R.B. GOURLAY
R.B. GOURLAY is commerce officer of the Wood Products Branch, Department of Industry, Trade and Commerce, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. This paper has been prepared from the background papers listed at the end, and grateful acknowledgement is hereby made to their authors, and from reports prepared by several international organizations also listed in the references.
FOR MANY HUNDREDS OF YEARS forest products of one type or another have provided man with a material adaptable to his use in providing shelter. During this time, research on the inherent characteristics and properties of wood has been carried on and regulations and codes have been established to guide users in the correct use in construction of the many wood species available on a commercial basis. However, it is only in fairly recent times that serious consideration has been given to the thought that people must be shown or taught how and where wood products can be used to the best advantage in construction, to provide not only a strong, safe structure but one that can also be aesthetically pleasing Methods of promotion vary but the basic premise is to educate and therefore create a demand for a material or product.
Levin (13) points out that promotion as such should not be concerned directly with sales, but used to produce a favourable climate for sales. Promotion then is con corned with the consumer or user, and to promote a product successfully the needs and requirements of the consumer must be known, his doubts and misconceptions must be removed and he must be convinced he is getting the best material for his use and his money. In other words, promotion is concerned not only with market research and communication with the consumer, but also with product research and development, the technology of manufacturing and marketing and the education and training of personnel connected with the industry.
Promotion and its applications vary according to the agency or industrial concern undertaking a programme to create the proper environment for the increased sales of a product. In general it can be said that promotional work with forest products in North America is more strongly oriented toward the end-use consumer-the home buyer-while in the United Kingdom and many countries in Europe the emphasis is on technical promotion aimed at architects, technicians, builders and other personnel working with wood. There are, of course, advantages in each approach, and the selection of an appropriate programme will depend in large part on the economy of the area and, to a somewhat lesser extent, on the objectives toward which the specific programme is aimed.
PROMOTION IN SCANDINAVIA
The use of wood in residential construction in Europe varies considerably, necessitating different approaches in educating the consumer on its inherent characteristics and advantages. Norway, Sweden and Finland, being particularly well endowed with forests, have used wood as a building material for many hundreds of years. Wood use in construction is due in large part to tradition and to the widespread knowledge of wood that the population in general has. These two factors have resulted in wood products advertising by private industry being very limited, with the emphasis on the technical rather than on the marketing or consumer sector. Technical promotion is usually not published as direct advertising but rather as reports, writings, and so on, on forest products research.
For example, in Norway, the Norwegian Building Research Institute (NBI), financed by the National Research Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, directs a great deal of work toward the use of wood in housing to produce results which are directly applicable to current construction practices. The programmes have not been concerned with basic knowledge of wood as such, but rather with the solution of both theoretical and practical problems related to its use in frame construction. Research results are published in handbooks and on data sheets in a form that is readable and easily understood also by laymen. The Building Research Institute maintains very close liaison with universities that have research programmes related to wood and its use in housing and other structures, such as agricultural buildings.
An organization concerned with product-oriented research in the wood sector is the Norwegian Institute for Woodworking and Wood Technology (NTI). This institute, which works in close cooperation with NBI, undertakes research projects that are more specifically concerned with the properties of wood and wood products than the more general work of NBI. An important feature of NTI'S work has been the establishment of a series of voluntary quality control systems for wood products, including glued-laminated construction, roof trusses, fingerjointed structural lumber, impregnated timber and particle board. Work is now in progress to establish similar quality control systems for lumber grading and for the manufacture of prefabricated houses. The quality control programmes developed are accepted by government agencies, and provide the framework within which building officials in Norway work.
Norway. Sweden, Denmark and Finland each has a Timber Information Council, whose terms of reference include the promotion of the use of wood in building by the dissemination of technical and economic information directly related to forest products. The information is chiefly aimed at architects, builders, etc., although some material is prepared for general distribution. However, information for the general public, besides describing the beauty and prestige of wood, outlines its technical properties and advantages. The information councils have all established close working relations with the wood products research organizations in their respective countries and with each other. The Scandinavian councils meet annually to discuss mutual problems and techniques of promotion, both in the external and domestic market context. Recently, the formation of a joint Finnish, Norwegian and Swedish Information Council to widen cooperation in the western European market has been discussed. In the domestic market, two activities that contribute to the awareness of wood in residential construction are annual Timber Days in which subjects such as environment and town planning as well as the detailed properties of wood are discussed, and annual or biannual awards for the best use of wood by an architect.
PROMOTION TN THE UNITED KINGDOM
The Timber Research and Development Association (TRADA) of the United Kingdom operates on a slightly different basis from the equivalent Scandinavian organizations. TRADA is an independent industrial research association supported by annual grants from the Timber Trade Federation and the Government, by contribution from private concerns in the building industry and allied trades, by income from the sale of publications, and by fees for training and education courses. Promotion of forest products in construction falls under the precepts of total promotion as outlined earlier in this paper; that is, it should not be concerned directly with sales, but create a favourable climate for sales.
It was felt that the market for wood products in the United Kingdom could be divided into two areas-traditional use and new use. The latter category is significantly affected by modern technology through constant research and development. Competition from alternative materials and demand for higher performance in service resulted in the trend to increased research and development. A promotion programme had to be planned and implemented which would take into account the fact that, to maintain their position and competitive ability, forest products had to be prepared to change in form, treatment and marketing methods. To this end, TRADA defined a programme in the following steps:
1. Identification of end-use requirements in appropriate end-use sectors (market surveys).
2. Selection, organization and planning of projects to test concepts, material, etc.
3. Application of financial, scientific and technological resources to projects.
4. Preparation of preliminary design or specification of concept or material to meet end-use requirement.
5. Development and testing of prototype.
6. Preparation of training and educational programme.
7. Publicity programme and dissemination of information.
Another factor found to be very important was the influence of external constraints. The successful introduction of timber-frame housing required not only technical and design expertise, but also that certain factors inhibiting its development be removed. In brief, these were restrictive building by-laws; restrictions by financial and insurance bodies; and suspicion on the part of the general public regarding the safety, durability, and other performance criteria of timber frame. A well-planned promotion programme, utilizing both technical and nontechnical material, can be effective in erasing these inhibiting factors.
TRADA found that by following these steps, particularly in the promotion of the use of wood in housing, the chance of success was greatly increased. Housing was identified as being not only the most important market for the traditional use of wood in the United Kingdom but also offered the widest scope for new applications of wood-based products. These seven points are basic to a programme aimed at creating a favourable atmosphere for a product and, while the amount of detail can vary, the principle involved can be followed by any organization.
PROMOTION IN THE UNITED STATES
The American Wood Council, founded in 1968, created a wood promotion programme with an emphasis on the ultimate consumer, rather than on the technical personnel involved in the different stages of product testing and use in construction. A major reason for the organization of the Wood Council was to counter the strong consumer promotion programmes of competitive building materials.
The council's major support comes from 12 associations that have wood product promotion responsibilities. These pay dues based on the volume of production of the associations' member companies, and additional support comes from distributors, suppliers and companies who are not members of associations. The main objective of the council is to create an improved climate of acceptance for wood products which will result in an increased share of the residential construction market. As stated earlier, the promotion programme is aimed at the consumer who, in this case, is the potential new home owner.
The total programme was initiated by a nationwide market survey among home owners on their attitude to wood and its use in housing. From the results of the survey it was possible to develop a total communications plan, the majority of which was concentrated on national activities. Mass media advertising, including magazines, newspapers, radio and television, was utilized.
A guideline to advertising was developed by the council which, some facets, corresponds to that developed independently by TRADA. The major elements of the guideline are:
1. Fact gathering Ä technical performance data and marketing data.
2. Analysis of data-definition of audience, its characteristics and the advertising message.
3. Objectives of the programme.
4. Presentation and implementation of the programme.
5. Measurement of results.
6. Basic media considerations.
The council has established a Better Housing Advisory Board, made up of builders, planners and architects, to guide the activities of the council in matters relating to the increasing tendency toward larger planned communities. Good design with wood can enhance the appeal of this type of housing-\clustered semidetached and terraced units, and the size of many of these developments, offer a large market for wood products. It is realized that the scope of the programme undertaken by the American Wood Council is beyond the present capabilities of some countries but, again, the principles can be used as the basis for similar, less detailed programmes in developing countries.
PROMOTION IN CANADA
While the American Wood Council's promotion programme is limited to the United States, the Council of the Forest Industries of British Columbia, in cooperation with the Canadian Government Department of Industry, Trade and Commerce, has undertaken a programme to promote the use of Canadian forest products not only in Canada, but also in Europe, including the United Kingdom.
In the early 1960S the Canadian forest products industry was seeking ways to increase the volume of exports, while the United Kingdom Government was looking for a solution to the problem of supplying good, economical housing to ease the housing shortage.
The first step in the long-range Canadian programme was the organization, by the Canadian Government, of a mission to Canada of influential people connected with the housing industry through either the public or the private sector. This took place in 1963, and led to the recommendation that timber-frame construction as used in Canada could and should be introduced in the United Kingdom. The problems that had to be overcome before the successful introduction of this construction technique can be described as similar to those encountered in other countries where the use of wood in construction is not common. Some of these problems were unwillingness to consider any change in the traditional methods of building, the reputation of timber in relation to durability and fire resistance, the existence of discriminatory building codes and regulations (or lack of any code at all) and the reluctance of insurance and financial institutes to consider wood or frame housing as permanent in nature.
To counteract these negative factors, the Canadian lumber and, plywood associations established offices in the United Kingdom, and in 1964 the main office in London was expanded and the British Columbia Timber Frame Housing Group was formed. The group consisted of an architect, a builder, an engineer, and timber and plywood specialists. Literature in the form of reference material, leaflets, books, etc., was prepared, and used in mailings, for supplementary material at seminars and lectures, and for handouts when establishing personal contact with authorities and contractors.
Concurrently, the Canadian Department of Industry, Trade and Commerce had undertaken the development of a programme which would complement and amplify that started by the Timber Frame Housing Group. Other missions to Canada in 1965 and 1967 further displayed the use of wood in housing to many influential housing authorities and private company executives. Participation by the Canadian Government in the International Building Exhibition in London has been successful, and has assisted greatly in the overall programme to promote the use of wood in housing.
However, the most important steps taken after the 1963 mission were the construction of three pairs of semidetached houses in different parts of the United Kingdom, and following this, the building of a 173-unit project in Harlow, a small town north of London. The six-house project was built to provide a practical demonstration of the construction methods and finishes of timber-frame dwellings, while the Harlow project was designed to show that this type of construction was economically viable in the United Kingdom when built by local builders. Films and slides taken at these two projects have proved invaluable as promotion material, while visits by builders, housing authorities, local councils and mortgage and insurance agencies contributed greatly to the overall education programme.
As a result of the public and private sector working together in this promotion programme in the United Kingdom, the number of wood-frame dwelling units constructed there since 1963 has increased over 40 times. Other agencies, notably TRADA and the National House Builders' Registration Council, have provided invaluable assistance, but the initial impetus came from the industry associations and the Canadian Government. Following the initial success of the United Kingdom programme the Council of the Forest Industries of British Columbia and the Canadian Government have initiated similar, more modest programmes elsewhere in Europe. This promotion of the use of wood in the simple, economical, timber-frame house construction technique has resulted in the building of a number of housing developments based on this method.
PROMOTION IN AFRICA
Many of the timber-rich countries in Africa are in a peculiar situation. The forest industries that have been established are generally export-oriented, and utilize a relatively small number of the available commercial timber species, so that some countries have become known for specializing in one or two major species (Ivory Coast, sipo and samba; Gabon, okoune; Cameroon, azobi and iloma). Because the production of these tropical woods is aimed at the export market, the number of species is limited to varieties well known by the trade and originate from particular regions with which trade patterns have been well established.
This has created a situation on the local markets of the African countries concerned that leaves wood in a poor competitive position. Because relatively few species are commercially processed, the volume is correspondingly limited and top-quality material is diverted into the export stream. The lower grade timber which remains is used for construction by the local inhabitants. In many cases, the situation is aggravated by the improper use of the wood and the lack of precautions against moisture, decay and insects. It is not surprising that in some areas the use of wood as a building material for houses is not regarded in a favourable light. It appears that the lack of technical and general knowledge of tropical woods on the part of the public, the industry and architects would explain the current indifference to their use in construction.
What is to be done? A great deal of information, including characteristics, properties, and the listing of tropical species in groups for potential end use, has been gathered by research centres specializing in the study of tropical woods. Much work has still to be done but a basis for studying this problem has been established. The first and most important task is to bring the available knowledge to the attention of those responsible for specifying materials to be used in housing construction. This includes the architect, builder, specifier and contractor. Seminars, conferences, technical and nontechnical papers and trade exhibitions are some of the best means of educating this group.
However, a far wider audience must be reached if eventual success in utilizing available forest resources is to be achieved. The general public, including schoolchildren, must be shown that wood is an excellent material for the construction of their dwellings, and to achieve this some type of mass advertising media could be employed- television, newspapers, films for schools, are a few suggestions. Another aspect to consider in the promotion of commercial tropical woods is the use of pilot projects to display their correct use in housing, as well as to show their advantages of appearance.
Governments and industry must contribute their full support in the effort to upgrade the reputation of wood in the countries of tropical Africa. A good start has been made, but much remains to be done before full utilization of commercially viable species is reached and the use of wood in housing is acceptable to the general population.
DISSEMINATION OF INFORMATION
One of the main problems of the forest products industries, irrespective of country, is to get the information available into the hands of the people who will be using wood-the builder, architect or home owner. However, the volume of technical literature is increasing at a rate that makes it almost impossible to keep up with developments, even in a restricted field.
Realizing this, the Canadian Department of Industry. Trade and Commerce conducted a survey of the information needs of the Canadian construction industry, with the objective of developing a system that would simplify information receipt, storage and retrieval. The survey revealed that the industry has a large and costly flow of information and is keenly interested in an efficient cataloguing system. Since a real need for a simplified method of dealing with this flow of information was apparent, it was decided to pinpoint an objective for such a system for future guidance in its development. This was to provide a comprehensive service on all types of technical, commercial and productive information to the professional members of the construction industry. It was realized at the outset that it would be impossible to develop a system that would respond to all situations and demands. The most successful approach would be to compromise between user benefits and the cost of the system, taking into account such factors as the needs of the user, the type and frequency of user requests, the cost of equipment and of transmission of the information, the total number of terms in the index or vocabulary and other factors inherent in a system of this type.
An important point that must be taken into consideration in the development of an information system is the means of communication between it and the user. The user must be able to approach the system with questions expressed in his terminology and be confident that the system will respond positively. In other words. it is necessary to use natural language rather than computer language, but within reason. A thesaurus or vocabulary of terms must be employed to enable the user to phrase his question in natural terms that will be understood by the system and will correspond to the manner in which the information can be retrieved from it.
An information system as described has not been developed on a commercial basis but the components have been defined. These can be broken into six major sections, as follows:
1. Data files(a) product data file
(b) technical literature file2. Indexes and tables-product information
(a) product/manufacturer index (book form)
(b) manufacturer/product index (book form)
(c) product search matrices
(d) comparative data tables grouped by product3. Indexes and tables-technical literature information
(a) titles index
(b) search term coding index4. Thesaurus of construction terms
5. Microfiche viewer
6. Keyboard terminal in user's office.
RECOMMENDATIO NS
It is noteworthy that the subject of promotion was felt to be important enough to be discussed at a meeting sponsored by the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), covering the topic Production techniques for the use of wood in housing under conditions prevailing in developing countries (2). The following recommendations were tabled by the participants:
1. Private industry in developing countries, in order to overcome the psychological resistance to the use of wood in housing should attempt to formulate well-planned mass advertising programmes aimed at the consumer.2. Manufacturers' associations should increase efforts to disseminate technical knowledge on available species of wood and up-to-date design procedures.
3. International organizations should provide assistance in the development of a means to collect and disseminate existing information on the preservation of tropical timber species by all known methods.
This last point was taken further in that some participants at the meeting recommended that appropriate bodies in the United Nations or related organizations should encourage and support the establishment of an effective international office to collect, catalogue and distribute information on housing research and development on a worldwide basis. This proposed office would also have the task of compiling and making available a list of academic, industrial and government institutions currently conducting research and development in housing design and in building materials.
The training of workers in the construction field is an aspect of promotion which cannot be ignored. The following is a brief outline of this subject, and does not attempt to cover completely this important and extensive field. The material was obtained from the International
Labour Office report Construction skills (1). The report covers construction in general but, while not mentioning the use of wood in building specifically, the basic training procedures for this particular sector would follow the same general line and, in many cases, would be easier to accomplish.
The training needs in the construction industry are basically no different from those of other industries, in that they must reflect the economic and social conditions of the country. However, in developing countries the principal aim in the training of workers should be to promote and expand the industrialization of building activities along the lines common in the more economically advanced countries. Industrialization, in this context, does not mean mechanization, because there is usually an abundance of underemployed human resources and a lack of financial resources that effectively rule against a capital-intensive form of undertaking. Instead, industrialization of the building trades in the developing countries will have to rely on labour-intensive methods and should include a high degree of standardization of techniques and means of production, restrictive use of scarce, highly skilled personnel, the application of economy of scale and careful, concise planning to facilitate full employment of all staff on a year-round basis.
THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY
The construction industry can be divided into three categories. The first can be described as the modern sector. Construction in this sector is frequently carried out by large, international building contractors headquartered in industrialized countries and usually concerned with large-scale projects. Only in a relatively few developing countries is there a small modern sector consisting of large national contractors familiar with modern techniques. This sector does not play an important role in developing countries having a rural economy. The second category, the intermediate sector, consists mainly of a large number of medium and small firms. It is usually the largest employer of labour in developing countries and is considered the backbone of their construction industry. Firms in this sector can undertake projects of limited complexity and use local labour techniques and materials. The third category is the traditional sector, made up mainly of individual craftsmen concerned with the construction and maintenance of both rural and urban housing and other buildings. In this sector, quality usually suffers. There appears to be little transmission of techniques from the modern sector down through the intermediate and into the traditional sector.
The construction industry in general is prone to instability. Among the factors responsible for this are climate and fluctuating economic conditions. In addition, construction in developing countries is unstable because of circumstances peculiar to their type of economy. For example, construction often represents an intermediate stage between agriculture and manufacturing and provides temporary employment for large numbers of unskilled workers moving from rural areas to urban centres.
These workers and their better trained counterparts are often employed on large projects where the construction company leaves the area when the work is finished. The people are often hired as day labourers, which tends to further increase the feeling of instability.
The conditions of work in the industry create an image which results in the work itself having lower prestige than, for example, clerical work. In fact, in some developing countries, a clerical worker may be paid a much higher wage than a skilled construction worker. In addition, the absence of adequate wage differentials between unskilled and skilled workers, hours of work, recruitment practices, shortcomings in social legislation, lack of strong workers' and employers' organizations, and the working conditions themselves, all tend to make higher skilled workers hesitant about work in construction. In general, the prejudice against construction work remains so strong that many potential recruits prefer a lower paid job to working on a building site.
Another important factor in the construction picture is that standards and designs developed in and for developed countries are seldom applicable in developing countries. In developing countries, local building materials such as timber are frequently of poor quality. Training experts have reported that this poor quality makes it difficult to achieve sound standards of workmanship on site, in spite of special training action. Therefore, steps to improve the production of building materials would assist in increasing the efficiency of training courses for unskilled and skilled workers.
It is not possible to estimate accurately the demands for trained construction workers at present and for the next few years. However, there are indications that there is a need both for additional and for better qualified construction personnel in developing countries. While long-term estimates are not completely reliable, it has been noted that a substantial increase may be expected to occur in the employment of construction workers at all levels.
Generally, large contractors are not bothered by the lack of skill of locally engaged workers, as they feel this can be overcome by short, intensive on-site training programmes or by using special work methods. The latter would consist of using prefabricated elements, breaking up jobs into components, and giving highly specialized training to maintenance crews. The on-site training is not formal and systematic but is generally left to the job foreman or supervisor. The efficiency and speed of work, therefore, depend on how this person imparts his knowledge. One advantage of this method is that after the contractor leaves the area, a pool of reasonably well-trained building workers remains.
TYPES OF TRAINING
Worker training in developing as well as in industrialized countries will range from formal to unorganized, uncontrolled on-site training. Organized programmes consist of institutional training (vocational or trade schools), apprenticeship, on-site training, accelerated training centres and special schemes such as mobile units and training in the armed forces.
Most developing countries have vocational or trade schools, but these are generally located in urban areas, are few in number and their capacity is small. In total, these institutions make little contribution to the level of skill in the construction industry for a number of reasons. In developing countries a high percentage of young people are still semiliterate or illiterate, as many drop out of primary school in the early years. Primary school graduates frequently prefer to enrol in secondary rather than vocational schools which, unfortunately, seldom give access to education at a higher level.
Another reason, as pointed out earlier, is that work in the construction industry is considered less attractive. The dropout rate from vocational schools is high, as students frequently leave when they have learned just enough basic skills to qualify them for a job. However, the most important reason for the failure of vocational schools is their lack of liaison with industry. The courses taught are frequently out of date, many instructors have no practical experience, and the lack of information on the quantitative needs of the building industry results in courses lacking meaningful direction.
Two types of apprenticeship are normally recognized -traditional and systematic. Traditional apprenticeship usually consists of uncontrolled practical training given to young people in the intermediate and traditional sectors of the industry, and in many cases it is the main form of training This system is obviously less satisfactory than systematic apprenticeship because very often the master craftsman who is instructing has little or no knowledge of modern techniques and passes on obsolete information. Also, the entry requirements for apprentices, the duration of their training and the criteria for acceptance as qualified journeymen are often based on the personal judgement of the apprentice master. In other words, the weakness of this type of training is that it fails to produce the kind, the level and the quality of skill needed for growth in the modern sector. On the other hand, of course, large numbers of young people do have some training and employment experience rather than none at all.
In recent years, many developing countries have established modern apprenticeship schemes. The successful introduction of a sound apprenticeship programme depends on a number of factors, including the availability of qualified instruction, proper facilities, appropriate syllabuses, and cooperation between training authorities. employers and workers. Unless these factors are taken into consideration the contribution of systematic apprenticeship to manpower needs will be negligible. Reasons for this are unfortunately many, and include the lack of interest among potential apprentices; standards for admission to the apprenticeship programme which are often too high; the difficulty in enlisting the support of private industry; and the fact that responsible training bodies are frequently not equipped to provide necessary guidance and assistance. Different means have been attempted to ensure the wider use of systematic apprenticeship, including the adoption of compulsory apprenticeship under legislation, the setting of compulsory ratios for the employment of apprentices and the introduction of the grant/levy system.
On-site training of adult construction workers appears to be the most common form of training newcomers to the industry. It does not develop more than narrowly specialized skill but, of course, is helpful in introducing novices to the immediate requirements of the work.
Accelerated training centres for adults have been established in several developing countries but the risk of a fluctuating demand for workers may lead to difficulties in finding suitable employment for trainees. Careful planning is required when the building of a training centre is contemplated and it is not always easy to accurately predict medium- and long-term trends. Equipment, courses and instructors must be up to date, tending to keep the cost of establishing such a centre rather high. Some accelerated training centres have proved valuable but, generally, their contribution to the training of workers is liable to remain limited.
Evening and special retraining courses for adults are of importance, but in most cases lack of suitable facilities and instructors has severely limited their usefulness.
Mobile units are playing an increasingly important role in the training of both young people and adults. They are used in two ways: first, to complement training given in a fixed centre and, second, to provide short intensive courses in limited skills. Experience has shown that mobile units can make a very useful contribution to raising the standards of construction work, especially in rural areas. Chad, Argentina and Peru all report success with this type of training. It has also been used successfully in Spain.
The armed forces in many developing countries have provision for the training of personnel in construction trades. This training adds to the pool of available workers but it is probable that few of them are of a very high level or have a broad trade coverage.
TRAINING OF PERSONNEL ABOVE WORKER LEVEL
It has been usual, in the developing countries, to establish technical colleges, polytechnics and technical faculties at universities to initiate the training of personnel for supervisory work. The main drawback in this type of training has been the lack of provision of practical experience as part of the courses, so that students are not fully competent to do the work involved and find it difficult to keep up with technological change and modern management techniques. In some developing countries, specialized training is being set up to achieve this objective, frequently in conjunction with larger construction firms. Short, intensive courses tend to be the most effective. Another reason for the lack of complete success of the schools has been insufficient liaison with industry at the planning and organization stages.
In construction work in developing countries it is usual to find a greater number of foremen on a building site. Therefore, training of this level of supervisor is important. Unfortunately, specific training seems to be lacking as there is a definite shortage of specialist bodies, such as those existing in industrialized countries, which provide programmes for promotion and updating. There also appears to be a lack of supervision for building foremen to complete training to master craftsman level before being considered qualified. This is a requirement in most industrialized countries. This is one problem which requires a great deal of thought, effort and action, as the foreman is a key figure in construction trades.
The proper training of all the foregoing groups depends on the instruction they receive, and it is reported that a shortage of instructors is largely responsible for the shortage of qualified workers. The main drawback to obtaining enough instructors has been the lack of suitable applicants. Two qualifications are usually missing-sufficient level of general education, and formal training in the building trade concerned. Salaries and working conditions also play a part.
There are two courses of action which could alleviate the situation. First, relatively short courses of instructor training from six months to a year can be given to personnel with prior knowledge and/or experience. The second involves the recruitment of personnel without knowledge or experience, such as secondary school graduates, and giving them courses lasting up to four years. In both cases, concentration would be placed on the more common building trades.
Many instructor training courses have been set up under technical cooperation schemes and involve visits of qualified specialists to update and guide the trainee. Detailed instructional sheets are another means used in this continuing effort to provide qualified instructors, and this method has been adopted by many developing countries.
FINANCING OF TRAINING
In developing countries, the government must pay the bulk of training costs. A portion of these funds may come from external financing to supplement the government's own resources, but frequently there is just not enough money available to adequately finance training programmes. To overcome this situation, several developing countries have introduced a grant/levy system. The amount of the levy is usually set in one of two ways-either it is uniform for all industries covered by the scheme, or different rates are set for different industries.
Other approaches to consider are: first, to require large firms in the modern sector, or suppliers of equipment, to train workers beyond their own needs when awarded a government or government-approved contract; second, to make better and more systematic use of financial resources available from outside the country; third, to enlist the financial support of specialist construction bodies in industrialized countries; fourth, to work toward the provision of training to improve the level of performance in the industry by using existing facilities and resources.
Industrialized countries contribute in several ways to the construction industry of developing countries. These include contributions by governments or government-sponsored agencies, and by private organizations, such as equipment suppliers. Assistance from governments is usually made through technical cooperation schemes and to date this type of help has been fairly successful. The training of personnel is usually done in the developing country, but where this is not practical a few special schemes to train workers in industrialized countries have been undertaken.
The contribution by equipment suppliers and contractors based in industrialized countries has not been as important a factor in training workers as the foregoing. First, the extent of training varies according to the volume of sales, and second, many large international contractors are not in favour of giving long-term systematic training within the framework of their activities.
One important form of contribution is that made by specialized research and development bodies concerned with the construction industry. Research into techniques for the use of wood products is part of the contribution, along with suggestions on suitable types of training to complement these.
INTERNATIONAL ACTION
Several international organizations have an interest in the training of workers in the construction industry in developing countries. These include the United Nations Centre for Housing, Building and Planning (UNCHBP), the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (Unesco), the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and the International Labour Organisation (ILO). Nongovernmental agencies include Bouwcentrum. the International Council for Building Research Studies and Documentation (CIB), the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions, the International Union of Architects, the International Federation for Housing and Planning and the International Federation of Building and Public Works. The nature of activities varies from organization to organization but all carry out research and development work connected with the construction industry and training of workers.
At the UNIDO meeting on production techniques for using wood in housing (2) mentioned previously the following recommendations on training were made by the delegates:
"Governments should be urged to devote more attention to the training of skilled workers and wood technicians from the developing countries to operate wood processing industries, either through technical assistance by delegating experts to train local staff, or through fellowships.""Due consideration by industry should be given to training of artisans to erect timber-frame houses, prior to embarking on large-scale production of such houses."
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Most developing countries have a considerable need for housing which could form the basis for industrialization of building.
Extensive mechanization is undesirable because of the social cost of large-scale unemployment and the low levels of remuneration. especially in the intermediate and traditional sector.
The use of labour-intensive methods will continue to be of importance. As labour-intensive work requires a solid nucleus of well-trained supervisors and technical staff not now being trained by existing facilities, one important prerequisite to the efficient industrialization of building activities is the reform in the organization of training.
The reform in the organization of training requires more than one strategy to improve the quality of work and the efficiency of personnel.
In most developing countries there are not enough people who can plan, develop and implement building projects.
Foreign contractors usually train workers by accelerated methods on the job site and have, in many cases, no interest in providing for the long-term training and systematic rotation of personnel necessary for their development to higher class workers.
It must be remembered that knowledge and understanding of the potentials and techniques of dwelling construction and industrializing building activities in developing countries can be only partially acquired abroad. Basically, this can be learned only by application to projects carried out in conditions existing in the developing country concerned. In some cases, only a revision of existing syllabuses and methods of training used in technical schools and universities need take place so that the initial training will be project-oriented. The courses should emphasize the hypothetically possible, rather than techniques used abroad. Furthermore, personnel training at this level will need to learn to direct high-quality work by a process of learning-by-doing and to become familiar with the social rules and conditions under which building teams operate on a site.
The status of building engineers and technicians in most developing countries tends to be lower than administrative jobs. Besides correcting this deterrent to entering the construction field, it should also be realized that programmes have to be organized in such a way that the highest number of those trained as engineers and technicians remain in construction.
In developed countries, site supervisors and foremen are usually recruited from the ranks of skilled workers. This has not been possible to any great extent in developing countries because of the inadequate education and training received by workers. The majority of workers who rise to the supervisory level usually come from the intermediate sector, although further training is necessary.
Regarding the training of workers, it must be emphasized again that this cannot always be done by the methods used in developed countries.
Training programmes should be comprised of three separate elements-provision of an adequate educational basis; systematic instruction in efficient techniques; and supervised application of these techniques in real situations.
Complete institutional training has proved expensive and wasteful in most developing countries. These countries must find their own ways of organizing training to have a permanent, efficient work force, and intensive coordination between public bodies, industry and the training institutions is necessary.
Basic training should include a substantial amount of further education. However, it must be kept in mind that a wholesale change of training practices is not practical. It must, in the first instance, be selective, both in course content and choice of student.
Experience has shown that in developing countries the best method of training young workers to the craftsman level and above is a modernized apprenticeship system, with continuing on-site training and intensive short-term courses on a group release basis during slack periods.
In the intermediate sector of the construction industry, special measures or schemes are necessary in the training field to provide an adequate supply of workers. These measures can include the use of mobile training units and the establishment of training centres to train and upgrade both the new workers and those with some basic skills.
In the traditional sector, there is an urgent need to improve sanitary conditions and habitation, and to lower the level of underemployment. These needs exist in the subsistence and marginal sectors of the economy, and large-scale training measures are required to assist the great bulk of people living under these conditions. The measures will have to cater to traditional building craftsmen and those connected with such projects as self-help housing schemes. Programmes of training within this sector must be designed so that they teach the specific skills and knowledge required at the village and community levels for improvement of housing, community facilities, roads, and so on.
Craftsmen in the traditional sector usually have little education and have had their training exclusively on the job. Their training needs are difficult to pinpoint because they need both general education and practical technical upgrading. Yet upgrading of these craftsmen is a key task in the improvement of construction in rural and small urban areas.
The principal means of training craftsmen is the extensive use of different types of mass communication media, decentralized courses of various kinds, and the apprenticeship system. Technically competent instructors should be given this task as an exclusive assignment and they should work closely with public authorities and industry.
As well as the training of craftsmen, there is a larger group of the population in the rural areas and small towns who should be taught the skills needed for self-help construction work. This should include training in essential building and maintenance skills, prevocational courses for young people, training in construction skills during military service and in the framework of various youth employment and training schemes.
The nature of the economy in most developing countries makes it imperative for governments to accept responsibility for the financing, organization and implementation of vocational training and technical/vocational education.
Before any training plan can become effective an administrative framework must be set up, taking into account the administrative practices, traditions and needs of each country. The construction industry should insist on the clarification of functions of the various agencies to ensure an efficient training programme.
The problem of improvement in training has to be solved at the national level. This does not, however, preclude the international community from playing an important part. Intergovernmental schemes, international contractors and equipment suppliers are examples of commitments made by outside interests. This trend should be encouraged.
One valuable type of assistance is the comprehensive and coherent long-term planning of technical education and vocational training to make the most efficient use of existing facilities. This is a field in which action at both national and international levels is required.
The cost of establishing specialized building research institutes is such that only a few larger developing countries have the means. Therefore it is necessary to promote cooperative effort among groups of countries and to arrange for standing agreements for research and training action in existing institutions, whether private or public.
As improving training for developing countries requires an interdisciplinary approach, specialized research organizations should work closely with the international bodies concerned.
The subject of financing of housing and community facilities is so broad and complex that it is beyond the scope of this paper to do more than touch on some of the aspects involved. As with the training of workers, the following discusses financing of housing without particular reference to wooden structures. The question of financing dwellings constructed of wood is a serious one, which has some ramifications in developed as well as developing countries. Why is there an apparent discrimination against wood when it has been used for several hundred years as a building material, and what steps can be taken to counteract this policy? To encourage the use of wood in housing, would it not perhaps be necessary to consider related questions such as the financing of forest resource extraction and manufacture?
BACKGROUND
Up to the year 1600 the world population remained relatively static. In the two hundred and fifty years to 1850 it doubled to become 1250 million, and in the hundred years to 1950 it doubled again, becoming 2 500 million. Today it is doubling every 25 years.
The creation of a habitable world by building and maintaining adequate housing in agreeable healthy surroundings, particularly for the underprivileged, is mainly a question of money. The shortage of capital for the housing sector is fairly serious, and in large part due to: first, the large volume of capital needed; second, the lack of incentive for investors to funnel their money into housing (long term, low yield); third, the apparent inability to organize the savings procedures of individuals who have traditionally supplied the bulk of capital in this sector; and fourth, the urbanization trend and the resultant expectation of higher housing standards.
Because of the persistent problem of financing, housing has become more and more a national and international concern. This has resulted in research to update construction methods and techniques through government-sponsored programmes. Social and community facilities, which include education and health, are recognized as being of national importance and for years they have been the subject of considerable legislation with large-scale national economic support. Housing has been different. It is only within the last 30 years or so that the needs of owner or occupant have become clear. As problems in housing came to light, the more recognizable the needs for added legislation became. Political problems created by inadequate housing, including the degree of government financial support, will determine much of the future of the building industry.
The trend in many developed as well as developing countries has been toward different levels of government taking an active interest in housing and urban development, an interest which is becoming increasingly comprehensive in nature. However, the ability to undertake more comprehensive programmes is limited by the availability of both financial and technical resources, and the allocation of the public resource to meet established objectives.
It is necessary to distinguish between the economic systems within which decisions on housing will be made. Three main types emerge-the centrally-planned, state-ownership system; the market-oriented, free-enterprise system; and the system which contains elements of both. Most developing countries fall into the last category, particularly in regard to production and financing of housing and related facilities.
CAPITAL REQUIREMENTS
In estimating housing needs. and hence capital requirements, three elements must be kept in mind-population increase, replacement of substandard housing over a fixed period of time, elimination of the housing shortage over the same time period. One common denominator characteristic of developing countries is the relatively low expenditure on housing as a percentage of national income. Developed countries have maintained an average of about 5 to 7 percent of their gross national product, and in some cases have allocated a higher percentage even in the early stages of development. It is recognized that conditions in individual countries will vary, but the relative rate of expenditure on housing must be kept in mind when large-scale plans are being formulated.
The following table illustrates the estimated cost involved in a programme that undertakes to provide housing and basic household facilities for 80 percent of the urban population of three developing regions, Africa, Asia and Latin America.
TABLE 1. ÄESTIMATED ANNUAL COST OF HOUSING AND BASIC UTILITIES FOR 80 PERCENT OF URBAN POPULATIONS OF THREE DEVELOPING REGIONS
|
Region |
Housing on-site costs, including financing |
Basic utilities, including financing |
Total annual cost |
|
|
Minimum¹ |
Improved2 |
|||
|
Million U.S. dollars |
||||
|
Africa |
172 |
168 |
330 |
670 |
|
Asia |
997 |
970 |
1 040 |
3 007 |
|
Latin America |
731 |
702 |
755 |
2 188 |
|
TOTAL |
1 900 |
1 840 |
2 125 |
5 865 |
SOURCE: United Nations Centre for Housing, Building and Planning.
¹Minimum: dwellings applicable to urban income levels up to the fiftieth percentile of the urban population. ² Improved: dwellings applicable to urban income levels between the fiftieth and eightieth percentile of the urban population.
It has been found that, on the average, employed workers in the three regions can meet out of their incomes the full construction costs of a modest dwelling and the basic utilities. But only the higher income groups can afford to meet full market costs of land and financing charges, and then only if these do not exceed approximately 50 percent of total construction costs. It is evident that these two costs-land and financing-must be kept to a minimum if large-scale projects to house people in modest dwellings with basic facilities are to be initiated. The alternatives are heavy government subsidization or a steady deterioration of housing conditions. The point not to be missed is that most families can afford to meet only the construction costs of the dwelling itself and a part of the land, financing and other costs.
SOURCES OF CAPITAL
Three broad categories can be identified as sources of capital for housing-public domestic, private domestic. and international sources.
The first category would include governments at all levels, and institutions substantially owned and operated by governments or government agencies in the public interest. In fully socialized economies, this would mean nearly all formal financial institutions and general and special tax funds, while in a market-oriented economy, public sources make up only a small part of the funds used for housing. In many developing countries, government (central, regional and local) constitutes the largest single source of finance for housing and related facilities. In almost all countries, housing for the lowest income groups is considered a government responsibility.
The second category is predominant in market economy countries where the bulk of housing construction has been carried on under private auspices and financed largely with privately owned and controlled funds. Examples of the type of organization supplying funds in this area would be commercial banks, building cooperatives, private pension funds and insurance companies, private development banks and, perhaps most important of all, personal savings used to finance all or part of the purchase of a dwelling. It goes without saying that this short list does not cover all possibilities but merely indicates the means and methods currently in use.
The third category, international sources, includes funds from both the public and private sector. The organizations supplying funds under the public sector include: international organizations whose membership is made up of national governments; national governments and their agencies; and nonprofit institutions. In the private sector, the flow of funds from developed countries has lagged quite significantly behind that from the public sector, and only a small percentage has been invested in housing. The basic reason for this lack of interest is the ratio of yield to risk, which in housing is such that it discourages private investment.
Numerous articles and papers have been published on the specific types of institutions and instruments for the financing of housing in developing countries. Among these are many reports from various United Nations agencies (3, 4). It might be said, however, that recent and even current housing policies have been governed by certain misconceptions, such as overemphasis on direct funding by public budgets and underemphasis of the role of individual and cooperative savings programmes. The specialized and critical functions of financial institutions call for correspondingly specialized and critical analysis of how they can best operate to mobilize and allocate resources for housing facilities. Agencies at both the national and international level could focus more attention on this type of analysis and the dissemination of findings. Ways can be found to enable these institutions to participate in internationally sponsored training programmes. The need for trained manpower in the wide range of financial, legal and administrative operations associated with housing and community facilities is as critical a factor as the need for the institutions themselves. Housing and urban infrastructure account for up to 30 percent of fixed capital formation in developing countries and that of total construction is as high as 60 percent. The demand for investment capital will continue to grow as the worldwide process of urbanization continues. Perhaps the proposal for an international housing finance corporation will be the logical sequel to these events.
The United Nations Economic and Social Council passed a resolution at its plenary meeting (5 August 1966) requesting the Secretary-General to formulate specific proposals for new approaches and institutional facilities that would increase the flow of domestic and external public and private funds into housing and community facilities, and to suggest concerted action to facilitate the implementation of these proposals.
To this end, the Committee on Housing, Building and Planning approved a work programme that included the preparation of a major report on the possibility of establishing, within the United Nations system, an international programme to assist developing countries in setting up their own home-financing institutions (4).
FIGURE 1.-Capital flow envisaged under the proposed International Housing Finance Corporation.
The Director of the United Nations Centre for Housing, Building and Planning declared during the eleventh congress of the International Union of Building Societies and Saving Associations in 1968 (6) that the United Nations was concerned with man's aims for a decent home in a decent living environment. The proposed International Housing Finance Corporation, he declared, could fill an expanding role as a world housing agency and could serve as a self-supporting institution, acting as a catalyst through the use of its resources as seed capital. The experience of savings and loan institutions recently established in the developing countries in Latin America, Africa, the Far East and the South Pacific area would give evidence of success.
In December 1969, at the invitation of the Director of the United Nations Centre for Housing, a group of housing finance experts discussed the latest ideas on the proposed corporation. These views are now being studied by the experts of the United Nations Development Programme and the World Bank.
The following is an example of the impact of a proposed housing finance loan (7). Assume the International Housing Finance Corporation loaned $1 million to a country for the establishment of a new housing savings institution. This would be matched by an equal loan from the host government. If over a medium-term period the local savings institution attracted an additional $4 million of net savings from people who have not been saving in financial intermediaries previously, the volume of financial assets would reach $6 million.
Using a loan ratio of 0.9, the $6 million now mobilized for home loans would finance mortgages of $5.4 million. Assuming an average loan of $5 000 per home, more than 1000 units could be constructed. In a country with a labour force of 5 million, 500000 workers would be employed in the construction industry. Assuming that the construction activity of the previous year was $500 million, a typical expenditure for such a country, the additional construction activity would represent a 1 percent increase and additional employment of 5 percent, or 2 500 jobs, would be generated through first-round effects.
Two conclusions are reported (8) from an outstanding recent achievement in financing in Latin America. The first pointed out that it is perfectly possible in a country which is in the process of development to make up a financial system to provide a solution to its housing difficulties, with positive results to its economy. The second is that the total solution of the problem cannot be obtained in a short period. Furthermore, success will depend largely on an adequate study of the technical problems of construction in order to extract the greatest advantage from available resources.
The gap between costs and income is a missing link. It must be provided by housing programmes, but they will not be the usual ones. Rather, they will be those which utilize the enormous potential of the people themselves and on terms which are meaningful to them.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Action at national and international levels must be taken to assist in the proper financing of housing and community facilities in developing countries. G.M. Desmond, in his summary of a United Nations paper (9) given at the Interregional Seminar on the Financing of Housing and Urban Development in Copenhagen in 1970, listed the following recommendations for alleviating the shortage of capital for housing and related urban infrastructure.
At the national level:
1. The formulation of a clear policy on the volume and allocation of savings and investment for housing and related programmes. Steps to be taken include the analysis of capital requirements in the building sector and the decision on the percentage of capital requirements from government sources and from private sources.2. The formulation of government policy to promote, supervise and coordinate financial institutions specifically designed to attract savings and to provide long-term credit for housing and related investments.
3. The creation of a central banking system for institutions which specialize in savings and long-term credit. This can include a central banking function for both national housing banks and private and mutual institutions which specialize in or give priority to housing and related programmes.
4. The government can undertake to accumulate capital under its own control through a variety of measures, including the issuance of special-purpose bonds designed to attract institutional investors, firms and individuals.
5. Compulsory legislation, tax penalties and benefits and other incentives can be adopted that require private and public enterprise to allocate a portion of annual investment or profits to housing and related programmes, either directly or through the purchase of housing bonds.
6. In countries where a number of appropriate financial institutions already exist, additional leverage can be generated by creating a capital market for securities related to housing (housing bonds, mortgages, loan participations and certificates).
7. Governments must apply their scarce financial resources and unique authority to provide the greatest good for the greatest number.
8. The central government can assist in establishing appropriate real estate tax policies and programmes in order to provide a permanent income base with which municipal and local governments can begin to meet community needs in this sector.
9. Governments should exercise strict control over the use of external funds in the building sector.
10. Land represents one of the major costs in the provision of housing and urban facilities. Government can take action to acquire land in advance and develop it for lease or sale for specified purposes; or it can employ a wide range of techniques to ensure that the value of land designated for residential and community use is not subject to speculation.
11. In order to promote viable and efficient building materials and construction industries, government can play a role mainly by providing direct financial assistance in the form of loans or by preferential tax treatment.
12. Efficiency of financial planning and management must be improved, including budgeting at national and local levels.
13. In addition to improving financial management in public operations, government can undertake programmes to train individuals who will work in cooperative, private and mutual financial institutions at various levels of responsibility.
14. In many countries, substantial and persistent inflation erodes the real value of money and is a major obstacle to the extension of long-term credit. In situations where inflation exceeds, say, 10 percent per year, it is incumbent upon government to consider taking corrective action.
15. Finally, government can take steps to ensure that the housing and urban development sector is adequately represented in the national planning councils and in the formulation of fiscal and monetary policies.
At the international level:
1. The United Nations Centre for Housing, Building and Planning, in a significant move, has recommended the establishment of an international organization to develop and support national institutions concerned with the capital requirements and investments within the construction sector. While a great many questions are still to be answered regarding this proposal, it is felt it is important enough to ask the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development to undertake further analysis and evaluation.2. The World Bank, which is now in the process of formulating policies in the whole field of urban development, should consider the following:
(a) The need to identify and make provision to deal with the effect of its loan policies in other development sectors on the demand for housing and community facilities.(b) The Bank and its affiliate agencies should give favourable consideration to the provision of loans and other assistance to help establish and support national savings and credit institutions and to increase assistance to the building materials and construction industries.
(c) The Bank should assist, through loans, in the establishment and support of land development corporations which would acquire, develop and sell or lease land for appropriate urban uses.
(d) In periodic economic surveys of developing countries the Bank should give adequate attention to conditions and needs in housing and urban development, particularly to the need for specialized savings and credit institutions.
(e) In its continuing operations the Bank should undertake research in the economics of urban development and the economic and social role of urban centres in the process of national development.
(f) The Bank should be asked to consider the desirability of establishing collaborative arrangements with the United Nations similar to those it now has with other specialized agencies to assist in the identification, evaluation and implementation of both research and investment programmes in this sector.
3. The United Nations should consider the following:
(a) The United Nations must commit itself to work on the problem at a level commensurate with need and potential yield; at Headquarters, in the regional commissions and in the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).(b) The developing countries must be helped to identify the financial implications involved and to evaluate the many alternative means of dealing with the problem.
(c) A sufficient body of knowledge on actual conditions and needs in developing countries and on the relative merits of alternative techniques in order to formulate appropriate programmes must be made available.
(d) UNDP must carry out technical assistance projects dealing with both financial and nonfinancial aspects of housing, building and planning which lead to proposals for further investment.
(e) Maximum use must be made of government and nongovernment organizations interested in working with the United Nations in this field.
(1) INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE. 1969 Construction skills. Geneva. CIRF Monographs No. 4.
(2) UNITED NATIONS INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION. 1970 Production techniques for the use of wood in housing under conditions prevailing in developing countries: report of Study Group, Vienna, 17-21 November 1969. New York, United Nations.
(3) UNITED NATIONS. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT DIVISION. 1968 Finance for housing and community facilities in developing countries. New York.
(4) UNITED NATIONS. COMMITTEE ON HOUSING, BUILDING AND PLANNING. 1970 Proposals for action on finance for housing, building and planning: report of the Secretary-General. New York. E/C.6/ 106.
(5) International assistance for housing finance. 1970 Build International, May 1970, p. 137.
(6) Proposal for a World Housing Bank. 1970 Build International, May 1970, p. 141.
(7) International assistance for housing finance. 1970 Build International, May 1970, p. 139.
(8) How Brazil finances social housing. 1970 Build International, May 1970, p. 136.
(9) Urban growth and national development: some economic, physical and financial issues. 1970 Document, Inter-regional Seminar on the Financing of Housing and Urban Development, Copenhagen, Denmark, June 1970.
BACKGROUND PAPERS
(10) GRANUM, H. 1971 Use, development and promotion of wood products in the building industry in Norway. WCH 71/7/5.
(11) GUISCAFRE, 1. 1971 Promotion de l'utilisation des bois pour la construction de logements en Afrique tropicale. WCH/71/7/3.
(12) HOLMES, B.W. 1971 A system approach to information storage and retrieval. WCH/71/7/4.
(13) LEVIN, E. 1971 Total promotion of the use of wood in housing, with particular reference to frame construction. WCH/71/7/1
(14) PRICE, B.P. 1971 Cooperative industry program an efficient way to broaden residential markets for wood. WCH/ 71/7/2.
(15) WALSH, F.N. 1971 CFI market development program to promote the use of timber and plywood in housing in the U.K. and Europe. WCH/71/7/6.
1. The function of housing is to provide personal satisfaction for the occupants as well as shelter from the elements. Because the cost of housing represents a major expenditure for the owner, it is essential that wood be promoted as a suitable building material when it can be shown that it is, or is likely to be, competitive in cost with other materials and desirable in terms of national housing goals. Wood should be considered for both structural elements and for the interior finish or decoration of all classes of houses.
2. The Consultation recommended that governments take the initiative in demonstrating the acceptability of wood by specifying substantial wood content in government buildings such as schools and offices, and especially in better houses. As well, international organizations should be encouraged to house their staffs and operations in structures containing a considerable wood element, as examples to be followed.
3. The Consultation recommended to education authorities that the teaching of subjects related to wood technology and construction be increased in secondary schools, technical schools and universities. Young citizens should thereby develop an appreciation of the value of wood in satisfying building material needs from a renewable natural resource.
4 Recognizing the possibility of dissatisfaction with wood housing by new occupants who have other traditions, the Consultation recommended that educational programmes, similar to existing nutritional and health programmes, be developed to prepare such people for the change and assist their comfortable and economic adjustment.
5. The Consultation recommended to international organizations, and to countries forming parts of regional or economic groupings or having special affinities with neighbouring countries, that regional institutes be established for the training of supervisory and teaching personnel in timber design and the use of wood in construction. It also recommended that developing countries seek invitations for visits to industrialized countries as a means of educating their architects, housing authorities, builders and workmen in the advantages and techniques of using wood in residential construction.
6. The Consultation endorsed a plan which is now under consideration to establish under United Nations arrangements a Tropical Timber Bureau with offices in Europe and North America, for the purpose of promoting the use of tropical woods in industrialized countries, with the emphasis concentrated on secondary or lesser known species.
7. The Consultation recommended that interested countries cooperate under direct arrangements or through international agencies in coordinating information on the characteristics of tropical woods, with the objectives of preventing duplication of effort in research and of determining areas of concern in which further work must be undertaken.
8. The Consultation recorded that economies of scale, continuity of supply, standardization and sustained building programmes were important factors in aehieving reductions in the cost of housing. It recognized that many governments already support the financing of housing, especially in the low-income sector, but recommended that governments not only continue, but also increase their support of programmes designed to provide more and better housing for low-income families, to the end that sufficient housing for all will become a reality.
