The major commercial seaweeds of the South China Sea Region can be treated as shown in Text Table A. Of the genera in the Table only the species of the brown algal genera, with the exception of Sargassum, are well known. There is active work in the taxonomy of Eucheuma and Gracilaria but it is not yet at the “manuscript stage” insofar as the Far-western Pacific is concerned. It is reported that the late Dr. Yukio Yamada, long Professor of Phycology of the University of Hokkaido at Sapporo, Japan, had prepared a very significant manuscript on the taxonomy of the genus Sargassum before his death recently. Its publication should be encouraged.
Text Table A. The Principal Seaweed Phyla and their Common Genera Producing Commercial Gels in the South China Sea Area
| Phylum and Genera | Gel products produced | |
| PHAEOPHYTA (brown algae) | ||
| Sargassum | Alginates, tannins and phenolics | |
| Turbinaria | Alginates, tannins and phenolics | |
| Hormophysa | Alginates, tannins and phenolics | |
| Cystoseira | Alginates, tannins and phenolics | |
| RHODOPHYTA (red algae) | ||
| Eucheuma | ||
| (“cottonii” types) | Kappa carrageenans | |
| Eucheuma | ||
| (“spinosum” types) | Iota carrageenans | |
| Gracilaria | Agars | |
| Pterocladia | ||
| (“gelidium” types) | Agars | |
| Gelidiella | Agar | |
| CHLOROPHYTA (brown algae) | None now used for gel extraction | |
| CYANOPHYTA | ||
| (Myxophyta) | None now used for gel extraction | |
There are many other seaweeds having potentially useful natural products in the Region but their listing is not germane to the present report. An obvious category of marine agronomy, the production of micro and macro algae as food for aquaculture animals, is omitted. With some exception the seaweeds often eaten whole in the Region by people include, somewhat in order of abundance, Caulerpa, Eucheuma, Gracilaria, Porphyra and Hydroclathrus. Caulerpa is the only one of these farmed for human food, and it is farm produced for but this one purpose. To the novice it is a green algae that is not quite grass green and a few centimeters tall. It generally consists of erect feather-like or grape-like fronds arising from a cylindrical green rhizome prostrate on the mud or sand where it is commonly found.
The other table seaweeds mentioned are used in relatively very small quantities. Perhaps because of the Japanese tradition efforts have been made or considered for farm producing Porphyra within the Region. However, the Japanese, who are extremely able in growing this genus, do not find it profitable to farm it south of Northern Kyushu and thus it seems certain Porphyra farming in the Region would not be a first choice as a probably successful industry to introduce.
Hydroclathrus is harvested from the wild crop and may be but small brown potato-like thalli with many large holes in the surface. It blooms in about April in the northern hemisphere where at a fertile site individual thalli may become 20 to 40 cm in diameter.
Eucheuma and Gracilaria are occasional table vegetables but the use is very minor. Such use is generally from the wild crop. Their farm production is taken up below.
As sources of drugs, Digenia produces kainic acid, an accepted vermifuge. It grows intertidally widely in the tropics as hemispheres of harshly yet fine erect fronds up to 10 cm tall and each frond a small brush like a feather duster. The wild crop is harvested, dried and exported. There is no farming of this seaweed. It seems it would be relatively easy to farm. No records of the amounts or values are available.
Physiologically active principles have been isolated from Caulerpa to date (Doty and Santos, 1966; Santos, 1970). In addition, it contains both taraxacol and cholesterol in some concentrations (Santos and Doty, 1974). To some extent the former two active principles are smooth muscle relaxants and thus tend to lower blood pressure in experimental animals. Should commercial interest in one of these compounds arise, Caulerpa from which they could be extracted could be farm produced. Farming it is already traditional in some places.
Gels, the dollarwise most important algal product category to be discussed, are of three major characteristics. The kinds in commercial use and the major generic sources in the Region as found in the different algal phyletic categories are shown (Text Table A).
Following, based on all information available, is a series of sections containing first order appraisals of the seaweed opportunities in each country of the South China Sea area. The general arrangement is south to north as shown by the numbers on the following (Fig. 1). It is impossible to place tonnage or dollar values on this resource for any of the countries involved.
This country has traditionally produced about 1/2 to 1/4 of the world's supply of Eucheuma and before the early 1960's produced perhaps over nine-tenths of the crop. There is as yet no seaweed farming; though the opportunities are vast. While much of the taxonomic information on the Old World tropical seaweeds comes from Dutch work done in Indonesia, there is essentially no ecological information regarding the habitats or ecology of the species (Mubarak, 1974; 1975). There is little information on the extent of the habitats favourable for seaweed production.
The quantitative appraisal of any area made of a myriad islands, reefs and other potential seaweed production areas scattered over an area about the size of the United States cannot be done without investment of a good many man-years of professional attention. A great deal could be done by aerial photographic mapping of intertidal areas and horizontal sub-tidal reefs covered by less than one metre of sea water of extreme low tides. While some such aerial photography has been done for the conventional purposes requiring precise maps for terrestrial objectives, it is certain to be very incomplete for the marine regions. The rewards of such mapping would extend far beyond attaining the seaweed goals. They would provide the provinces and countries with reliable swamp forest management.
No country in the world has a greater opportunity than Indonesia does to advance the welfare of as many coastal people through production management of its very shallow water reef and intertidal areas. This statement is issued with confidence yet from but a very few first hand visits and poor sampling through occasional incidental observations, history and almost chance gatherings of information from people with first hand knowledge.
While a careful several months of travel would help interviews and access to the existing photography and large-scale maps could provide an areawise estimate of the potential and the information needed for designing goals of a programme which could be implemented. However, no such plan carried out in a given region, for some unexplained reason, could be expected to succeed in any reasonable time. Nor could seaweed production be expected to succeed without the ready return to the producers of a fair share from the sale of the products of their labours. Some professional, managerial and technical level personnel to supplement local inputs would have to be provided for in Indonesia and in the other countries of the Region.
FIG. 1. THE SOUTH CHINA SEA AND ADJACENT WATERS SHOWING STUDY AREA
Perhaps one year of highly competent data gathering combined with, of followed by, intensive training of a cadre of specialists would provide the personnel qualified to develop and manage mobile teams in the different promising areas which, with other features of an introduction scheme, could lead to the desired ends most quickly. Some of the other “features” might be distribution of teaching materials in the school systems and working with the established merchant and local community groups in each province, district or village as appropriate.
Prime target areas, for a variety of reasons, might include the Anambas, Natuna and the other islands of the Riau Archipelago, the islands east of Kendari, South East Sulawesi provice and those north of Menado, North Sulawesi as well as the Kei, Aru and Tanimbar islands, all of Mollucas province. The lesser Sunda islands (including the eastern Bali islets and shores), Timor and the eastern Mollucas are known production areas. Actually an initial team could be formed in Udjung Pandang, South Sulawesi most easily and thence move into one after another of the above-mentioned or other areas. Cooperation of the Lembaga Penelitian Perikanan Laut (the Marine Fisheries Research Institute), the Lembaga Oceanologi Nasional (the National Institute of Oceanology), Lembaga Biologi National (the National Biological Institute) and the Directorate-General of Fisheries should be sought.
The relatively small size of Singapore along with its programme of land extension mitigate the seaweed opportunities, though per unit of area they are good. Eucheuma of both the kinds producing iota- and kappa-carrageenan are present. Gracilaria is present among the agar weeds and Sargassum is abundant. As in the case of Hong Kong, the small local supply could be augmented and a processing plant supported, as Singapore is a traditional commercial centre for these seaweeds.
Lacking reefs and having shores dominated by strongly fresh water influenced mangrove forests, Gracilaria or other similarly finely branched seaweeds would be the ones to be considered. However, the generally high level of income and the lack of site immediately available are not encouraging for the introduction of seaweed production at present.
It appears seaweed farming supporting a thousand families can be introduced and developed within a four-year period. This conclusion is based on observations made and information gathered for the northwestern and north-eastern coasts of West Malaysia and for East Malaysia. Aerial and ground surveys were made along these coasts on intermittent dates during 1971–74 in East Malaysia and, in West Malaysia, during the period of November/December 1975 and October/November 1976. Seaweed specimens were gathered and analysed or deposited in the consultant's laboratory and herbarium at the University of Hawaii in Honolulu.
West Malaysia - The most immediate and socio-economically significant seaweed development would appear to be the farm production of Gracilaria species. The production may be sold for local utilization and eventually local processing or export products might be developed. A preliminary assay of some of the properties of the agar gel, which have been found in some Malaysian species during the present survey, is most encouraging. At the time (July 1977) such seaweeds for processing in Europe, Japan and the United States were bought F.O.B. at over US$300 per ton, dried to 30 percent water. Thus, immediate sale to overseas buyers for export should be realizeable as soon as production begins and sufficient exportable stock is accumulated. No other immediately promising seaweed opportunity was identified.
There is no precedent to follow for tropical farming of Gracilaria outside of Taiwan province of China. In Taiwan annual yields of 3 to 5 tons per ha of Gracilaria are commonly realized. However, production up to 11 tons/ ha/year can be obtained. Quite different species (incidentally with a quite inferior gel) are used and the farming is in the fishponds.
Of the Gracilaria species judged most suitable for farming here, two were found growing in abundance in the west coast, on the middle ground between Penang and the mainland. The substratum is of the very soft nonsticky dark gray mud apparently characterizing much of the Perak, Penang, Kedah and Perlis shores. Seed stock could be obtained from this Middle Bank site as all phases of the life cycle were found in abundance during the period June/July. If other species, upon further analysis, prove more desirable, they could be easily imported when not already present.
It is anticipated that the best grounds for farming may be low in the intertidal zone inshore of the richer shrimping grounds. Along the most northwest coast of Peninsular Malaysia, in the Langkawi Islands and southward beyond Pulau Pangkor, there is some 150 miles (240 km) of shore in which there appear to be many potential farming areas (the only survey work north of Penang was aerial). There is perhaps 21 miles (34 km) of coast which, in segments a few miles long each, will be found of prime value. Such segments are anticipated near, e.g. Kuala Kedah and elsewhere in the Yan-Kota Setar districts, Tandjung Dawai, west coast of Penang, Tandjung Piandang, Kuala Kurau, Port Weld and possibly opposite Pulau Pangkor.
The relationship to the Anadara (cockle) farming areas is unknown. Should they be overlapping, it is likely a synergistic effect would obtain from farming both types of organism.
Farms large enough to provide a family more than mere subsistence are suggested. Based on experience with Eucheuma in the Philippines, a family usually cannot manage a plot larger than one-hectare.
Let us assume there are about 500 prime stretches of coast each 100 m long available within the 21 mile (34 km) coastline and that each is sufficiently broad so that 3.5 tons of Gracilaria could be produced on each per year. For each ton produced, if the marketing system is so developed, the farmer could receive half of the F.O.B. price. If so, some 500 families could receive incomes of US$400 to US$500 per year. Incidentally, seaweed farming, like pondfish rearing, need not take so much of the time and effort of a family that its normal subsistence activities are reduced significantly.
Implementation of the farming of Gracilaria could perhaps be developed over a four-year period as follows. However, from previous experience, it is expected it will take five years to exceed the target number of families suggested. The proposal to carry out the project is summarized (ANNEX A).
Year 1 goals
Appraise selected Gracilaria species growing around Penang for seasonality in respect to phenology and gel content.
Obtain appraisals of the value of the selected species.
Develop, for farm size design purposes, estimates of the productivity of the selected species.
Adopt marine agronomic practices for the selected Gracilaria species.
Identify sites for the initial introduction efforts.
Engage industry interest for purchasing.
Year 2 goals
Harden the bases for development by a reappraisal of the preliminary estimates given above in the light of the Year 1 results.
Introduce the farming of one or two selected species at several potential development sites.
Obtain definition of farmers' rights to protect and produce a crop, e.g. government provision of the legal right of a farmer to carry on marine agronomic practices in the intertidal region of concern.
Year 3 goals
Establish interim means of paying cash for seaweed brought in by the fishermen-farmers.
Encourage private citizens to begin farming through utilizing extension teams of local people hired and trained to carry on demonstration farming.
Adopt or develop the overall organization of farmers (associations, cooperatives) and marketing (exporting) to be used.
Seek governmental adoption of a set of guidelines for completion of the project by the Year 4 activities.
Year 4 goals
Commence export marketing.
Encourage expansion of the farming.
Gradual withdrawal of expatriate technical support.
Encourage development of continuing governmental supervision and support for the industry.
Development sites, methodology adaptation trials and within Malaysian coast is suggested at this time as being input provided by the Fisheries Division of the Malaysian Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. Expatriate assistance to the extent up to US$5 000 would be required the first year for consultancy expenses and expenses for laboratory analytic work on the gels as well as production of gel samples for appraisal and the work of attracting industry interest. In succeeding years, less expatriate assistance and little or no laboratory work would be needed.
There is the problem that no one on Malaysia's fisheries staff is trained in the combination of marine phycology and plant physiology. This makes expatriate assistance necessary. This training could be obtained perhaps if during the course of the project the Fisheries Division were to be encouraged to establish research and extension positions for such marine agronomists. Fisheries should also be encouraged to foster the training of Malaysian citizens so as to fill the personnel required to continue with this project after Year 4, introduce it as appropriate elsewhere in Malaysia (e.g. on the east coast) and be productive in doing so.
East Malaysia - No specific study has been made as yet of Sarawak. There are reputedly some small reefs offshore. All the shore seen has been very narrow or mangrove. Therefore, it appears that the principal seaweed production opportunities may be in polyculture combination should fishponds be constructed. However, Porphyra is produced and sold locally in Kuching markets. It appears to be a soup-grade of what the Japanese would call akusaka nori. While it is possible its present production from wild crop grown in the Bintulu area is threatened by construction of a liquified natural gas facility perhaps it could be cultivated elsewhere along this same coast. Especially with the influx of tourists from the north, the sheets into which the Porphyra is dried should find a ready sale in the South China Sea Region.
For seaweed production Sabah can be divided into five areas: west coast south of Kota Kinabalu, including Labuan; Kota Kinabalu northward and the offshore South China Sea islands; Balabac Straits; Murudu Peninsula and eastward including the northern and western shores of Darvel Bay and the Semporna Peninsula; finally the reefs and islands in the Semporna area. The possibilities for the west coast south of Kota Kinabalu are unknown. The west coast area north of Kota Kinabalu is devoid of reefs though the bay at Kota Kinabalu is largely reef-filled to the south of Pulau Gaya and would possibly be a good Eucheuma area for production of the “cottonii” type of seaweed. However, it is being filled for city development and it is heavily trafficked by movement of boats all of which mitigate realizing its value for seaweed production. However, there is a real potential here for waste water purification through production of industrial seaweed. The offshore islands have not been surveyed closely but, being surrounded by narrow reefs suggests reef algae could be produced there in minor quantities. Northward from Kota Kinabalu it appears there are various areas that should be studied for their Gracilaria production potential and there may be some potential for alginate producing seaweeds.
The Balabac Straits area abounds with reefs suitable for the introduction of Eucheuma farming. There are problems to be solved, e.g. most of the reported stocks of Eucheuma are on non-inhabited reef areas. However, there are many opportunities on the inhabited islands for this seaweed and for alginate producers as well.
The marine algae of Thailand are being completely studied but only taxonomically. Much of the shore line is mangrove, sandy or mud. Thus, seaweed for agar from polyculture or farming Gracilaria on unconsolidated bottoms offers the greatest opportunity for development.
Classically, Songkhla has been a major source of Gracilaria for export to Japan. Production is declining, as the Fisheries Records of Thailand (1973) show, and almost all the crop is now consumed domestically. There are several reports on environmental changes resulting in fluctuations of the fisheries relevant to the problem of reduced seaweed production in the Songkhla area. There is a master plan for development of this area available. A member of the faculty of the Asian Institute of Technology1 hopes to study Porphyra and Gracilaria production and promote their increased production in Thailand, and he should be encouraged to do so.
The west coast of Thailand is not well known scientifically. However, the seaweed taxonomy has been started by an expatriate staff of the Marine Biological Centre in Phuket2 with encouraging results. On culture, it should not be difficult to introduce Gracilaria production. One might suppose the species known from the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia, to the south, would be found here and they appear to be of good commercial quality.
The short coastline and the reputedly extensive mangrove shores lead to the conclusion development of the mangrove areas could lead to production of Gracilaria. Unfortunately, this shore is virtually unknown phycologically.
While rather well-known phycologically, the ecology in respect to seaweed populations is an unknown. There appear to be significant populations of Sargassum in places northward of the Saigon River entrance. The reefless southern mangrove-dominated shores should be adaptable to Gracilaria production, either as elements in pond polyculture systems or as plantings adopted to the mud flats often covered by brackish water.
Seaweed production is developed for certain species, but it is restricted to a few areas where farming of Eucheuma and Caulerpa and harvesting of the wild crops of Gracilaria and Digenia take place. The latter, processed in Japan for its medicinal value, is of minor importance. The different kinds Gracilaria could be produced for a variety of purposes, but reliance now is on the wild crop of one species from Manila Bay and a few other sites. The crop is mostly exported leaving the local market short of the food gel derived from it. The genus Caulerpa is farmed for the local fresh vegetable market. Currently most of the Eucheuma is produced in Sitangkai municipality in the Sulu archipelago, the kappa-weed has been successfully farm produced as far north as Luzon island near Manila, and the iota-weed in the Visayan region. Two types of Eucheuma are exported which can be categorized as either kappa- or iota-carrageenan weed depending on which carrageenan they are valued for. The former can be farm produced in such quantity as to meet almost any forseeable near future need. Iotaweed has been farmed successfully but it behaves erratically so that most of the world's supply comes from wild crop harvests in other countries. Even farming areas which may be successful initially may suddenly decline in productivity. The farming of iota-weed is not very reliable and the present strains do not produce well.
2 Dr. Lois Egerod (University of Copenhagen, Denmark) Marine Biological Centre, Phuket, Thailand.
While individuals and companies have made surveys, information on suitable sites for expansion of farming to meet a larger proportion of the world's future needs has not been made available to the public. Yet there appear to be large areas and several seaweeds even beyond those now produced. A great deal larger production could be obtained involving a lot more people in other areas of the country not now benefiting from seaweed production.
At present, the Philippines is the second largest seaweed exporting and consuming country bordering the South China Sea. Many of the small islands are already seriously overpopulated in reference to their support capacity and in many of these cases introduction of the production of seaweeds would provide a welcomed cash crop.
Hong Kong's seaweed potential may lie in sizeable seasonal crops of Sargassum and, like Singapore, in being a central shipping point and processing of seaweed. The seaweed flora is not well-known and it is strongly seasonal. The ecology of the seaweeds and their productivity are unknown.
All statistics on seaweed production in the Region are suspect and there are no reliable data on the seaweed crop gathered, exported or potential. Surely, no more than 10 000 tons of all kinds have been exported from the Region in one year. The export of Eucheuma can be over 6 000 tons, but is usually less than 5 000 tons. In 1974, from the Philippines about 6 000 tons of Eucheuma was exported, another 2 000 was left in warehouses in the country and another 2 000 was produced but left in the field. A great deal of controversy has arisen over the supply and demand for Eucheuma since the 1974 takeoff point was reached. In late 1974 exporting stopped as did buying. Since the amount produced in 1974 was about twice the demand it was a long time before middlemen began buying again. When they did the by then discouraged farmers were reluctant to return to farming Eucheuma for they felt that about the time they began to produce, buying might stop again. Finally the price rose enough to get them to begin but again there was overproduction, albeit a milder overproduction. The buying policies of the exporters being to grab their annual needs early in the year and raising the prices to get it has resulted in a more or less annual repetition of this phenomenon. In August 1977, there was essentially no Eucheuma in the warehouses for export and prices were unusually high. With the changing of buyer policies and especially if a farmer cooperative movement could develop strength, this boom and bust or cyclic supply problem would disappear and Eucheuma farming could be a steady source of income.
The potential is relatively large but current business practices do little to encourage a growth rate of over 10 percent per year. Gathering of the wild crop and present farming perhaps have a potential for supporting a ten-fold increase in tonnage. Given proper farm methodology development for species not now farmed, ten times the present production could be confidently attained from culture, i.e. say 60 000 tons per year. With 30 percent annual increases in utilization anticipated, by the time seaweed farms are under production the sale of this much is well within reason.
