems can be just as effective and have the potential to produce seedlings more economically. For example, bamboo containers have proved very successful in Tanzanian nurseries (Ministry for Lands, Natural Resources and Tourism, 1984).
Nursery owners and managers had access to most if not all of the tools necessary to carry out the cultural practices required in a small-scale nursery. It appeared, however, that since many nursery managers and farmers were accustomed to receiving free seedlings and tools, few were willing to make investments to increase the efficiency of their operation.
One of the greatest problems found to affect tree establishment was the distribution of the nursery stock. To ensure a sufficient market, nurseries should be located close to areas of high population density and should have direct access to the road network. In Murang'a District most nurseries were located more than 1 km from a surfaced road, and this hardship limited the nurseries' sales and profits. In addition, the greater the distance from a nursery to a road, the lower the likelihood that extension agents will visit that nursery regularly.
Many of the technical production problems encountered during the survey, such as water scarcity, soil nutrient depletion and the lack of distribution networks, could be solved using minimal cash injections if efficient educational programmes were established by the extension services. Demonstration nurseries established in strategic locations could encourage visiting nursery managers to replicate the observed good practices in their own nurseries.
The survey showed a heavy reliance in the region on a single exotic tree species, Grevillea robusta. Although this species fulfils many functions, such as the supply of fuelwood, timber, fodder, shade and mulch (Harwood, 1992), reliance on one species is dangerous in the event of attack by pathogenic organisms. An example of damage caused by pathogens was seen when Leucaena leucocephala was attacked throughout Kenya in the early 1990s and the entire crop was destroyed.
All seed used in the nurseries included in the survey was collected locally. This has led to inbreeding, resulting from a gradual decrease in the genetic base. Added to this problem is the fact that the genetic resource base of G. robusta was already narrow when the species was introduced into Kenya, since the provenance was a very small region in Southwestern Australia. Further inbreeding could expose the species to serious insect or fungal attack. As few trees in the region reach maturity at present (they are cut as many as three times per year, for fodder, fuelwood and timber crops), emphasis needs to be placed on retaining sufficient numbers of mature trees to protect the existing genetic resource base. The genetic base should also be broadened over time by the introduction of reproductive material from other areas in the country of origin.
The survey revealed that seed received very little pretreatment to enhance germination rates. Although germination rates appeared to be high, further improvements are possible and simple pretreatment methods should be introduced.
Many nurseries claimed that there was not enough seed available each year. They have managed to overcome this constraint by the use of wildlings, gathered from the base of older trees and transported to the nursery. This practice has proved very successful and should be encouraged for many other species, especially exotic tree species, where the lack of a high-quality and regular seed supply has affected many nurseries.
Where excess seed was collected, managers did not store it because of a lack of knowledge of seed storage or an absence of adequate facilities. To ensure that seed shortages do not occur, efforts have to be made to educate managers on storage techniques. To improve seed supply, the establishment of seed orchards on a commercial basis should be encouraged to allow for greater access to a variety of tree seed by local nurseries and to show farmers that many tree species do grow well locally.
A large private nursery relying on a single species, which can result in dangerous vulnerability to attack by pathogenic organisms
- M. NIEUWENHUIS
In order to manage a nursery efficiently, managers need up-to-date information on the technical and cultural practices involved. Access to this information can only be achieved by contact with external sources, whether government agencies such as the extension services, non-governmental organizations or national and international research groups.
Many nursery managers reported that nurseries were only rarely visited by extension agents and that extension agents were not well informed and were therefore not in a strong position to help managers improve their nursery operations. Without changes in the funding and organization of the extension services, little improvement can be expected in the future.
On the other hand, a government initiative that has had a positive influence on nurseries in the district is a policy change regarding the production of fruit-trees. New government policy prohibits local nurseries from sowing and selling fruit-trees unless the nursery is registered with the Kenyan Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources. The aim is to introduce new improved fruit-tree stocks, thereby increasing the production capacity and the quality of the fruit. This process has resulted in specialization of some nurseries in Murang'a District, which now concentrate on producing top-quality fruit-trees. Similarly, a factory-backed farmers' group called Macadamia People has established a nursery producing top-quality grafted macadamia trees. In light of these successful projects, attempts to establish certified seed centres should be encouraged.
Many governmental and non-governmental organizations have been involved, mainly at ground level, in an attempt to raise the standard of tree nursery technology. Yet very little communication has taken place among these groups. The consequences have included duplication of work, the loss of valuable information and conflicts over objectives and practices.
The reimbursement of nurseries for the free-of-charge distribution of seedlings has had a negative impact on at least one third of the nurseries surveyed. Considerable disruption to nursery markets has occurred, and many farmers are now unwilling to pay for seedlings. Yet it has been shown that purchased seedlings, as opposed to those received free of charge, have a greater chance of survival as a result of greater after care by farmers (Tarleton, 1996). Organizations that encourage the free issuing of seedlings by nurseries should be persuaded to divert their funds to other, more effective uses, for instance the provision of nursery resources such as water storage tanks, training in nursery management skills and education relating to seed management and species selection.
In order to ensure that external influences contribute positively towards the development of the tree nursery sector, officials within the agricultural and forestry sectors must meet on a regular basis to identify and eliminate obstacles and to allow for the transfer of knowledge. Links must be established with all non-governmental organizations and with research groups, such as the International Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF), to ensure that all available information will be utilized and that research efforts are focused on the most pressing problems.
The survey of tree nurseries in the highlands of Kenya suggests a number of conclusions which may be applicable also in many other developed and developing countries.
There is a need to develop systems to pass knowledge and information to all relevant organizations and to ensure the flow of expertise to agricultural and forestry extension agents in the field. Funding must be made available to give agents access to relevant information on nursery management. Greater emphasis should be placed on encouraging farmers and nursery managers to visit extension agents at central locations, which would reduce the transport costs of the extension services and allow more funds to be made available for educational purposes.
Local education centres should be established where demonstration plots, training courses and information on seed management, nursery management, bookkeeping and marketing should be made available to nursery managers, with sponsorship if possible.
Problems associated with the free supply of seedlings are a major constraint on the establishment of economic and efficiently run small-scale nurseries. The free issuing of seedlings should be discouraged. External organizations sponsoring nurseries should be encouraged to redirect their efforts and funding towards cooperating with the nursery managers, so that physical resources such as tools, water storage tanks and good quality seed, as well as access to training and information, can be made available to the nurseries.
Research is needed in many areas of nursery management. Documentation of best nursery practices should be collected, published and distributed. The introduction of acceptable alternative seedling production systems, based on local conditions and using local materials, is urgently required. Furthermore, research into alternative sources of fertilizer is essential to alleviate serious local fertilizer shortages.
Small-scale tree nurseries and their managers have an important role in ensuring the sustainable development of rural communities in the highland regions of East Africa. It is essential that they obtain access to the knowledge, skills and resources necessary to maintain and enhance their capacity to produce the seedlings which form an integral part of the local agroforestry systems.
Bibliography
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Tarleton, M.H.W. 1996. On-farm fuel consumption and production patterns in three contrasting agro-ecological zones in Embu district, Eastern province, Kenya. University College Dublin, Ireland. (M.Sc. thesis)
