PART II (contd.)

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

I. General Information

Geography and Economy

• Area	:	48,442 sq.km
• Length of coastline	:	1,575 km
• Shelf area	:	8,130 sq.km
• Terrain	:	Mountainous
• Climate	:	Maritime tropical
• Population	:	7.1 million (1990 est.)
• Annual growth rate	:	2.4% (1990 est.)
• Language	:	Spanish
• Work force	:	Agriculture 35%, Industry 13%, Services and Government 23%.
• Unemployment rate	:	29% (1990)
• GDP	:	US$ 7.1 billion (1990)
• GDP growth rate	:	-5% (1990)
• GDP per capita	:	US$ 998 (1990)
• Central Gov.nt budget	:	US$ 923 million (1990), 13% of GDP
• Currency unit	:	Peso US$ 1.00 = RD$ 12.5 (June 1992)
• Agriculture	:	11% of GDP (1990). Products: sugar, coffee, cocoa, tobacco, rice, plantains, beef, and flowers.
• Industry	:	22% of GDP (1990) including manufacturing and construction. Types: sugar refining, pharmaceuticals, cement, light manufacturing, off-shore assembly operations (esp. textiles). Services, transportation and others: 63% of GDP (1990).
• Trade	:	Exports: US$ 704 million (1990) - sugar, coffee, gold, silver, ferronickel, cacao, tobacco, and meats. Imports: US$ 1.8 billion (1990) - foodstuffs, petroleum, industrial raw materials, capital goods.

Most of the information presented here is based on the sector study carried out in 1988 by Aquila I. Presently the information is being up-dated in details by Aquila II, through its sector study programme.

Fisheries Data

- Commodity balance (1989):

- Estimated employment:

• Primary sector: - NA -
• Secondary sector: - NA -

- Gross value of fisheries output: (at ex-vessel prices - 1987) US$ 22.8 million

- Trade (1987):

• Value of imports: US$ 12.6 million
• Value of exports: US$ 2.3 million

II. Status of Aquaculture Production

Species Cultured and Technologies

- Inland aquaculture

In the Dominican Republic freshwater aquaculture experiments started at the beginning of the fifties with the technical assistance of FAO, which introduced the common carp (Cyprinus carpio) and tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus). USAID first introduced the largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), the channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) and the frog, Rana caterbeiana.
During the sixties aquaculture did not make significative advances, being limited to restocking programmes started some years earlier. However, on a later date, other species were introduced like Oreochromis rendalli in 1974, Cichla ocellaris in 1976, the freshwater crayfish Procambarus clarkii in 1977, and the Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) in 1979. In 1980, when aquaculture production substantially took off, other two tilapia species (Oreochromis aureus and Oreochromis hornorum) and three Chinese carps (Ctenopharingodon idella, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix and Aristichthys nobilis) were introduced, as well as the Asian giant freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii).

Inland aquaculture in the Dominican Republic consist of various culture types as indicated below:

• Subsistence aquaculture consists of small operations owned by rural farmers characterized by low technology and a small production output of low valued products. In 1988 it was practiced by less than 100 rural farmers who produced mostly tilapia (99%) in small earth ponds (average area 400 m²). Fingerlings were provided by the Government free-of-charge.

• Semi-commercial aquaculture consists of slightly larger operations managed with a medium technology, but still integrated as a diversified agricultural activity. In 1988 it was practiced by 37 farmers who produced freshwater prawns (35 farms) and marine shrimp (2 farms) in earth ponds ranging from 0.1 to 8.0 hectares.

• Industrial aquaculture consists of private commercial firms who produce almost exclusively freshwater prawns and marine shrimps using a high technology and producing high valued products mainly for the export market.

• Culture based fisheries, practiced for the last 30 years, consists of harvesting fish from natural lakes and/or man-made water bodies, which are restocked from time to time. This activity is socially important considering that in 1988 over 1,000 fishermen earn their living from this kind of activity.

- Coastal aquaculture

Cultured marine shrimps are all penaeids and the main species are Penaeus vannamei, Penaeus stylirostris and Penaeus monodon which are imported species, while the native one, Penaeus schmitti, is only cultured extensively in a farm located in Sanchez (Samaná Province). Attempts at culturing pompano Trachinotus carolinus and Trachinotus goodei failed in the early 80's.

- Aquaculture technologies

Commercial aquaculture is almost exclusively practiced with the Asian freshwater prawn (M. rosenbergii) and various species of marine shrimp (Penaeus spp.). The technologies available locally are relatively well developed.

Aquaculture Statistics

The data shown below are the 1988 aquaculture production statistics obtained from the various culture types as indicated:

III. Policy Making, Planning and Management

The Department of Fisheries Resources (Departamento de Recursos Pesqueros - DRP) of the Ministry of Agriculture (Secretaria de Agricultura) is the public organization in charge of aquaculture. Its major functions can be summarized as follows:

• evaluation of national potential;

• preparation of programmes for the conservation and propagation of important aquatic species;

• regulation of operations and concession of permits;

• coordination with other ministries/agencies for the execution of studies or sector development programmes;

• supervision of aquaculture centres and data collection; and

• promotion of cooperatives, in collaboration with the Institute of Development and Cooperative Credit, for the production and distribution of fishery products.

In 1986 a master plan for the development of fishery and aquaculture was prepared in which the actions for the sustainable development of the sector were considered over a period of 4 years. From a legal point of view, all aquaculture activities are generally regulated by the Fishery Act No. 5914–22 May 1962, complemented by various presidential decrees.
To encourage the investment in the sector, various laws (such as Nos. 532, 311, and 469) exist, which exempt taxes to the inputs required for the development of the aquaculture industry. Foreign investment in any aquaculture activity is subject to the condition that the national capital should be at least 51%. All other legal matters related to aquaculture activities, i.e. land and water uses, permits for export, sanitary certifications, etc., are subject to the ordinary laws, without any specific reference to aquaculture.
Various non-governmental organizations (NGOs) such as the Servicio Social de Iglesias Dominicanas (SSID), the Centro de Investigación para el Mejoramiento de la Producción Animal (CIMPA), Fundación Natura, Fundación Hatillo, Fundación MAMMA Inc. are active in aquaculture in collaboration with the DRP and often assisted by foreign aid.

IV. Technical Capabilities

Education and Training

Five education institutions are involved in aquaculture related activities which offer university courses at different levels as well as carrying out specific research programmes. The Universidad Autonoma Central de Santo Domingo (UASD) is the only one, out of the five, run by the Government. The four private institutions are the (i) Universidad Central del Este (UCE), the (ii) Universidad Nacional Pedro Henrique Ureña (UNPHU), the (iii) Universidad Católica Madre y Maestra (UCAMAIMA), and the (iv) Instituto Superior de Agricultura (ISA).

Research

The Department of Fisheries Resources presently is operating the freshwater Nigua Aquaculture Center consisting of 22 ponds for a total water surface area of 8 hectares, 38 concrete tanks and a hatchery. The facility is also fitted with a laboratory, offices and storage space. The water is supplied by a bore hole 35 metres deep.
A second government-owned aquaculture center is located in Asua where a technical cooperation project with Republic of China is located.
In addition to the facilities of the Department, all the educational institutions mentioned above host some aquaculture research activities as well as the major aquaculture industries and producers.

Technical Assistance and Extension

No aquaculture extension services are provided at the present time by the Department of Fisheries Resources. The only major extension activity carried out by the Department was between 1984–1986. An intense action, funded by external aid, was carried out with the aim of transferring aquaculture technologies to the producers, which immediately ceased as soon as the funds were over.
In 1989 the only institution which provided some extension service to the subsistence aquaculture sector, was through the Servicio Social de Iglesias Dominicanas (SSID), supported by external funds. The Compañia de Desarrollo Agronegocios S.A. (DANSA), as well as other consultant firms, are presently operating in the country by selling advice and technical assistance to industrial producers. CIMPA also operated a seed production centre (carps) for distribution to Plan Sierra (familiar aquaculture in integration with livestock in mountain areas also supported by the World Food Programme).

V. Potential for Aquaculture Development

Physical Potential

According to the AQUILA I sector study conducted in 1988, the total land available for aquaculture development in the country was 17,000 hectares. However, if the minimum acceptable infrastructures necessary for the support of commercial aquaculture development, were taken into account, only 4,000 hectares of the total were considered as suitable.
The southern part of the island has large extension of soils unsuitable for agriculture which could be partly used for aquaculture.

Species

The predominant aquaculture product is M. rosenbergii which presents better cultural conditions than local native species of the same genus such as Macrobrachium acanthurus and Macrobrachium carcinus.
Other species presently cultured are tilapia (5 species), carps (5 species), Anguilla rostrata, M. spinosissimus, Crassostrea rhizophorae, R. caterbeiana, and Colossoma macropomum.

Finance

No special programmes for aquaculture development exist. Credit is granted by FIDE of Central Bank, using funds of the Interamerican Development Bank (IDB), however, not easily accessible due to the high interest rate charged and collateral requested.

VI. Fish Handling, Processing and Marketing

All aquaculture production is traded within the national market: finfish products are consumed in rural areas or sold in local markets while freshwater prawns and marine shrimps are absorbed mainly by the tourism industry.
The internal demand of crustaceans (freshwater prawn and marine shrimps) exceeds the local production (fishery and aquaculture); in 1990 on a total consumption of 1,610 mt there was a deficit covered by imports of 210 mt. However, consumption per capita remains low due also to eating habits.

VII. Conclusions and Future Developments

Conditions which could certainly favour aquaculture development in the Dominican Republic are the following:

• there exist a market for both freshwater prawns and marine shrimps absorbed by the increasing tourism industry (also U.S. market) and for finfish produced by subsistence and semi-commercial farmers;

• physical conditions are favorable for the expansion of the present aquaculture production; and

• due to past efforts made, a number of important aquaculture activities are presently on-going and technical personnel are available, however, due to the inadequate organization of the sector, are not properly deployed.

The main constraints to aquaculture development in the Dominican Republic can be summarized as follows:

• lack of a national sectoral policy able to transmit the actions of different public institutions and private investors involved in the sector;

• lack of public support for the promotion of applied research and extensions services; and

• insufficient financial incentives for prospective investors.

Therefore in order to revitalize and further promote the aquaculture industry of the country, considerable attention should be channelled to the above outlined developmental constraints by both national and international institutions and responsible government agencies.

VIII. Background Information

• Background notes: Dominican Republic - December 1991. United States Department of State. Bureau of Public Affairs. Office of Public Communication, Washington D.C. 4 pp.

• Repùblica Dominicana. Reunión Técnica de Planificación en Acuicultura, Caracas, Venezuela, 8–12 Mayo 1989. Documento de Campo No. 16. Proyecto Aquila I, GCP/RLA/075/ITA. 190–193 pp.

• El Estado de la Acuicultura en la Repùblica Dominicana. Prepared by F.X. Geraldes. Fundaciòn Dominicana pro Investigaciòn y Conservaciòn de los Recursos Marinos, Inc. (MAMMA, Inc.). Enero 1989. 81 pp.

• Estudio de Factibilidad para el Establecimiento de una Estaciòn Acuìcola para la Producciòn de Peces y Camarones en Copey. Secretarìa de Estado de Agricultura, Departamento de Recursos Pesqueros, Oficina de Manejo de Recursos. Santo Domingo, Repùblica Dominicana, Marzo 1988. 35 pp.

• Diagnòstico del Sector Agropecuario y Acuicultura: Repùblica Dominicana - Fase I. Programa FAO/BID, No. 56/88 ID-DOM 12, Mayo 1988. 50 pp.

• Agribusiness in the Dominican Republic: A Growing Industry. Junta Agroempresarial de Consultoría y Coinversión, Inc. (JACC). - (pamphlet).

• Agroempresa: Promoviendo la Agricultura Dominicana. Año 4, No. 37, Marzo-Abril 1992. 56 pp.

GRENADA

I. General Information

Geography and Economy

Fisheries Data

- Commodity balance (1990):

- Estimated employment (1991):

• Primary sector: An estimated 1,500 fishermen, 40% full-time, 60% part-time and subsistence
• Secondary sector: 100 vendors, 20 boat builders

- Gross value of fisheries output: (at ex-vessel prices - 1991): US$ 4.1 million

- Trade (1990):

• Value of imports : US$ 0.047 million
• Value of exports : US$ 1.715 million

II. Status of Aquaculture Production

Species Cultured and Technologies

- Inland aquaculture

Inland aquaculture in Grenada is currently non-existent as there are no subsistence nor commercial projects in operation. The culture of Oreochromis mossambicus was attempted in the mid-60's with very little success as the species was poorly received probably due to the local preference to marine species. In 1982 the Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) was introduced on a trial basis, however, due to the lack of financial support very little progress was achieved. In the late 80's, a pond culture project on the Asian giant freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) was funded by the Organization of American States (OAS) and operated by the Grenada Science and Technology Council. Although encouraging results were obtained from the pilot project and some interest stimulated among the private sector, there were practically no follow-up activities either from the Government or the private sector. Several farmers are presently interested in freshwater aquaculture, particularly in the culture of the freshwater prawn. However, although some efforts have been attempted, very little has been achieved mainly due to the lack of the culture knowhow and support from the Government in terms of financial incentives and technical advise.

- Coastal aquaculture

To date, no coastal aquaculture activities are being implemented on an experimental or commercial scale either by the Government or the private sector. Attempts in culturing seamoss (Gracilaria sp.) were carried out by the Artisanal Fisheries Development Project in the mid-80's with financial support of the International Fund for Agriculture Development (IFAD). Although encouraging results were obtained, no commercial operations were established due to the selection of unsuitable culture sites and theft of the culture rafts. During the same period, a Caribbean king crab (Mithrax spinosissimus) culture research project, financed by a private investor, was underway in the island of Carriacou. The project was eventually abandoned due to financial difficulties of the investor.

- Aquaculture technologies

The aquaculture technology available in Grenada is limited to the culture of seamoss, although presently no commercial project is in operation. Some experience in the culture of the freshwater prawn is also locally available, however, most of the know-how is limited to one skilled staff of the Fisheries Division. Therefore, in order for the country to develop its limited potential, applied and adaptive research are needed to develop simple technologies suitable for the local environmental and socio-economic conditions.

Aquaculture Statistics

As mentioned above, at present there are no commercial farms in Grenada neither in freshwater nor in seawater and although a handful of farmers are attempting to culture the giant prawn, the production output remains basically insignificant. It seems, however, that the on-going development in many neighbouring countries is stimulating and somewhat renovating the interest in the public sector to promote and assist the development of the local industry.

III. Policy Making, Planning and Management

The Fisheries Division (FD) of the Ministry of Agriculture, Lands, Forestry and Fisheries (MALFF) is the government office responsible for aquaculture policy making, planning and coordination of all developmental efforts directed towards the sector. The Division is headed by a Chief Fisheries Officer supported by a number of staff working in the various units mostly concerned with capture marine fisheries. Only one staff member of the Fisheries Resources Unit, has some experience in aquaculture having received two years training in aquaculture in Cuba, as well as having participated in two short training courses in seamoss and freshwater prawn culture in St. Lucia and Jamaica, respectively. The Unit is additionally staffed with one biologist and one assistant biologist which, however, have no experience nor training in aquaculture.
One of the specific objectives of the Unit is to develop an aquaculture and freshwater resources assessment programme. However, although the above objective is also highlighted in the 1992 Fisheries Division Operations Plan, no funds are allocated to the programme due to the limited funds available to the Fisheries Division as a whole (total recurrent budget for 1992 is approximately US$ 242,000).
The aquaculture sector is presently not receiving much attention nor emphasis compared to the capture fishery sector, although the Government is seeking and welcomes external support to establish aquaculture projects aimed at developing and promoting the sector as an option to the capture fishery and use of marginal agricultural land.
The activities of the Fisheries Division are programmed on an annual basis and implemented according to an annual operation plan. Apart from legislation related to land tenure, use of inland waters, sanitary regulations, etc., the only specific reference to aquaculture is made in the Fisheries Act No. 15/1986 dealing with leasing of sea areas for mariculture activities (e.g. seamoss culture).

IV. Technical Capabilities

Education and Training

No academic institutions exist in Grenada where education and training in marine biology or related subjects such as aquaculture can be obtained. Formal education can, however, be obtained at the University of West Indies either in the Campus of Cave Hill in Barbados, Mona Campus in Jamaica and in the Campus of St. Augustine in Trinidad and Tobago, although a specific programme in aquaculture is not available.

Research

Presently, there are no public facilities dealing with aquaculture research in Grenada. However, as a result of the government developmental support to the industry, a cooperation agreement with the Government of China (Province of Taiwan) was recently reached for the construction of a freshwater prawn research and training centre. To date only three earthen ponds have been fully completed on the selected site located in the northeastern coast of the island, while the construction of the hatchery, offices and logging facilities are expected to begin during the next few months (first half of 1993).
The establishment of the above facility will hopefully allow and encourage the Government, with the assistance of the Chinese expert, to develop a simple prawn culture technology to be transferred to interested farmers. The centre will also provide the necessary training to farmers and future extension officers as well as provide at a subsidized cost the prawn postlarvae to the farmers.

Technical Assistance and Extension

Due to the shortage of staff, budget constraints and lack of any research/training facilities, the Fisheries Division has been unable to provide the necessary technical assistance to farmers who expressed keen interest in aquaculture. The Division, however, feels that the new centre supported by the Chinese Government, once completed, will be able to assist the private sector in starting their own operations as well as to produce a number of technically prepared extension officers.

V. Potential for Aquaculture Development

Physical Potential

Grenada is a volcanic island characterized by a mountain ridge (highest peak: 840 m) that forms a spine throughout the length of the island. The centre of the island is covered by a relatively thick rain forest. With regard to the coastline, various sides of the island have specific and predominant characteristics. The west coast is dominated by steep cliffs alternated with rather small flat rivers outlets usually few centimeters above the mean sea level. Flat alluvial plains on the other hand dominate the north-east coast, while the southeast coast is characterized by a number of large protected bays usually associated with river outlets and alluvial platforms.
The climate of the island is typically tropical with a mild dry season lasting from January to May. The rest of the year the weather remains rather wet with a mean temperature ranging between 30–32 °C. Rainfall varies from 1,500 mm/year in the coastal areas to about 4,000–6,000 mm/year in the mountains.
Aquaculture development in Grenada would certainly be aided by the favourable tropical conditions of the island (high temperature and salinity stability all year round) and the good quality of the inland (freshwater) and coastal (seawater) waters. However, the potential developmental degree of the sector is likely to be limited by the availability of land.

According to the findings of a FAO technical mission to Grenada in 1986, approximately 100 hectares of flat lands have been identified as suitable for aquaculture operations, most of which is located along the north-eastern coast. The above mentioned land, however, belongs to private farmers and therefore a number of socio-economic constraints may additionally hinder the development of the industry.

Species

Although a number of technical and socio-economic factors could favour the development of aquaculture in Grenada, such as the good water quality, availability of freshwater supply by gravity, relatively cheap labour cost and the possibility of incentives for private investors, others seriously limit the development potential of the industry. Among the limiting technical factors are the lack of skilled staff, low concentration of wild fry of high value species (e.g. groupers and marine shrimps), and the limited availability of suitably large coastal areas. The high energy cost, the present situation of the banking system and the lack of capital on the other hand are some of the economic factors which will likely hamper the development of aquaculture particularly at the level of small owners.
A limited potential, however, does exists for the following types of culture:

• seamoss (Gracilaria spp.) cultivation using long-lines and/or floating rafts;

• culture of the Asian freshwater prawn (M. rosenbergii) and tilapia in earth ponds; and

• culture of the Caribbean king crab (M. spinosissimus) in floating cages.

Finance

The Grenada Development Bank (GDB) is the only government financing institution that provides loans to fishermen at an interest rate ranging between 8–9 % instead of 11.5 % charged by other commercial banks. However, although the same rate conditions would be applied to farmers interested in developing aquaculture projects, so far the bank has yet to receive any loan requests for such projects.

VI. Fish Handling, Processing and Marketing

The fish catch in Grenada is distinctly for the fresh fish market. There are presently eight market centres and one central facility in St. Georges equipped with blast freezers, chillers, etc.. Fish marketing is plagued by seasonal supply, species preference and the limited buying power of the consumers. With specific regard to species which could be locally cultured, handling and processing would not cause serious problems if the production is for the local market. Factors which would certainly facilitate the handling and processing aspects of the industry are: (i) small size of the country and therefore a rapid transportation of the products from one site to another, and (ii) the products would be mainly, if not totally, for the fresh market. However, in order to encourage the development of the industry other marketing and economic aspects need to be seriously analysed and considered prior to investing in any particular project. Some of the aspect which should receive due consideration are market acceptability of the product (e.g. tilapia) and production costs.

VII. Conclusions and Future Developments

Aquaculture in Grenada is not a developmental priority if compared to the capture fishery sector. However, it appears that the Government, although financially unable to channel much efforts towards the development of the industry, is willing to support international and regional activities aimed at promoting the sector. To date the aquaculture industry as a whole is still at a very early stage of development. However, with the completion of the Chinese funded centre in the vicinity of Grenville, the Government hopes to attract private interest as well as to provide the necessary and needed technical support and assistance. Finally, the above mentioned centre will also enable the country to collaborate more closely and exchange information with neighbouring countries, most of which already have some kind of research/training facility.

Considering the past actions carried out by the Fisheries Division, culminated with the FAO's Aquaculture Feasibility Study in Grenada in 1986 (TCP/GRN/6651), the short- and medium-term priorities aimed at strengthening and supporting the role of the FD in promoting aquaculture development seem to be the following:

• up-grading of the public sector in order to better acquire the capacity to assist the private sector with regard to both technical assistance and extension services;

• detailed identification of suitable areas for land-based and coastal aquaculture operations with regard to their physical and socio-economic suitability; and

• provide technical assistance and training to revitalize and continue the projects on seamoss, king crab and freshwater prawn culture.

VIII. Background Information

• Background notes: Grenada - November 1990. United States Department of State. Bureau of Public Affairs. Office of Public Communication, Washington D.C. 4 pp.

• FAO Fishery Country Profile: Grenada - December 1987. FID/CP/GRN. 4 pp.

• Grenada Country Paper - Status of Aquaculture Development in Grenada. Aquaculture Planning and Sensitization Seminar. Jamaica, 6–8 April 1987. FAO FI: TCP/RLA/6651, 151–153 pp.

• Aquaculture potentialities in Grenada - December 1986. FAO FI:TCP/GRN/6651. 57 pp.

• Grenada Fisheries Management Plan, 1992. 21 pp. - (handout).

• Grenada Fisheries Division Operations Plan, 1992. 12 pp. - (handout).

CO-OPERATIVE REPUBLIC OF GUYANA

I. General Information

Geography and Economy

Fisheries Data

- Commodity balance (1990):

- Estimated employment (1990):

• Primary sector : 4,800
• Secondary sector : 5,800

- Gross value of fisheries output: (at ex-vessel prices - 1990) US$ 61.2 million

- Trade (1990):

• Value of imports : Nil
• Value of exports : US$ 20.7 million

II. Status of Aquaculture Production

Species Cultured and Technologies

- Inland aquaculture

The freshwater Oreochromis mossambicus, Oreochromis niloticus and to a limited extent, the armoured cat fish Hoplosternum littorale, are the main species cultured in Guyana. The major producer in the country is the Guyana Sugar Corporation Ltd. (GUYSUCO), a parastatal sugar producing company, followed by a number of individual subsistence fish farmers. Today, aquaculture remains relatively underdeveloped.

- Coastal aquaculture

Coastal aquaculture mainly occurs in the brackishwater swamps along the Atlantic coast in Corentyne. Several dozen farms averaging 11 ha in size and two registered fish culture cooperatives (Resource Brackishwater Fishculture Co-operative Society (Fryish/Kilcoy) and Sea Robin Brackishwater Fishculture Co-operative Society (east Canje/Tain Settlement)) utilize approximately 670 ha of coastal lowlands in what can be described as controlled exploitation of coastal swamps for a variety of finfish and shrimp species. The eggs, larvae and juveniles of these marine species are trapped in coastal empoldered swamps during tidal inflows at high tides, and then allowed to grow to marketable size.

- Aquaculture technologies

At present the technologies adopted for culturing tilapia and the cat fish are fairly basic and crude, not to mention the present coastal activities carried out in the brackishwater swamps. Therefore, if the aquaculture industry is to develop on a semi-commercial or commercial scale, with particular attention to coastal aquaculture of marine shrimp and finfish for both the local and exports markets, more adequate culture technologies will be required. At the moment both public and private institutions do not have expert personnel capable of developing viable aquaculture activities. For the industry to develop in the country emphasis will have to be placed in the transfer of technologies as well as on applied research.

Aquaculture Statistics

Production from inland and coastal aquaculture activities has been in the range of a couple of hundred metric tonnes. In 1987 an estimated 34 mt of freshwater fish have been produced from approximately 115 ha of ponds, while an estimated 91 mt of marine fish and shrimp were harvested from 400 ha of the coastal swamps. In 1990 the production of shrimp was estimated between 200–300 kg live weight per hectare.

III. Policy Making, Planning and Management

The Fisheries Department (FD) of the Ministry of Agriculture (MA), through its small Inland Fisheries and Aquaculture Unit, is the public agency responsible for aquaculture policy making and for the coordination of all planning and development efforts directed towards the sector. It is responsible for the acquisition of data and information, formulation of policies, regulations and their enforcement. The Inland Fisheries and Aquaculture Unit was staffed in 1991 by two professionals with formal aquaculture training and five technicians. Unfortunately, due to unattractive working and financial conditions within the Department, the two professionals have left their positions and migrated abroad. At the present moment the Unit has no professional staff and therefore practically inactive. The Government is considering to retain its professional staff by providing an attractive financial package, which to date has not yet been implemented.

IV. Technical Capabilities

Education and Training

The Fisheries Department presently lacks skilled professional and support staff to execute an effective programme for the promotion and development of aquaculture in Guyana. As such it is unable to provide an adequate extension and training service to existing and potential fish farmers. One of the major problems facing the Department is the rapid turnover of trained and skilled staff, apparently due to the Government's inability to offer adequate remuneration, and thus attracting and retaining qualified personnel.
The University of Guyana, at the present moment, offers no specialized technical and degree level aquaculture courses, although there's an interest in trying to get a fisheries programme started or to incorporate specific aquaculture courses in the undergraduate agriculture courses.

Research

The Inland Fisheries and Aquaculture Unit has its main freshwater fish culture station located at the Botanical Gardens in Georgetown. The station, which has twenty-two earth ponds totalling approximately 1.6 ha, four concrete holding tanks, laboratory/hatchery space and an office, faces a water supply and drainage problem as well as being generally run down. The station which was staffed and managed by one professional and one technician is presently not operational. The Department realizes that the station requires major repairs and therefore presently debating whether the location is still suitable for any kind of research or activity related to aquaculture development.

Technical Assistance and Extension

Extension services with regard to pond culture of O. mossambicus, O. niloticus and, to a lesser extent, H. littorale is one of the main activities of the Fisheries Department. At present, however, very limited extension service is provided due to shortage of staff and facilities. In addition to the station at the Botanical Gardens, there is also one station in Supenaam/Pomeroon (Region 2) which is being run by the Regional Administration. The Station, Anna Regina Fish Culture Station, has a few small earth ponds and supposingly should provide and deliver fingerlings to interested parties as well as provide technical assistance on aspects of fish culture such as (i) selection of sites for pond construction, (ii) design and construction of ponds, (iii) fertilizing and feeding, (iv) control of disease, and (v) harvesting. The staff's extension efforts are presently hindered by the lack of adequate equipment and transportation.

V. Potential for Aquaculture Development

Physical Potential

The country is divided physically in four broad ecological zones: (i) the low coastal plain, (ii) the rain forest, (iii) the highland region, and (iv) the savannahs. It has an extensive system of rivers and creeks most of which have their sources in the mountain ranges of the south and west and flow north-easterly to the Atlantic Ocean. Guyana has an equatorial climate, its main features being high but variable rainfall, high humidity, and a relatively narrow variation in temperature.
In terms of land resources the most fertile soils are found in the coastal plains composed mainly of recent alluvial deposits of very fine clays and varies in width from 16 to 64 km. The major agriculture products for export (sugar and rice) are grown in this region and where other agriculture activities (livestock), industrial and commercial centres are also located. It is estimated that the coastal plain is less than 5% of the total land area. Most of the coastal region generally lies between 0.5–1.0 m below mean high tide level, and extends approximately 8 km or more from the coastline, and as a result the plain is subjected to flooding by seawater. Over time, protective concrete sea walls and earthen embankments were built together with a network of drainage canals and sluices to protect the coastal plains from flooding. However, due to coastal erosion and poor state of repair of the sea defences, flooding of the agricultural areas with seawater has increasingly occurred in the last decade or so. Lately the Government has been paying particular attention to the maintenance of these costly systems of sea defences as it realizes that the protection of this region is critical for the sustained economic development of the country. The high rainfall and Guyana's numerous rivers, creeks, canals, reservoirs and other water bodies ensures an adequate and constant supply of freshwater for aquaculture ponds and raceways. The high sediment load of the waters could pose a problem, but this can be partly overcome by using sedimentation ponds.
In summary, land and water availability for both pond-based mariculture and freshwater pond culture are not limiting factors

Species

Bearing into account a number of factors which determine the possibility of commercial aquaculture development in Guyana, such as markets, technologies, availability of inputs and resources, the potential exists for the following types of culture:

• freshwater pond culture of tilapia, grass carp and indigenous fish species, such as hassar (H. littorale), Colossoma sp. and lukanani (Chicla ocellaris);

• tilapia culture in brackishwater ponds;

• culture of indigenous eurihaline fish species and marine shrimp (Penaeus schmitti, Penaeus aztecus) in coastal ponds utilizing the coastal lowlands;

• cage culture of tilapia and other indigenous freshwater species in freshwater reservoirs; and

• culture of indigenous ornamental fish species.

Finance

Concessional loans for commercial farmers interested in starting an aquaculture operation, can be obtained from the Agricultural Development Bank (ADB) at a rate of interest 5% lower than that charged by commercial banks. The commercial bank rate in June 1991 was 37.5%. These rates, which were set to deal with the problem of inflation, are expected to decline as the economy stabilizes.

VI. Fish Handling, Processing and Marketing

Apart from the small-scale inshore fish port complex facilities of the artisanal fishermen cooperatives, there are four main shrimp and fish processing plants presently in operation. These plants possess shrimp and fish processing lines, blast freezers, ice machines, refrigerated trucks and cold storage facilities. The plants have a collective shrimp processing capacity of 20.7 mt/8 hrs and a fish processing capacity of 14 mt/8 hrs. The catches from the inland fishery are usually consumed fresh by the fishermen and their families or sold at local markets, while fish from aquaculture are sold in the communities. The processing facilities presently available are adequate and suitable to handle aquaculture products.

VII. Conclusions and Future Developments

In spite of the great physical potential of the country for developing both freshwater and coastal aquaculture, at the present time, significant economic activities in aquaculture are practically not existent, since (i) production is not significant (about 100 mt compared to the 40,000 mt produced from the marine capture fisheries), (ii) public sector inactive, and (iii) private sector not involved.

To promote and initiate the developmental process, it would be necessary to:

• sensitize political leadership to make available to the public sector the necessary resources to at least enable it to receive external aid;

• public sector should be strengthened in order to acquire progressively the capacity to (i) formulate a national aquaculture policy and plan of action, and (ii) undertake, possibly in conjunction with the private sector, small-scale culture trials and a pilot project in order to adapt existing technologies and demonstrate the economic suitability of aquaculture production; and

• promote and assist rural/subsistence aquaculture producers.

VIII. Background Information

• Background notes: Guyana - May 1989. United States Department of State. Bureau of Public Affairs, Office of Public Communication, Washington D.C. 7 pp.

• FAO Fishery Country Profile: Guyana - December 1989. FID/CP/GUY/Rev. 2. 5 pp.

• FAO Aquaculture in Guyana: A preliminary assessment - June 1991. FI:TCP/GUY/9151 by B. Chakalall. 38 pp.

• Development of shrimp culture in coastal ponds - Proposal for a Project Document - June 1991. 48 pp.

• Fishery Section of the National Agriculture Development Plan of Guyana 1987–1991. 103–109 pp.

• Guyana Country Paper - Aquaculture Planning and Sensitization Seminar. Jamaica, 6–8 April 1987. FAO FI: TCP/RLA/6651. 154–163 pp.

JAMAICA

I. General Information

Geography and Economy

Fisheries Data

- Commodity balance (1989):

- Estimated employment (1986):

• Primary sector : 12,000
• Secondary sector : 24,000

- Gross value of fisheries output: (at ex-vessel prices - 1986) US$ 23 million

- Trade (1986):

• Value of imports : US$ 25.5 million
• Value of exports : US$ 1.70 million

Species Cultured and Technologies

- Inland aquaculture

Commercial freshwater fish farming in Jamaica began to have a significant economic impact approximately 15 years ago as a result of a joint Inland Fisheries Developmental Project of USAID and the Government of Jamaica. The tilapia Oreochromis mossambicus, present on the island since 1946, was rejected as a culture species in 1978 in favour of the lightercoloured and faster-growing Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus, which was more acceptable to consumers. By the end of the 70's almost 16 mt of foodfish were produced, rising to 140 mt in 1983, of which more than 80% was produced by the private sector. However, it was not until the introduction of the red hybrid variety from Florida in 1983 that the consumers began to consider farm-raised tilapia as a acceptable alternative to marine fish, resulting in major expansion of its production. Over 70% of the island's tilapia farms are located in the south-central plains of the parishes of St. Catherine and Clarendon where the soils contain more than 25% clay. Traditionally, this land has been used for sugarcane farming and, therefore, the existing extensive irrigation systems conveniently provide the infrastructure for the water distribution and drainage canals needed for fish farming. The predominant production unit is an earthen pond, excavated in the soil to a depth of roughly a metre and diked with excavated earth for an average depth of 1.0–1.5 metre. The great majority of farms are less than 10 ha in area (average pond area 0.4 ha), while only a handful are larger than 30 hectares. Presently, Aquaculture Jamaica Ltd., a subsidiary of Jamaica Broilers Group Ltd., is the largest company operating in the sector. The firm operates approximately 85 hectares of ponds divided among its two farms at Brumdec in St. Elizabeth and at Toll Gate in Clarendon.
Other species reared include the common carp (Cyprinus carpio), the silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix), the grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus), the cachama (Colossoma macropomum), and the Asian giant freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii). These species are mostly polycultured on a few farms, however, their culture remains secondary and represent a very small fraction of the total fish production on the island.

- Coastal aquaculture

Virtually all aquaculture production in Jamaica derives from culturing freshwater finfish (mainly tilapia), and although there is a strong local preference for marine fish (e.g. snapper, parrot fish, etc.) so far no commercial activity is presently in operation. The only two marine organisms of interest in terms of their culture possibility are the Irish moss or seamoss (Gracilaria terete, generally referred to as G.T.) and the mangrove oyster (Crassostrea rhizophorae).
In Jamaica the seamoss is widely collected from the wild mainly to produce a bottled drink. The demand for this seaweed as a food is rapidly increasing while the natural stocks are diminishing due to over-harvesting and improper cropping techniques. For example, Mussons Jamaica Ltd., Food Factory Division, uses approximately 1,000 kg of dried seamoss per month to produce two different brands of canned seamoss drink. The factory sometimes has to import the raw material from the Philippines if the local harvesters cannot satisfy the demand. Given the above situation, the Government of Jamaica, through the Inland Fisheries Unit (IFU) of the Fisheries Division, requested technical assistance from FAO/RLAC to train extension officers and potential farmers in seamoss cultivation. A national training course was therefore organized in September 1990 with the technical assistance of the Fisheries Division of the Government of St. Lucia. The present number of seamoss farmers throughout the island remains rather low, however, it appears that the interest towards this culture practice is still very much felt. Possibly one major problem which has somewhat discouraged farmers to culture seamoss is the problem of locating suitable sites as well as theft. In order to further promote the culture of seamoss, the IFU suggested that demonstration farms be established in several fish sanctuaries in order to minimize theft, and if proven successful the farmers would be allowed to establish farms. Similarly, the mangrove oyster (C. rhizophorae) was also identified as a possible culturable species which could contribute to reduce the fishing efforts along the coast. As a result, the Oyster Culture (Jamaica) Project was instituted in 1977 through the cooperation of the International Development Research Centre of Canada (IDRC), to conduct biological and production-orientated research on the oyster. To date a basic system for culturing the mangrove oyster in Jamaica has been developed, however, its commercial culture is still at an early stage. The oyster project at Bowden is presently being managed by the IFU and its main activity is to produce spats to supply the farmers.
Both seamoss and oyster culture in Jamaica have strong potential to develop into viable commercial activities mainly as a result of the strong local demand, especially for seamoss. Although more work is needed, the existence of a marketing outlet could be the main factor towards the successful development of seamoss and oyster farming in Jamaica.

- Aquaculture technologies

Although the culture technology for tilapia production in Jamaica has developed to a relatively high standard, the technology as a whole is in a continuous ferment of development as new hybrids, selection techniques and reproduction management systems are constantly evolving. The larger operations appear to be fairly self-sufficient in technology identification and implementation as well as being relatively helpful to the smaller commercial farms. There is some degree of self-interest in these endeavors as the firms with processing facilities require increase product flows from surrounding commercial farms to ensure the economic viability of their investments. Presently these plants are operating below 50% of their capacity (e.g. 5,000 kg are processed daily in one shift at the Brumdec facility of Aquaculture Jamaica Ltd.). Small-scale operators are highly variable in the interest and ability to absorb new technology. Investment in the larger operations will certainly benefit this segment of the industry if the extension service is capable of retaining contacts with a broad array of individuals as well as providing meaningful assistance to their operations. Otherwise, new technology may expand production among the aggressive, capable core of the industry, while the benefits of simple, readily adopted improvements will slowly diffuse to the small-scale and subsistence sectors.

Aquaculture Statistics

In 1989, more than 2,700 mt were produced by 160 farms from approximately 625 hectares of ponds. Aquaculture Jamaica Ltd. is the largest single producer on the island. The combined production from its two facilities averaged approximately 900 mt/year. The firm presently also handles and process an additional 160 mt/year produced from contract farmers. Tilapia production in Jamaica is expected to further increase, particularly as more farms are being established through the assistance of the Government and Aquaculture Jamaica Ltd., through its contracting policy.
Outputs from the other cultured freshwater species (carps, Colossoma and freshwater prawn) still remains rather low, with an estimated total production not exceeding 200 mt. The production of some of this species, particularly the Asian freshwater prawn, is most likely to increase as a result of the interest being expressed by the private sector.

III. Policy Making, Planning and Management

The Fisheries Division (FD) of the Ministry of Agriculture (MA) is the government agency responsible for the development of the aquaculture industry. The Division is headed by a Director who reports directly to the Permanent Secretary. However, due to the Government programme on restructuring and divestment of the Public Service, which entails a reduction of staff in the Ministry of Agriculture by approximately 20%, the Fisheries Division and the Inland Fisheries Unit are currently staffed with only three professionals, i.e. Acting Director, Acting Deputy Director and Head of the Inland Fisheries Unit. Although the staff of the Ministry is being reduced, the Fisheries Division is presently finding it difficult to retain its few permanent qualified personnel due to the fact that the private sector is offering a higher remuneration package than the public sector.
The present structural and organizational changes being implemented by the Ministry also includes the ownership and management of the aquaculture installation at Twickenham Park, presently under the direct supervision of the Fisheries Division. The new management setup of the above facility, which is likely to see the participation of the private sector (the Fish Farmers Association has expressed an interest in acquiring it) and an educational/research institution (e.g. the University of West Indies), could positively contribute towards the local industry as well as have a strong regional impact. As part of the Government's structural adjustment and divestment programme, the Ministry of Agriculture will focus on policy and regulatory functions. The present activities and objectives of the MA are out-lined in the Five Year Agricultural Development Plan (1990– 1995) which primarily relays on the private sector for their implementation. With regard to aquaculture, the target of the five-year plan period is to produce 11,300 metric tonnes of fish (mainly tilapia) and 680 metric tonnes of shrimp from approximately 2,000 ha.

IV. Technical Capabilities

Education and Training

The University of West Indies (UWI), Mona Campus, is the only tertiary educational institution in Jamaica. The Department of Zoology has long been involved in aquaculture research and presently offers a course in this field in the final year of its degree programme, as well as research post-graduate courses (Ph.D. and M.Phil.). Attached to the University are The Discovery Bay Marine Laboratory and the Port Royal Aquaculture Facility, where fundamental and applied research and training in marine sciences and aquaculture are carried out, respectively.
The Inland Fisheries Unit (IFU) of the Ministry of Agriculture is the government agency responsible for the promotion and development of fish farming in Jamaica. Research and training programmes of the IFU were initiated in 1979 based on the principle that the creation of a body of well-trained producers, technicians and extensionists was critical for establishing efficient aquaculture farms. To date, although the IFU is still capable of conducting short production oriented training courses at the Twickenham Park facility, the potential involvement and active participation of the Unit has been highly reduced due to funding constraints.
Training in tilapia farm management and production is presently also made available by Aquaculture Jamaica Ltd. who occasionally organizes short-term courses available to all interested parties at a weekly fee of J$ 20. The firm has also expressed their interest and willingness to collaborate with the UWI and the IFU in organizing training courses as well as participating in applied and adaptive research programmes.

Research

Twickenham Park, under the management of the Inland Fisheries Unit (IFU), is the only Government facility presently involved in applied aquaculture research of commercially valuable freshwater finfish (tilapia, carps and Colossoma). Although its activities have recently being severely hampered due to greatly diminished research funding and organizational and management changes, the centre conducted important work on seed production, evaluation of potential feeds, optimal stocking densities and alternative production schemes. The centre is, however, still fairly well equipped with office space, laboratory, a hatchery and 28 small earth ponds.
The Department of Zoology of the UWI also continues to remain active in aquaculture research mainly focussing on (i) growth of red hybrid tilapia in seawater and sex-reversal, (ii) laboratory rearing of the white shrimp Penaeus schmitti, (iii) larval rearing of the spiny lobster Panulirus argus, (iv) spat rearing of the mangrove oyster C. rhizophorae, and (v) culture of the Irish moss (Gracilaria sp.). Most of the above research is being carried out at the Port Royal facility which covers approximately an area of 600 m². The major components of the facility are the main culture room (hatchery), an algal culture room and an experimental laboratory. A second facility attached to the University is the Discovery Bay Marine Laboratory, located in the northern coast of the island. The Laboratory, although presently facing a shortage of staff and research funds, has been very active in studies, mostly academic, related to various aspects of the marine environment, while most of the applied research conducted at the facility was on fisheries projects. Up-to-date the only research activity related to aquaculture carried out at the Laboratory focussed on the culture of the Irish moss (Gracilaria sp.) as a mean to create employment among people in coastal communities as well as to attempt to reduce fishing efforts along the heavily exploited coastal waters.
The research programme of the University of West Indies has partly being responsible for the increasing research efforts of leading farmers and agribusiness firms operating in the sector. Aquaculture Jamaica Ltd. and Fellowship Aquaculture Farms Ltd. are two of the leading tilapia operations which are conducting a series of research trials aimed at further improving the available culture technology (e.g. economics on aeration, aeration and density, sex-reversal, etc.). Both firms are principally involved in tilapia farming, however, research activities are being conducted on the rearing of the freshwater prawn (M. rosenbergii) and ornamental fish by the former and latter company, respectively.

Technical Assistance and Extension

Technical assistance and an effective extension programme was carried out by the IFU in the late 70's and 80's when tilapia cultivation technology was completely new to most farmers. During the Government of Jamaica/USAID projects, the majority of the technical personnel at the IFU were involved in extension. The senior officers had graduate training and all the extension officers were graduates of the Jamaica School of Agriculture (JSA) and thus had some exposure to aquaculture before joining the IFU. However, they were subjected to four months of in-service training before being assigned to the various parishes. Extension services included site evaluation and surveying, supervising pond construction, provision of fingerlings, advisory farm visits, rental of fish handling and other equipment, and assistance in stocking, sampling, harvesting and marketing of the catch. However, as the industry expanded, the competition for trained personnel meant increased salaries, benefits and better conditions of work. After the completion of the Government of Jamaica/USAID projects, the IFU lost its “special project” status, leading to a decrease in salaries and a substantial budget cut. As a result the IFU lost most of its technical and some of its support staff to the private sector. Therefore, the present capability of the IFU has been seriously undermined mostly affecting the small farmers who greatly benefitted from the aquaculture development programme and extension services.

V. Potential for Aquaculture Development

Physical Potential

Jamaica is the third largest island in the Caribbean with a total land area of 10,991 km², located in the Greater Antilles approximately 145 km south of Cuba and 160 km west of Haiti. The island's topography consists of a highland interior, formed by a backbone of peaks and plateaus running almost the entire length of the island, surrounded by flat coastal plains. Over half of the island lies more than 350 metres above sea level. The coastline (885 km long) is edged by long, straight cliffs, mangrove swamps and beaches.
The coastal plain is less than 3.2 km wide along most of the north coast and in some areas along the south coast. In some places the plains widen to form broad embayments, the most extensive of which are located at the eastern and western ends of the island and the Clarendo and St. Catherine plains on the south coast, where most of the tilapia farms are located. The coastal plains and interior valleys are the prime agricultural lands. The climate is humid and tropical most of the year, while average annual rainfall is 196 cm.

Species

An increase interest in aquaculture projects is presently being manifested by the private sector, however, most of the attention is still directed to the culture of tilapia in freshwater ponds. However, taking into account a number of geo-physical and socio-economic factors which determine the possibility of commercial aquaculture activities in Jamaica, it appears that the potential also exists for the following types of culture:

• pond culture of the Asian freshwater prawn, M. rosenbergii;

• mariculture of seamoss (Gracilaria spp.) using long-lines and/or floating rafts;

• mariculture of tilapia and other marine finfish in floating netcages;

• shrimp farming (Penaeus vannamei) in earth ponds and/or land-based tanks; and

• oyster culture (C. rhizophorae) on racks.

Finance

Funds for agriculture and rural development have been made available to Jamaica by several international aid agencies such as the International Fund for Agriculture Development (IFAD), Canadian International Developmental Agency (CIDA), U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), Interamerican Development Bank (IDB), and the Caribbean Development Bank (CDB). The Agriculture Credit Bank of Jamaica Ltd. (ACB) was established by the Government in 1981 as the central institution responsible to consolidate and channel credit to the agriculture sector. The objective was to provide credit to the agriculture sector, whose portfolio included inland fisheries and aquaculture, on a timely basis and preferential rates.
The ACB obtains funds from international and local sources and lends these funds through financial intermediaries, such as commercial banks and People's Co-operative Banks, to the agriculture sector. Agro-industry loans, which includes fish farming, are available for financing existing and new agri-business, pre-investment studies for the identification and development of new projects and providing consultant services for on-going operations. When interest rates on non-preferential commercial loans were between 25–28%, ADB loans for agriculture development were between 12–15%.
The National Development Foundation of Jamaica (NDFJ) is a non-profit organization with the main objectives of (i) strengthening the economic base of small businesses by providing credit facilities (at competitive rates) to persons involved in manufacturing, services, commerce and agriculture activities (including aquaculture), and (ii) improve the quality of business skills and practices through the provision of business guidance as well as technical services and training. The NDFJ currently provides credit at competitive interest rates (presently at 25%, whereas the commercial rate is 40%) to small-scale tilapia and oyster farmers, and, where necessary, technical assistance and training to secure their loans. NDFJ obtains funds from GTZ (German Technical Cooperation Programme), USAID, Jamaica Agriculture Development Foundation and the EEC at reasonable rates of interest.

VI. Fish Handling, Processing and Marketing

The red tilapia is marketed in many product forms, especially live, gutted and scaled, and fillet, largely through an extensive local small-scale fish marketing systems of higglers, small-scale distributors and directly through the producers. Local distribution has been enhanced by the relatively high per-capita local demand for fish and its relatively low price compared to the marine fish against which it competes. With regard to the export market it is only recently that the total fish production is approaching volumes adequate to support a significant export market. Aquaculture Jamaica Ltd. is currently exporting a significant fraction of their production mainly to the USA (Florida and New York) and some European cities (London, Paris and Bruxelles). Most of the export product (90%) goes out as whole fresh fish while a smaller percentage as fillet.
With regard to oyster, the bulk of the production is consumed fresh therefore presently eliminating the need for any form of processing. A well defined marketing system also does not exists as the majority of the oysters are sold by vendors in communities usually in the vicinity of the culture or natural oyster grounds. However, should oyster culture expand in terms of its production output it is foreseen that a careful marketing strategy will have to be implemented to familiarize a wider range of potential consumers to the product. Seamoss is usually sold dried and bleached in the markets, packed in small plastic bags or sold to the processing industry (Mussons Jamaica Ltd., Food Processing Division) at 4–6 US$/kg of dried product for the manufacturing of canned seamoss drinks.

VII. Conclusions and Future Developments

As a result of the growth of tilapia farming in Jamaica in the last decade, aquaculture can be regarded as a fairly well established agro-industrial activity, with a definite possibility of expansion. The technology developed for culturing tilapia is adequately established and therefore the further growth of the sector will likely depend on the organization of the production output and expansion of the present market. As a result of the development of the industry, the public sector, following its initial role and significant contribution towards the progress and support of aquaculture as an economic activity, is presently limiting its functions to the legislation, planning and overall control of the sector. Therefore, also the government Twickenham Park research facility, although still active, will most likely undergo a major organizational change, which may also include its ownership and management.
Finally, the aquaculture research which is presently being conducted by the UWI and several of the private firms operating in the sector, is mainly focussed towards the development of new technologies for tilapia culture (e.g. new hybrids, cage culture in seawater, etc.) as well as adapting existing culture technologies for other aquatic organisms of interest to the industry (e.g. oysters, shrimp, seamoss).

Jamaica has been rather successful in promoting and developing its aquaculture industry, however, further research, training and circulation of information is needed to ensure that a new generation of entrepreneurs and industry leaders continue the dramatic growth led by the individuals trained by the Inland Fisheries Development Project (1979–1984).
As a result of the on-going re-structuration of the Ministry of Agriculture and privatization policy being carried out by the Government, a number of actions deemed to be necessary, either through international assistance or internal resources, for the further support and development of the industry are likely to be the following:

• support to the public sector in terms of re-defining its functions and relations to the other public and private institutions operating in the aquaculture industry, in connection to the on-going process of privatization;

• reinforcement of the planning and management capacity of the public and private sectors;

• research (i) aimed at improving culture technologies in used, (ii) introducing and adapting technologies on other species of commercial interest (especially marine organisms), (iii) on post-harvest handling, conservation and product development, and (iv) aimed at improving local and export marketing strategies;

• circulation of scientific, technical and extension information as support to the research in progress and to the industry as a whole;

• detailed survey of the coastline aimed at identifying suitable sites for mariculture activities (e.g. floating netcages, longlines, racks, etc.) as well as inland site evaluation.

VIII. Background Information

• Background notes: Jamaica - February 1990. United States Department of State. Bureau of Public Affairs, Office of Public Communication, Washington D.C. 4 pp.

• FAO Fishery Country Profile: Jamaica - December 1988. FID/CP/JAM/Rev. 2. 5 pp.

• Freshwater Tilapia Culture in Jamaica - March 1991, by Fred Hanley. World Aquaculture 22 (1). 42–48 pp.

• Tilapia Farming in Jamaica - November 1988, by B. Chakalall and P. Noriega Curtis. Contribution to the 41 st Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute. 35 pp.

• Diversification of Aquaculture and Training. Technical Report - September 1987. TCP/RLA/6651 by Pedro Noriega Curtis. 555 pp.

• Subtidal Culture of the Mangrove Oyster Crassostrea rhizophorae in Jamaica - November 1989, by Kingsley Richards. Oyster Culture (Jamaica) Project, Ministry of Agriculture, Hope Gardens, Kingston. 13 pp.

• The Development of a Low-Technology Oysterculture Industry in Jamaica - by B. Wade, R. Brown, C. Hanson, L. Alexander, R. Hubbard and B. Lopez. Proceedings of the Thirty-Third Annual Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute, San Jose, Costa Rica, November 1980. 7–18 pp.

• Report on National Training Course in Seamoss Cultivation. Kingston, Jamaica, 17–21 September 1990. FAO Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean. RLAC/91/103-PES-21. 11 pp.

• Aquaculture in the Department of Zoology, University of the West Indies, Mona Campus - July 1990. 7 pp. - (handout).

• University of the West Indies: Annual Report 1990/1991. 15 pp. - (handout).

• Jamaica Aquaculture Industry Assessment. Draft Report - September 1990, by Thomas J. Popma, Upton Hatch and Joseph Molnar, International Center for Aquaculture, Auburn University, Alabama, and Franklyn Ross, Aquaculture Jamaica Ltd. 47 pp.

• The Development of Commercial Farming of Tilapia in Jamaica 1979–1983. Prepared by T.J. Popma, F.E. Ross, B.L. Nerrie and J.R. Bowman. 18 pp.

• Planning and Development of a National Aquaculture Programme: A Jamaican Aquaculture Case Study by R.R. Moo-Young. FAO/CARICOM/MOA Aquaculture Planning and Sensitization Seminar, 6–8 April 1987, Jamaica. 89–99 pp.

• History and Status (Summary) of Tilapia Farming in Jamaica - by N.W. Boyd. FAO/CARICOM/MOA Aquaculture Planning and Sensitization Seminar, 6–8 April 1987, Jamaica. 191–198 pp.

• Jamaica Five Year Development Plan 1990–1995 - December 1991. Published by the Planning Institute of Jamaica in association with the Ministry of Agriculture, Kingston. 50 pp.

• Prospectus 1992: Share Issue. Jamaica Broilers Group Limited. 38 pp. - (pamphlet).