ANNEXES (Cont.)

Annex 16
Air Distribution Capacities to Singapore, Hong Kong and Japan

Air Distribution Capacities to Singapore¹

¹ Air Capacities are subject to change without notice; based on third quarter 1980 international airline schedules. Source: Official Airline Guide.

² TG = Thai, SQ = Singapore, CX = Cathay, CI = China

³ Assumes following capacities: B 747 = 24,000 kgs., DC10 = 16,000 kgs., L10I1= 16,000 kgs., A-300 = 14,000 kgs., DC 8/707 = 3,600 kgs.

Air Distribution Capacities to Hong Kong¹

¹ Air Capacities are subject to change without notice; based on third quarter 1980 international airline schedules. Source: Official Airline Guide.

² LH = Lufthansa, TG = Thai International, JL = Japan Airline, KE = Korean Airline, AF = Air France, CX = Cathay, CI = China, GF = Gulf Aviation, AI = Air India, SR = Swiss Air, AZ = Alitalia.

³ Assumes following capacities : B 747 = 24,000 kgs, DC-10 = 16,000 kgs, L 1011 = 16,000 kgs, A-300 = 14,000 kgs, DC8/B707 = 3,600 kgs.

Air Distribution Capacities to Tokyo¹

¹ Air Capacities are subject to change without notice; based on third quarter 1980 international airline schedules. Source: Official Airline Guide.

² MS = Malaysian Airlines, LH = Lufthansa, JL = Japan Airlines, PA = Pan Am, KL = KLM, TG = Thai, SK = Scandinavian, GA = Garuda, PK = Pakistan, AZ = Alitalia, BG = Bangladesh.

³ Assumes following capacities: B747 = 24,000 kg, DC-10 = 16,000 kg, L 1011 = 16,00 kgs, A-300 = 14,000 kg, DC 8/707 = 3,600 kg.

Annex 17
Tables and Specifications for the Standard
for Shrimp/Prawn Used in Japan for Importation

Source: Japan Marine Products Importer's Association

TABLE OF SIZE/WEIGHT CONFORMITY

Note: For Macrobrachium, the estimated weight for each prawn will be twice the stated values if with head-on.

SCORE TABLE FOR JUDGEMENT
(Where weight of unit is more than 1 kg)

SCORE TABLE FOR JUDGEMENT
(Where weight of unit is less than 1 kg)

SPECIFICATION FOR MARKING

Annex 18
Processing and Packing Specifications

Type of Boxes

Box No. 1 - Styrofoam box (L 48 cm × W 35 cm × H 32 cm)

Box No. 2 - Corrugated fiberboard box (L 42 cm × W 30 × H 25 cm)

Box No. 3 - Box No. 2 line with 1 inch thick styrofoam sheet

Packing materials

1. Dry ice

2. Water absorbing paper-newspaper

3. Polyethylene sheet

4. Gummed tape

Experiment #1

Packing methods

1. Lined the box with polyethylene sheet

2. Approximately 2/5 of dry ice was put on the bottom of the box

3. Wrapped the prawn with wet newspaper and placed on dry ice in alternative layers

4. Used 1/5 of dry ice between each layer of prawn and put the rest of dry ice on the top

5. Wrapped polyethylene sheet over the product and seal the container with gummed tape

6. Kept the container at room temperature

Experiment #2

Two boxes of those No. 2 and No. 3 were used. Packing materials were the same as above with addition of moistened and cooled sawdust (2°C).

Packing methods

Packing procedure was the same as Experiments #1 except that the quantity and type of packing media were changed as indicated in Table 2.

Annex 19
Ratio of Prawn and Packing Media and Quality of Prawn in Experiment 1

* Ratio - D : P = Dry ice : Prawn

Annex 20
Ratio of Prawn and Packing Media and Qaulity of Prawn in Experiment 2

^* Ratio D:P - Dry ice : Prawn
D:S:P- Dry ice : Sawdust : Prawn
S:P - Sawdust : Prawn

^** Box No. 3-2 was kept in refrigerator at 4–6°C

Annex 21
The Relationship between Changes in Time and Temperature

Experiment 2

Annex 22
History of the Brine Shrimp Industry

First records of the brine shrimp (Artemia sp.), date back to 1975 in works of Schosser (ref. Kuenen - 1939 and Baas - Becking - 1931). Although these references were scientific in nature, it is known that Artemia was used long before by some ethnic groups in Africa as human food source. As described by Lloyd Cabot Briggs in “Tribes of the Sahara”, “Small water worms… are collected and pounded together with a little salt until the mixture becomes a black paste, which is then rolled into balls the size of a big orange and set out in the sun to dry. The finished product is then eaten using a greasy sauce with millet or barley bread” (Los Angeles Times, August, 1979).

Brine Shrimp is a “filtering animal” which exists in saline bodies of water, usually absent of all other forms of predation. In different parts of the world, it is referred to by such names as brine worms, dood, dud, salt worms, and water boatmen. The adult animal is 8 to 10 mm long, has eleven pairs of thorocopods, stalked lateral eyes, and sensorial antennalae.

Most natural occurances of brine shrimp are found north of the Tropic of Cancer or the South of the Tropic of Capricorn. This observation is most likely related to the life cycle patterns of Artemia and climatical conditions associated to most equatorial regions. Under normal seasonal conditions (four seasons locations), brine shrimp display oviparity behavior (production of cyst or eggs). This behavior pattern is usually triggered by increasing salinity from summer evaporation, lack of food, decreased oxygen levels, and by decreasing temperatures during the fall. Cyst production is the propagation mechanism to carry the organism through the winter months. During the spring, rainfall, or snow melt-off dilute the high saline waters, triggering cyst metabolism and subsequent hatching to complete the seasonal life cycle.

In equatorial regions harboring Artemia, the organism displays oviviparous (internal egg production with live birth), as well as oviparous behavior. Salinity and temperature tend to be the more important factors as to whether cysts are produced. At lower salinities (usually less than 70 parts per thousand), brine shrimp generally are oviviparous and seldom produce cysts.

Observations of many tropical locations like the Philippines, Christmas Island, Colombia, and Venezuela, seem to indicate that precipitation maintains the salinas at the lower ranges. Often, when the salinity drops below 80 ppt (from seasonal monsoon), predation becomes the main barrier to further propagation (Tilapia mossambica has been observed in Artemia ponds of 75 to 80 ppt.)

Salt Lakes, land-locked estuaries, brine ponds, and salterns with Artemia are found all over the world (see map at end of this Annex). The phyllopod is highly adaptive to ecological conditions and has been known to exist even in crystallization ponds. Under such conditions, primary food sources for the animal come from the limited bacterial and algae species which can survive the high saline conditions. The harsh environment, while limiting food sources to monoculture of specific algae groups, also provides the only source of protection for the organism from predators commonly found in marine waters.

Prior to the 1930's, brine shrimp had little commercial value and was primarily used for physiological and morphological study. In 1939, Rollefsen first linked the importance of using newly hatched Artemia salina (nauplii) to the larval development of the fry in marine fish. Since then, it has been widely recognized that the nauplii of brine shrimp is the key to the development of aquaculture, both for ornamental tropical fish and more importantly for commercial food production. The importance of Artemia for aquaculture was recently posed as a question to the scientific community at the First International Symposium on the Brine Shrimp (Corpus Christi, Texas, August, 1979):

“Why do herbivores and carnivores alike, tend to prefer this food substance (Artemia) over their natural diets… an organism which exists in none of their natural habitats?”

During the 1940's, most commercially available brine shrimp products (mostly cysts), represented collections from natural saline lakes and tidal estuaries. With the growing interest for tropical fish as a hobby in the late 1940's, commercial value was attached to brine shrimp, thereby establishing the industry. Early industry pioneers exploited the cyst production of Artemia in 1951 at the Great Salt Lake in Utah. First harvests of the Lake yielded in excess of 16,000 kgs. of finished product, with a market value exceeding Baht 3,000,000. While commercial exploitation of natural sources proved to be economically viable, it was by and large highly unpredictable. During the mid-1950's, commercial attention for brine shrimp was turned to controlled sources for production in the San Francisco Bay region. Here, it was found that brine shrimp and their cysts could be produced as a by-product of salt evaporation operations. Since salt production entails controlled salinities during the evaporation process, yearly cyst and bio-mass productions could be predicted.

The industry as it exists today, consists of five forms of brine shrimp products. Artemia is sold live, catering mostly to the freshwater and marine tropical fish hobbyist. Most live sales are limited to metropolitan areas of close proximity to the production source. Frozen distribution is widespread in the United States and Europe, and also targets for the tropical fish hobbyist as the major consumer. Freeze dried brine shrimp and brine shrimp flakes are diet supplements intended for hobbyist consumption. Perhaps the most commercially important product for aquacultural use is the cyst produced by the animal. Nauplii which hatch out of the cysts are one of the few “perfect” foods found to facilitate proper larval development in most crustacea cultures (shrimp, prawns, crabs, lobsters, etc.,), brackish water and saltwater fish rearing programs. It is also used as the cornerstone nutrient for most developing tropical fish fry.

The locations from which Artemia may be harvested for study or for commercial value are numerous. At least six sibling species are known to inhabit the more than 125 identified sources of brine shrimp. Of all locations however, only seven are currently considered economically viable as a result of productive capacity or by proximity to market. Of the seven production sights; San Francisco Bay (California), Great Salt Lake (Utah), Buenos Aires (Agentina), Sharks Bay (Australia), Mono Lake (California), Macau (Brazil), and Chaplin Lake (Saskatchewan), only Macau represents a non-natural occurance location (innoculated by man in 1977).

Recently, innoculation experiments in Thailand, India, Mexico, and Peru have shown favourable results. While production levels in these countries are still experimental, proper development may turn these areas into commercially viable sources.

References

Baas-Becking, L.G.M. (1931). Historical notes on salt and salt manufacturing. Science Monthly 32: 434–446.

Kuenen, D.J. (1939). Systematical and physiological notes on the brine shrimp Artemia. Arch. neerl. Sool. 3: 365–449.

Annex 23
Artemia Cyst Inspection and Hatch Evaluation Methodology

1. Visual Inspection:

   1. Check for debris factor/cracked shells with low power stereoscope.

   2. Consistancy check - where does product level measure up to in the tin? How much settling or head space is there in the tin and is this level consistant from tin to tin. Measure the cyst weight/volume relationship.

2. Moisture Test:

   1. Weigh out one gram ± 1% of homogenized product. Set in petri dish to which scale has been adjusted for tare of the dish.

   2. Place in dehydrator, not to exceed 60 degrees Centigrade for 15 minutes.

   3. Reweigh sample to ± 1% and determine percent weight lost.

   4. Acceptable levels should be not greater than 8% and not less than 4% moisture content.

3. Refrigeration: Before any test is conducted on cysts kept in cold storage, cysts must be allowed to stand at room temperature for at least a week. Similarly, cysts to be used or hatched for larval feed will hatch out with better results if the cysts are allowed to stand at ambient temperature for a week, if the cyst is stored in cold storage or in a refrigerator prior to use.

4. Hatching Solution Preparation:

   1. Mix hydration/hatching solution to prescribed levels of special gravity for each strain (usually recommended by manufacturer or producer).

   2. Place solution in separatory funnel to 1 litre volume and insert aeration tube (straight standard glass pipette tubing adjoined to airline is sufficient). Aerate to “roll” solution well to water rim in funnel. Mark 1 litre level on funnel.

   3. Emerse funnel on stand into circulating water bath heated and maintained at 27°C by a thermostatically controlled heater. Water should constantly be circulated by submersible water pump. This system will assure constant water temperature for all testing funnels placed in the same bath.

5. Total Number of Dry Cysts per Gram Determination: Synopsis: In order to determine a true percentage of hatching efficiency, total dry cysts/gr must be determined. Cysts will vary is size and density depending on the strain of Artemia used and/or within the same strain if the cysts have been harvested at different times during the production season.

   1. Weigh out representative samples of 1 gram of cysts to ± 1%. If testing several tins, separate tests may be run on each tin, or tins can be homogenized for single batch tests.

   2. Place one gram sample of cysts in hatching funnel and let hydrate for two (2) hours, however after one hour, wash down sides of funnel with squeeze water bottle (wash bottle), to re-emerse cysts pulled to sides by capillary action.

   3. After 2 hours of hydration, and before determination of dry cyst/gr procedure, again, wash cysts from sides of funnel. Fill solution back to the 1 litre mark to compensate for evaporation.

   4. One (1) ml samples of cysts and solution should be drawn with an automatic 1 ml pipette, midway in the funnel while aeration is in process. Make sure no bubbles are drawn with sample.

   5. Discharge pipette on large viewing glass slide or large petri dish drop by drop to matrix sample. This procedure allows for easier viewing under low power stereoscope (40 power sufficient).

   6. Under stereoscope, count only hydrated cysts (not debris). Test four sub-samples from each funnel to minimize counting error.

   7. Total dry cysts/gr is then determined by multiplying mean cyst counts (average) by 1,000.

6. Determination of Hatching Efficiency:

   1. Follow procedures in 5(a) through (e) except no cysts counts will be made.

   2. While tests are normally run for 48 hours, some institutions will test at 24, 36, and 48 hours. Procedures outlined here are for 48 hour tests.

   3. When pipette sample containing nauplii has been discharged onto glass slide or petri dish, make sure pipette tip is washed down to get any nauplii that may have adhered to inside of tip.

   4. Expose slide or petri dish to infarred heat source to kill nauplii, but do not evaporate sample droplets in the matrix. An alternate procedure to immobilize the nauplii for counting is to anesthetize the nauplii.

   5. Count nauplii under stereoscope, including in the count only fully formed nauplii that are separated from the shell. Exclude deformed nauplii from count. Do not count shells or debris.

   6. Total nauplii/gram is then determined by taking mean counts (average) of nauplii and multiplying by 1,000. Again, to minimize counting error, it is suggested that four sub samples be taken from each funnel.

   7. Record date, time, temperature, salinity, and counts.

7. Determination of Percent of Hatch: To compute the percent of hatch, divide the nauplii/gram by the dry cysts/gram extracted from procedures 5 and 6 above:

Annex 24
Existing Static System

Most rai in production utilize static systems of production. Static systems allow salinity to increase within the same pond over a wide range before the water is moved to the next pond for further evaporation. Static systems are evident where land holdings may be limited (total ownership of a farmer under four ponds or where total rai is not sufficient for alternative considerations). Static systems require support ponds from which it draws water of a certain salinity range and ponds to which it discharges higher salinity waters it has processed. Through expanded experimentation of the Chacheongsao Fisheries Station, most static systems currently producing cyst have been Trenched, allowing for better temperature regulation. While static systems are capable of producing cysts, the Artemia popultaion is not necessarily kept at optimal densities for maximizing the production of cyst. Four major disadvantages to the systems are: 1) Different ranges of salinity tends to foster different cultures of algae/phytoplankton. 2) Artemia populations may physiologically adapt to the salinity change, affecting the level of oviparous versus oviviparous tendencies, 3) during the periods of evaporation, there is little circulation allowing some stagnation, and 4) there is little control over the fertilization/algal bloom/Artemia population blooms/algal depletion/Artemia population crash cycle which often occur in static systems.

Currently, these ponds are Trenched and all fertilization occurs in same pond.

Annex 25
Alternative Cost Matrix per Productive Rai (in Baht)

¹ Estimates of current costs for escavation from engineering staff at Chacheongsao Fisheries Station.

² Artemia production alternatives presented represent by-product operations from salt production systems. Pumping cost are assumed by the salt operations since farms are not intended for complete conversion to Artemia production.

³ Fertilizer cost based on used of chicken manure; 200–300 kgs per rai per month. In some regions where manure is not readily available, use of urea may result in higher cost.

⁴ Assumes unskilled labor to collect by net, the daily cyst production (30 days per month) and fertilization. Daily labor rates used = 47฿. Time requirements for collection is 40 minutes per day or 3.92 ฿ per day maintenaince.

Calculations of Escavations and Total Water Depth

Assumptions: 1) All calculations use a standard rai measuring 40 m by 40 m.

2) All existing salt evaporation ponds have an average depth of 30 cm.

3) Trenches are escavated 2 m. wide.

30 cm Trench: Earth removed = 96 cubic meters (40 m ×2 m × 30 cm × 4 sides = 96 cubic meters).

Water depth = Original water depth = 30 cm, escavation depth = 30 cm, berm addition from escavation = 30–40 cm. (assumes berm width of 1.5 meters), total water depth after escavation = 100 cm.

60 cm Trench: Earth removed = 192 cubic meters (40 m × 2 m × 60 cm × 4 sides = 192 cubic meters).

Water depth = Original water depth = 60 cm, escavation depth = 30 cm, berm addition from escavation = 60 cm (assumes berms width of 1.5 meters), total water depth after escavation = 150 cm.

Annex 26
Modified Two Stage System

The modified two stage system is a series of two ponds which maximizes the efficiency of salinity range for cyst production. The system differs from the currently used static system in that each of the two ponds is maintained at relative constant salinity, one flowing into the other at a rate equal to maintain the salinity of the second pond. The salinity between both ponds may differ by as much as 40%. This difference is used to stimulate and accelerate cyst production (oviparous tendency). The two stage system requires more management by the farmer to control salinities and maintaining the difference between ponds. It also requires the trenching of both ponds or a doubling of investment (Annex 25). In starting up the system, salinity is stablized by filling both ponds from surrounding other salt production ponds to achieve the desired salinity levels in each. Like the static system, the two stage requires “support” ponds from which to draw input water and to discharge higher saline water (into crystalization ponds).

Annex 27
Flow Through System

The flow through system is based on a series of ponds, each with a succeedingly higher salinity. All nutrients flow through the system, therefore pond management is accomplished in the bio-mass pond. Salinity management involves the regulation of flow such that all ponds become more saline in the direction of flow without stopping the flow.

Pond Designator	Water Depth in cm		Desired Salinity	Designation
	Per meter	Center
				Predation
A	30	30	50–80	Elimination
				Primary
				Fertilization
B	30	30	70–100	Innoculation
				Secondary
				Fertilization
C	100–150	30	100–140	Primary
				Bio-mass
				(Trenched)
D	100	30	140–160	Secondary
				Bio-mass/Cyst Inducement
				(Trenched)
E	30	30	160–200	Cyst Production
				Die off Pond
F	less than 30	less than 30	over 200	Crystalization

Annex 28
Adaptation of Flow Through System to An Existing
Salt Evaporation Pond

Not all farms will be ideally designed to create linear flow through systems as described in Annex 27. The concept of flow through systems however, can be implemented with some modification to existing designs without affecting salt production. For example, a salt farm 12 rai in size (Chacheongsao Province) is depicted as it exist today and under the flow through. Reference pond designation A-F in Annex 27.

Annex 29
Incremental Processing Costs for Three-fold Expansion at Chacheongsao Fisheries Station

¹ Assumes technician is committed full time to cyst processing at Chacheongsao, labor cost for skilled technician = ฿ 4,000/month, source Dr. Y. Shang, 1980.

² Based on 250 productive rai each yielding 8 kgs wet weight of cyst/month.

³ All equipment cost amortized over first six month processing season.

⁴ Only Labor cost applicable to second and subsequent seasons.

Annex 30
Current Pricing Structure of Brine Shrimp
Cyst Available in Thailand

(Cost/Pricing Levels/kg)

¹ Production cost vary depending on economics of production units. Since most all commercial units are currently by-product operations from salt production or natural harvest from lakes, actual production cost include some level to cover cyst harvesting labor, pond modification, and harvesting hardware. Where capital input is required for cyst production, the cost includes amortization.

² Processing Loss factor is caculated as the cyst waste factor required to bring the product up to marketing/competitive standards. In the case of Thai cyst, the ratio is two to one; ie. two kg of cyst needed to extract one kg of saleable cyst with minimum performance levels of 70% hatchability.

³ Processing Labor and overhead is figured at 15% of the Processing Loss factor value and include contribution for processing, utilities, quality control, packing and labeling.

⁴ Low and High Price levels determined by average of price range F.O.B. U.S.A. of four major supplying companies.

⁵ F.O.B. Thailand price for domestic sales established by survey of Macrobrachium hatcheries.

⁶ C.I.F. Thailand landed price computed at 130% of export F.O.B. price at origin.

⁷ Agents commission estimated at difference of Landed cost and Selling price in Thailand May include commissions of middlemen in Thailand.

⁸ Selling price of imported cysts obtained through survey of Macrobrachium hatcheries.

Annex 31
Alternative Production/Revenue Matrix per Productive Rai¹

¹ Productive year is assumed to run from January through June, while November marks the start of dry season, the first two months of each dry season is generally non-productive and represents startup dwell time for phytoplankton/algae culturing, fertilization, pond modification and repair.

² Revenue paid to salt farmers engaged in Artemia production is artificially high to encourage the development of the industry. Farmers are paid 350 ฿/kg wet weight for their production. Processing reduction for Thai cysts is currently at 50%. Therefore, dry weight or processed cost is 700 ฿/kg. No processing, marketing, commissions (or operating profits) are currently computed in farmer's revenue and such functions are now performed by the Chacheongsao Fisheries Station as subsidized developmental assistance to promote the production aspects.

³ Fully allocated cost - see Annex 33.

Annex 32
Farmer's Profitability Matrix of Alternative Production Systems¹
Per Rai Per Month Under Different Pricing Structures

(All Figures in Baht)

¹ Profitability Analysis in Annex 32-1, 32-2, 32-3.

Annex 32-1

Profitability Analysis of Alternative Production Systems¹
Per Rai Per Month Under Current Pricing Not Fully Allocated Costs
(All Figures in Baht)

Annex 32-2

Profitability Analysis of Alternative Production Systems¹
Per Rai Per Month Assuming Full Cost Allocation and Competive
Pricing Structure with Imported Brine Shrimp Eggs
(All Figures in Baht)

Annex 32-3

Profitability Analysis of Alternative Production Systems¹
Per Rai Per Month Assuming Full Cost Allocation and Pricing
Structure for Export Similar to Foreign Cyst at Origin
(All Figures in Baht)

¹ Cost assessments from Annex 25; Revenue assessments from Annex 31.

² Amortization assumed over two seasons on 12 productive months (6 productive months/season), including construction and support hardware costs.

³ Average of cost range used.

Annex 33
Persons (in addition to Marketing Section) Contacted or Interviewed