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GENERAL METHODOLOGY OF COMPOSITE FISH CULTURE

1 INTRODUCTION

Evolution of the high-fish yielding technology of composite fish culture through investigations conducted from the early sixties at the Freshwater Fish Culture Division of Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute has raised freshwater fish culture to a scientific status from the emperical traditional level.

Fuller utilization of the pond's productivity for maximization of fish yield, the aim in composite fish culture, is achieved through intensive culture of fast-growing, compatible fish species with complementary feeding habits occupying different ecological niches in the pond. Carps satisfy these demands and since they feed on the lower links in the food chain and accept low-cost feed are economical to be cultured. The objective of raising healthy and economically viable fish crops is realised through appropriate manipulation of fish stock and pond ecology.

In principle, the methodology of composite fish culture remains the same all over with minor modifications to suit the local needs. Hora and Pillay (1962) have reviewed the practices in polyculture in the Indo-Pacific Region. The various steps in the methodology of composite fish culture are outlined in the foregoing account highlighting the recent advancement.

2 SELECTION OF PONDS

Size and shape of stock ponds in which fingerlings are raised to table-sized fish through composite fish culture may vary.

A desirable pond should be preferably around 0.5 hectare in area (restriction to less than 5 hectares suggested by Hora and Pillay, 1962), rectangular in shape, 2 to 3 meters deep (1.5 m minimum depth) exhibiting a gentle slope and an even bottom. Embankment should be firm with guarded inlets and outlets. Soil should be retentive with an assured supply of water. Perennial ponds with atleast 1.0 meter water depth during peak summer are preferable. Even seasonal ponds retaining sufficient water for 8–9 months can also be utilized.

Most of the perennial ponds used for carp culture in the country cannot be drained off easily by mechanical devices. They accumulate large deposits of silt that create unfavourable conditions for fish culture (Sinha, 1984). Their production potential, a prerequsite, has to be understood.

FARTC has developed a pond environmental monitoring system with 31 simple measurable parameters involving the basic physico-chemical, microbiological and biological parameters for understanding and quantifying the main production process in these perennial, undrainable ponds (Sinha, 1984).

3 METHODOLOGY OF COMPOSITE FISH CULTURE

Essentially, the methodology of composite fish culture consists of the following principal steps.

3.1 Pre-stocking operations

This phase refers to pond preparation to ensure maximum survival and proper growth of cultured fishes and involve repairs of embankments, removal of weeds and undesirable aquatic biota, and correction of physicochemical properties of water and soil.

3.1.1 Control of noxious aquatic vegetation

In view of the adverse effects excessive aquatic plants exert on the pond with regard to living space, sunlight penetration, oxygen circulation, sheltering of fish enemies, they should either be kept under check or cleared from the pond. Clearance of weeds is achieved by (i) increasing the depth of the pond, (ii) manual means, (iii) mechanical means, (iv) chemical means, and (v) biological means. In smaller ponds, manual clearance of weeds is economical.

3.1.2 Eradication of fish enemies

Draining of ponds or repeated netting where draining is not possible would help remove the predators and complete removal is ensured by the application of piscicides. Derris powder was used as a piscicide. Because of procurement difficulties, chemical piscicides belonging to chlorinated hydrocarbons like Aldrin, Dieldrin, Endrin, Tafdrin-20 (Chaudhuri, 1975) and organo-phosphatic groups like Thiometon, D.D.V.P. (Konar, 1969) were used as substitutes. But, in view of the harmful residual effects these leave in the pond, get stored in fish tissues and take a longer time to detoxify, their use is not advocated. Among the piscicides of indigenous plant origin tried as substitutes are barks, roots, fruits and seeds variously of indigenous variety of derris, Derris trifoliata, Croton tigilium, Milletia pachycarpa, Barringtonia acutangula, Randia dumetorum, Walsura piscidia (Bhuyan, 1967; Barrackpore, 1968, 1969; Das, 1969). Oil cake of mahua (Bassia latifelia) containing 4–6 per cent saponio, presently being used, serves initially as a piscicide at 200–250 ppm and later acts as organic manure.

Sugar cane jaggery is used in many parts of India (Wealth of India, 1962). Powdered tamarind seed husk (Tamarindus indica) and anhydrous ammonia at 15–20 ppm are found effective as piscicides, the latter also serving as a fertilizer.

In view of the bulk involved resulting in transport and storage problems and non-availability all over, a cheaper and effective substitute to the most recommended mahua oilcake had to be found out. Trials conducted at FARTC, have indicated commercial bleaching powder, calcium hypochlorite, Ca(OCl)Cl, to be not only a good substitute for mahua oilcake but also economical (cost per hectaremeter: mahua oil cake Rs 3250/-, bleaching powder Rs 1052/-). It is effective at 25–30 ppm (250–300 kg/ha-m.) affecting fishes within 15–30 minutes of application and killing all fishes including catfishes and murrels within 1–2 hrs. Crabs are also affected. Besides detoxification being quicker, bleaching powder disinfects the pond and helps in faster mineralization of organic matter.

3.1.3 Liming

Ground limestone (Calcium bicarbonate) or slaked lime (Calcium hydroxide) or quick lime (Calcium oxide are applied at the pond bottom or spread over the water surface for correcting pH of water and soil, maintaining the sanitation of the pond, checking marked fluctuations in pH, and hastening mineralization of organic matter. Under Indian conditions, lime is used in stock ponds at the rates of 200–1000 kg per hectare per year in instalments based on soil pH as given below:

Soil pHSoil typeLime (kg/ha/yr)
5.0–6.5Moderatel acidic1000
6.5–7.5Near neutral   500
7.5–8.5Mildly alkaline   200

A pH range of 6.5–9.0 is observed as ideal for soilwater interactions resulting in a satisfactory biological regime. Liming is an essential preliminary to successful pond manuring.

3.1.4 Fertilization

Fertilization keeps the metabolic cycle in operation, increases natural productivity (Huet, 1975) and fish production (Swingle and Smith, 1938; Hepher, 1962; Chakrabarty, 1975b, et al., 1978).

Cowdung, pig and poultry manures, spoiled oilcakes, spoiled cotton and soyabean meal, compost and sewage as organic manures and nitrate of sodium, ammonium sulphate, ammonium superphosphate, muriate of potash as inorganic manures are used in fish ponds (Hora and Pillay, 1962). A combination of both inorganic and organic fertilizers is recommended for ponds with neither too clayey nor too sandy soil possessing medium organic matter content (Chaudhuri, 1971). Selection of fertilizers, particularly inorganic, is governed by the reaction of the soil. N-P-K (6-8-4), Urea (N-46 per cent), ammonium sulphate (N-20 per cent), single superphosphate (P-16 per cent), Calcium ammonium nitrate (N-20 per cent) and triple superphosphate (P-48 per cent) are used under Indian conditions.

Organic manuring has to take into account the oxygen budget of the medium. The quality of manure to be applied also depends on the organic carbon content of the soil as detailed below:

Organic carbon content of the soil (%)Cattle dung (kg/ha/yr)
Less than 0.520000
 0.5–1.0
15000
Above 1.010000

Heaping manure in corners facilitates slow diffusion and provides safer zones for fish. Improvements in the methods of application of manures and fertilizer are being effected for better turn over of nutrients.

3.2 Stocking Operations

3.2.1 Selection of species

Selection of fish species is important as it decides ultimate fish production. Huet (1975) holds choice of species as the first biological element for increasing fish production. Swingle (1968) stated that fishes with shortest food chain give the highest production. Quantiative production, therefore, is highest with herbivorous, omnivorous, plankton eating and detritus feeding fishes. Varied are the species of fish cultured in ponds which fulfil the desired cultivable qualities (Bardach et al., 1972; Jhingran, 1975; Huet, 1975). Hora and Pillay (1962) have indicated the fish species cultured in the Indo-Pacific Region.

In India, culture of the Indian major carps alone was the form of multi-species culture tried at the beginning. Later, the major Indian carps - catla (Catla catla), rohu (Labeo rohita) and mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala) were used in combination with calbasu (L. calbasu), sometimes with bata (L. bata) and with pearl-spot (Etroplus suratensis), gorami (Osphronemus gorami) and acclimatised milk fish (Chanos chanos), Alikunhi (1957) listed the cultivable species of fishes in India.

The exotic silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) and grass carp (Ctenopharyngodop idella) introduced into India in 1959 and common carp (Cyprinus carpio) in 1957 by CIFRI formed the other three component species in composite fish culture. Culture of exotic carps alone was experimented with.

Silver carp and catla are surface-dwellers, the former is predominantly a phytoplankton feeder and the latter a zooplankton feeder. Rohu is a column-dweller and utilizes decaying macro-vegetation, filamentour algae, periphyton, etc. Mrigal is a bottom feeding fish and makes use of filamentour algae and detritus. The omnivore common carp feeds on a wide variety of food items of both animal and plant origin at the pond bottom and margins. Macrovegetation, not directly used by indigenous carps, is used effectively by grass carp. The semi-digested faecal matter of grass carp serves both as a feed for the bottom-dwellers as well as a pond fertilizer. An association of the above six carps, therefore, ensures proper exploitation of the food niches in the pond.

Other species experimented with, though in small numbers in composite fish culture, are Ompok bimaculatus, Mystus seenghala, Notopterus chitala, Pangasius pangasius (Chaudhuri et al., 1974), the grey mullet (Mugil cephalus) and the giant freshwater prawns (Macrobrachium malcolmsonii, M. rosenbergii) (Chaudhuri et al., 1975), Channa marulius (Govind et al., 1976). Mystus aor (Krishnamurthy and Aravindakshan, 1978 and Clarias batrachus (Tripathi et al., 1981). have also been experimented with in sizable numbers in composite fish culture.

Other indigenous carps moriting attention for culture are the fringe-lipped carp (Labeo fimbriatus), the white carp (Cirrhinus cirrhosa), the cauvery carp (L. Kontius) and the herbivorous pulchellus (Puntius pulchellus).

3.2.2 Stocking density and species ration

Stocking with fingerlings of 100–150 mm is done at a rate below the carrying capacity of the pond. The prerequisite for evolving any sound stocking programme is information on the food requirements of cultivated fishes. In the absence of such information for all cultivable carps, stocking programme is based mostly on emperical experience. Number of fish to be stocked is computed by the following formula:

Number of fishes to be stocked per unit area   =   Total expected increase in wieght                    + Mortality (not more than 10%)
Expected increase of weight of individual fish

Stocking on volume instead of an area basis would be more meaningful. Phased-stocking of carp fingerlings in keeping with water level experimented with at the Freshwater Fish Culture Division of CIFRI has shown trends of increased fish production (Chakrabarty, et al., 1979 b). Experience of fish culturists in China and Japan has shown that fish of various species can thrive well in much less spa space once their respiratory requirements are met. The difference in the feeding habits of young and adults of certain species of cultivated fishes can be taken advantage of while stocking ponds. Hora and Pillay (1962) have indicated stocking densities and combination of species employed in the Indo-Pacific Region.

Proper combination of species in suitable numbers minimises inter- and intra-specific competitions allowing the growth of all species to the desired marketable size.

In India, the earliest form of mixed fish culture has been with the major carps catla (C), rohu (R) and mrigal (M). Hora and Pillay (1962) recommend stocking of 1975 C, 3750 R and 625 M in one hectare pond. Alikunhi (1957) suggested a ratio of C 3: R3: M4. Species ratio tried in the sixties at the Pond Culture Division of CIFRI were C4:R3:M3, C3:M6:M1, C3:R3:M3 at 3750 per hectare density and C1:R1:M1 at 15000 per hectare density. Chakrabarty et al (1979c) observed that keeping in view the relatively better performance of catla in their experiment, a combination of C4:R3:M3 would give fish of larger average weights that would be economically more attractive.

After the introduction of silver carp (Sc), grass carp (Gc) and common carp (Cc), combination of Sc4:Gc2: Cc3 and Sc 3: Gc 1 : Cc 2 were experimented at 3700 and 5000 per hectare densities respectively (Singh et al., 1972). Production was better with the former ratio and density.

Experimenting on composite fculture of major Indian and exotic carps of varying durations between 1962–63, Alikunhi et al. (1971) concluded that a stocking density of 3000–3500 fingerlings weighing 300–350 kg is necessary to get a production of 3000–3500 kg per hectare per year with regular manuring and/or artificial feeding. Between 1963 and 1968, Lakshmanan et al. (1971) experimented with densities of 4450, 5000 and 6250 per hectare with different species ratios. Other densities experimented with different species ratios of major Indian and exotic carps were 4450, 5000 and 6250 per hectare between 1963 and 1968 (Lakshmanan et al., 1971), 5000 to 5473 per hectare (Gupta et al., 1972; Sinha et al., 1973), 5000 and 7500 per hectare (Chaudhuri et al., 1975), 10,000 per hectare (Chaudhuri et al., 1974; Tripathi, 1984), and 13320 per hectare (Chaudhuri et al., 1978). Species combination of SC2.5:C 1.0: R 2.50 Gc 1.0: M 1.0: Cc 2.0 at 7500 per hectare stocking density was observed to be ideal, since in this ratio, all carp species attained the marketable size of one kilo with perhaps least inter- and intra-specific competition.

3.3 Pest-stocking Operations

3.3.1 Supplementary feeding

Hora and Pillay (1962) hold food as the main governing factor in determining the growth rate of pond fish. Since natural fish food produced in a limited way cannot supply the energy required for growth, the need for supplementing the food arises. Artificial feeding enhances fish production (Chakrabarty et al., 1975 b; Sinha, 1979) and Schaperclaus (1933) attributes 50 to 80 per cent of total fish production in ponds in Germany to artificial feeding.

Extent of intensive feeding is an economic question which depends on the cost of the foods and their conversion rate termed also “food quotient”. Food quotient varies considerably with variations in temperature, oxygen content of the water, size of the fish, feeding habits and general condition.

Hickling (1962) has enumerated the qualities desired in a fodder. To make the artificial feed balanced and complete, it is necessary to understand and the basic requirements of the food at the different stages of cultivable carps. Levels of 45 per cent protein and 26 percent carbohydrate in test diets resulted in the optimum growth of spawn, fry and fingerlings of rohu and common carp (Sen et al., 1978b; Singh and Sinha, 1981).

Mitra and Das (1965), Lakshmanan et al. (1967) and Chakrabarty et al. (1973) tested the efficacies of feed formulated by mixing ingredients of plant and animal origin on major Indian carps. A mixture of oilcake and rice polish in equal proportions by weight is the feed provided. With the shift towards intensive fish culture, a qualitative change was effected (Chakrabarty et al., 1979 b) by substituting oil cake of mustard (28–30 per cent protein) with oilcake of groundnut (35–45 per cent protein) which was more acceptable and superior in quality (Lakshmanan et al., 1967).

Dough prepared by mixing rice polish with the watersoaked oilcake and cut-bits of the marginal vegetation Enhydra fluctuans is placed in trays hung at different depths of the pond. Feeding preferably twice a day is advocated.

Total amount of food to be provided is calculated by the following formula (Huet, 1975):

Amount of food to distribute per hectare=Growth per hectare due to artificial feeding.×feed conversion rate.

The average conversion rate of the feed mixture of rice polish and oilcake of groundnut is observed to be 2:1, Sen et al. (1982) observed that higher rates of feeding above the level equivalent to 5 per cent of the initial body weight may not be useful in rohu and mrigal fingerlings.

Recent studies on fish nutrition at FARTC have indicated that the efficacy of this conventional feed mixture is increased by 15 per cent by fortification with minerals, trace minerals and vitamins and also by pelletization and addition of 5 per cent yeast.

Several feeds have been formulated using locally available ingredients at FARTC and their efficacies have been ascertained on fry and fingerlings of carps. Of these, three feeds one with GOC (78.4%), rice bran (9.8%), sal seed cake (9.8%), fortified with minerals, trace minerals and vitamins, the second with GOC (24.5%), sesame oilcake (24.5%), rice bran (49.0%), also fortified with minerals, trace minerals and vitamins, and the third with GOC (40.0%), fish meal (20.0%), wheat bran (35.0%) with yeast have shown promising trends in so far as growth and digestibility are concerned. Further improvement in the feeds is to be effected after understanding the extent of utilization of the natural food by the carps, amine acid requirements and amino acid profiles of ingredients and enzymatic pattern

Grass carp are fed with preferred aquatic vegetation kept in enclosures made of bamboos in selected corners of the pond. To overcome the shortage in supply of desired vegetation with the heavy demand, conversion rate of aquatic vegetation to fish flesh being 18 to 20 (Sinha et al., 1973; Chaudhuri et al., 1975), marginal vegetation, land grasses, banana leaves and vegetable refuse have been used and encouraging results obtained. Sen et al. (1978a) and Tripathi (1984) observed that provision of desirable aquatic vegetation to grass carp helps other fishes both directly and indirectly thereby increasing production.

Under the management practices followed in composite fish culture, with average survival of over 80 per cent, fishes are observed to grow to the desired marketable size of one kilo and above in stock ponds.

Fish productions ranging from 1439 to 2975 kg per hectare at the Pond Culture Division of CIFRI (Jhingran, 1975) and about 4000 kg per hectare (Chakrabarty et al., 1979 c) were obtained in a year by culture of major Indian carps at different stocking densities.

Culture of exotic carps alone yielded productions of around 2900 kg per hectare per year.

Fish productions obtained by combined culture of major Indian and exotic carps have been 2234 to 5041 kg per hectare per year at densities of 4450 to 6250 per hectare (Lakshmanan et al., 1971), 3232 kg per hectare in six months (Sinha et al., 1973), 5175 and 5334 kg per hectare at 5000 per hectare density (Chaudhuri et al., 1975), 5734 and 7500 kg per hectare per year at 10,000 per hectare stocking density (Chaudhuri et al., 1974), average of 8200 kg per hectare per year with the maximum of 9389 per hectare per year at stocking densities of 7719 and 7840 per hectare (Chaudhuri et al., 1975) and 7503 and 8867 kg per hectare per year at 7500 per hectare stocking density (Chakrabarty et al., 1980).

High productions of 7445 kg and 7633 kg per hectare per year in a farmer's pond under National Demonstration Scheme at 13320 per hectare stocking density (Chaudhuri et al., 1978) and of 10,678 kg per hectare per year (1981) at the Poona Centre of All India Co-ordinated Research Project and Rural Aquaculture Projects have vindicated the soundness of the composite fish culture technology evolved for stock ponds.

Chakrabarty et al. (1979 c) obtained productions of around 1300 kg to 1800 kg per hectare in six months indicating the possibilities of raising two crops in a year. This serves as a technology for long-seasonal impoundments.

Use of fertilizers alone yielded 2500 kg fish per hectare in six months (Chakrabarty et al., 1979 a) and 3352 kg and 4297 kg per hectare per year (Saha et al., 1978). This would well suit low-investment fish culture programmes.

3.3.3 Harvesting and marketing

Harvesting of stock ponds can effectively be done by drag netting (Chakrabarty et al., 1975 a). Fishes attaining the marketable size are harvested to reduce the pressure of density on the pond and thereby provide sufficient space for the growth of other fishes. Replenishment of the harvested species ensures maintenance of the ecological balance that the particular species exhibit. Such periodic harvesting with and without replenishment (Chakrabarty et al., 1974), facilitating stock manipulation (Rabanol, 1968), are biological means (Huet, 1975) for increasing fish production.

Harvesting ensures proper financial return only when there is demand in the market and as such, fish supply is to be regulated to the market.

3.3.4 Pond sanitation

Liming wards off the ill-effects of organic matter decomposition and restores hygienic conditions in the pond. Raking helps releasing of noxious gasses from the bottom. Feeding is stopped when algal blooms appear. Aeration of the pond water from the bottom, surface agitation, replenishment of water and netting are measures taken to counteract periods of oxygen depletion consequent on putrefaction of organic matter. Hora and Pillay (1962) suggest treatment with lime in concentrations not exceeding 10 ppm if water becomes acidic due to putrefaction and with 1.5 ppm potassium permanganate if water becomes foul. Alum is added to settle suspended silt which may cause fish mortality. In Bengal, fish farmers float banana plants or mix juice for checking fish mortality.

3.3.5 Fish diseases and their control

Fish culture under artificial conditions make fish prone to parasitic and non-parasitic diseases by lowering their resistance power when adverse hydrological conditions set in. Prophylactic measures are taken for the few diseases encountered. Methods of diagnosis and treatment of fish diseases are being evolved at FARTC. Affected fishes are treated with solutions of either potassium permanganate (2 mg/100 ml) or common salt (3 g/100 ml) or copper sulphate (50 mg/100 ml) for all bacterial and fungal diseases, and with Gammaxene solution (3 g/100 ml) for fish lice infection.

Rational management of stock ponds with caution exercised at every phase of management can give rich dividends making fish culture a profitable proposition.

4 ECONOMICS

Adoption of composite fish culture partially or in toto has made fish farmers realise additional profits by atleast Rs. 15,000-Rs. 20,000 per hectare per year, an increase of 8–10 times more in profit from the traditional operations (Ranadhir, 1984). Ranadhir (1984) opined that production mainly depends on the level of inputs, both managerial and material and evaluated the economics of three input levels in composite fish culture technology resulting in different levels of fish production under All India Coordinated Research Project on Composite Fish Culture and Fish Seed Production. The economic viability of the technology has been demonstrated at high level, intermediate level and low level of inputs with production ranges of 8000–10,000 kg/ha/yr, 4000–6000 kg/ha/yr and 2000–3000 kg/ha/yr respectively (Table I).

Table I - Production cost, income and returns in Composite Fish Culture under AICRP on CFC & SP (Ranadhir, 1984)

   High level inputsIntermediate level inputsLow level inputs
  Centre -Pune*Pune**     Jaunpur***
   Rs    Rs        Rs      
1Pond rental(estimated)2000.002000.002000.00
2Pond developmental cost, maintenance, embankment repairs etc. (estimated)1000.001000.001000.00
3Fingerlings(Actual)1430.65929.00900.00
(estimated)
4Feed( "       )32268.9019962.65 
5Weeds( "       )676.201193.001000.00
(estimated)
6Fertilizers( "       )2083.35792.252686.90
7Wages(estimated)4700.004700.004700.00
8Miscellaneous costs @ 5% of recurrent costs (items 1–7)2200.001554.00614.00
9Interest on working capital @ 13% for 6 months2990.002088.00838.00
 Total recurrent costs49349.1034218.9013738.90
 Monthly recurrent cost4112.422851.58 
 Income    
 Gross production kg/ha10678    5726      2746    
 Income @ Rs 9/kg96102.0051534.0024714.00
 Cost of production/kg4.625.98 
 Net income/ha46753.0017316.0010975.00
 Net income/ha/month3896.001443.00914.56
 Net income on recurrent costs95%  51%  80%  

   * Culture period 12 months, Area of pond 0.31 ha, year 1980–81
 ** Culture period 12 months, Area            0.31 ha, " 1976–77
*** Culture period 12 months, Area          0.07 ha, " 1975–76

Costs expressed at 1980–81 price level at Jaunpur.

5 REFERENCES

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