COUNTRY REPORTS

FIJI

by

Jayant Prakash

Fisheries Officer,
Fiji Fisheries Division,
Suva, Fiji

Introduction

The Fiji group, consisting of high islands of volcanic origin, low coralline islands and cays and numerous reefs, straddles the Date Line. It lies between 178° E. Lat. and 177° W. Lat. and 16° to 18° S. Long. and occupies a central position in the South Pacific Ocean.

In common with most tropical island countries, Fiji has a variety of habitats and several seaweed species. Chapman (1971 and 1977) and others have recorded over two hundred seaweed species from a relatively limited amount of collection in the Fiji Group. Three genera, Caulerpa, Gracilaria and Codium are widely utilized as food. Approximately 12 mt were sold in Municipal markets in 1987 and 1988 (Table 1) and at least twice that amount is probably consumed on a subsistence basis. There is also a Eucheuma industry being operated on commercial basis.

Seaweed therefore, plays a small but significant role in Fijian life.

Table 1. Estimate Sales of locally consumed seaweeds in Fijian Municipal Markets (mt).

(Source: Fiji Fisheries Division Annual Reports).

Seaweed Recorded from Fiji

Following early collections in the Fiji Group by Grinow (1873), Dickie (1876), Askenas (1889) and Howe (1912), there appears to have been little done until collections were made by Chapman (1971) in the mid-60s. He recorded 118 species or varieties of seaweed, which included 41 new records for the Fiji Group. Since then, further collections by Chapman (1977), Kapraun and Bowden (1978) and Enomoto and Ajisaka (1983) have increased this number to over 200 species. However, this number still falls well short of the 530 species recorded from Micronesia and can be expected to be added to, particularly in the case of Rhodophyta (Kapraun and Bowden, 1978). Enomoto and Ajisaka (1983) have, for example, reported only on Chlorophyta this far.

A limited collection of Fiji's seaweed is maintained at the Fiji Herbarium, University of the South Pacific.

Tables 2a and 2b list the genera of seaweed (marine algae) recorded from Fiji, and the number of species within these genera.

There is, at present, little or no local capacity to identify and classify marine algae.

Chemical Extraction, Purification and Other Studies

Relatively little work has been done in this area in Fiji. In 1974, a modest grant from the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) was given to the School of Natural Resources (USP) for seaweed research. Essentially directed at the taxonomy, distribution and ecology of commercial seaweed species, the study also included nutritional analyses of three seaweed species, Caulerpa racemosa, Hypnea musciformis, and Gracilaria verrucosa. There were plans to isolate pharmacological constituents of these seaweeds, but it appears the project was discontinued after one year. Some preliminary results are summarized in Table 3.

In Fiji, seaweeds have recently been examined in another context; the red calcareous algae Jania sp. and Amphiroa sp. as well as the brown alga Turbinaria ornata, have commonly been found acting as hosts for the dinoflagellate Gambierdiscus toxicus, the causative agent of ciguatera toxicosis.

In accordance with the relatively low reported incidence of fish toxicity in Fiji, tests on Suva Barrier Reef showed a low population density of Gambierdiscus. Jania sp. has also been identified as the source of paralytic shellfish toxins in various coral reef crabs (Yasumoto et al., 1984).

Distribution, Abundance and Utilization of Indigenous Seaweeds

Very little information on distribution and abundance of the various species throughout the group is available, other than anecdotal information in the various taxonomic publications. The species utilized as food, however, clearly must be classified as abundant, this being the basis for their status as food items.

Three general categories of seaweed are recognized in the dietary context of ethnic Fijians; also there are a number of less common types of seaweed and marine angiosperms occasionally used as food items.

Nama is the local name given to Caulerpa species, of which C. racemosa is reportedly the most common. Over most of Fiji's waters, two forms of nama are recognized but it is not clear whether these are separate species or just two varieties.

At least 12 species have been recorded from Fiji. This seaweed is usually eaten raw in lolo (coconut milk) with chilli and lemon juice or with coconut dressing. This menu is becoming increasingly common in restaurants especially in the marine food category.

Table 2a. Genera of marine algae recorded from Fiji. For each genera the number of species is indicated (Cyanophyta, Chlorophyta, and Phaeophyta).

Lumi is the local name given to the filamentous seaweed (Gracilaria and perhaps Hypnea). At least four edible forms, probably different species, are recognized: lumi cevata or lumi yabia, lumi damu, lumi karo and lumi wawa.

Table 2b. Genera of marine algae recorded from Fiji. For each genera, the number of species is indicated (Rhodophyta).

The first of these yields a colloidal starch when boiled and forms the basis of a renowned Fijian pudding, the lumi vakalolo. Others, such as lumi karo, a nodulose species, are eaten raw.

Sagati, or totoyava, believed to encompass several Codium species, is eaten more as a green vegetable, boiled with fish and cocount milk.

Table 3. Preliminary results of nutritional analyses of seaweed carried out at the University of the South Pacific.

1. Determined spectrophotometrically after separating from chlorophyll by columnchromatography.
2. Determined by tritating with iodine (0.1 N) solutions.
3. By Kjeldahl method.
4. By standard techniques described in A.O.A.C. Handbook (10th Edition).

(Source: Singh et. al., 1975).

A variety of other seaweeds are eaten occasionally, but little information on these are available.

Seaweed Culture

Background

During the mid 1970's, Solly and Booth of the School of Natural Resources, University of the South Pacific, made a brief study of Eucheuma spp. and other indigenous seaweeds containing commercial phycocolloids. For this study Eucheuma striatum, also known as E. alvarezii, was imported from the Philippines owing to the fact that suitable local material could not be located. A viable culture of E. alvarezii variety tambalang was maintained and propagated for more than two years at Telau Island (near Suva). Local species of Gracilaria and Gelidium were briefly examined and recommended for further studies.

With the growing interest for Eucheuma culture in the region, the Fiji Fisheries Division was given the opportunity to cooperate in a feasibility study with Coast Biologicals Ltd., a New Zealand company funded by the Commonwealth Secretariat.

Seed stock of E. alvarezii imported from Tonga in 1984, was established at Rakiraki and Verata (Tailevu) in April 1984 and showed good growth, the thalli germinating within one week of suspension.

Results of Trials

Two distinct growth patterns were recorded; April to December and December to March. During the months from April to December (cooler season), Eucheuma has a rapid growth and in 8 to 10 weeks it reaches a harvestable size. From December to March (warmer season), it is recommended that the harvesting period be extended from 10 to 12 weeks owing to the slower growth rate.

The main factor for rapid growth is the on-coming of the prevailing South Easterly Tradewinds, which eventually reduces seawater surface temperature to about 25°C and increases water movement. The increase in seawater movement subsequently increases the flow of nutrients which is an essential requirement for rapid growth combined with sufficient sunlight. From December to March, seawater surface temperature rises as high as 31°C. In addition during this period of the year, there is marked activity by grazing fishes (particularly by juvenile Siganus spp.), fungal infection (Ice-ice) as a result of grazing, increases in precipitation, siltation, and the possibility of cyclones.

With regard to the actual growth of Eucheuma, the seaweed grows rather slowly for the first 30 days then almost doubles its weight every 14 days. This means that the optimum harvest is between 60 to 70 days (8 to 10 weeks). Each line initially planted with 5 kg seaweed (30 pieces) would reach the weigh of about 40 to 50 kg.

It is concluded that Eucheuma could be successfully grown for a period of 9 months from April to December. However, it could also be grown all year around at a higher risk.

In late 1985, after considering the biological and possible socioeconomic constraints of Eucheuma culture development, it was decided to introduce Eucheuma cultivation at commercial level in Fiji.

Cultivation Methods

Eucheuma cuttings, each weighing about 200 grams, are tied to monofilament nylon lines (80 kg test), 10 meters long and fastened to stakes at each end. This initial method was later modified. Presently, 25 cuttings are tied on 5 to 7 meters of polypropylene rope (3 mm). Farm sizes are between 0.25 hectare (500 lines) and 0.5 hectares (1,000 lines). Seaweed is planted in blocks (80-100 lines) and harvested and planted every week. On an 8-block farm, on the completion of the 8th week of cultivation, block one would be ready to be harvested.

No artificial fertilizer is added to speed up growth. After maturing, the seaweed is sundried for 3 to 4 days until moisture is reduced to at least 35%.

Figure 1. Growth of E. alvarezii variety tambalang at Moi Reef, Rakiraki, Fiji.

Production

Despite the political events of 1987 in Fiji, the year itself was notable for a record production of dried seaweed. Some 270 mt were produced by 260 farmers, an average of about one tonne per farmer (Table 4). However, about 60% of this volume was produced by 150 farmers. The remaining 110 farmers were either beginners or were in a semi-operational stage and eventually deserted Eucheuma cultivation.

In 1988 a total production of 60.5 mt was achieved by 30 seaweed farmers. In 1989 from January to the end of October, 50 mt of dried Eucheuma had been produced by 20 farmers and a target of 70 mt may be achievable by December, 1989.

In 1989, a private company, Seaweed (South Pacific) Limited was established in Fiji in Savusavu on the island of Vanua Levu, and expected to be in full operation by June 1990 with production estimate of 300 mt for the first financial year (1989–1990) and 600 mt the year after. Combined with the production from individual farmers, a target of 800 mt may be achievable by then. The company also has plans to take over all the marketing of Eucheuma in Fiji and will be a potential outlet for the rest of the Pacific islands, with additional plans to construct a semi refined carrageenan (SRC) plant in Fiji once raw seaweed production has been established.

Marketing

Since the beginning of the project in 1984, Coast Biologicals had been fully committed to the establishment of Eucheuma farming in Fiji. The company had been involved in the actual development and marketing of dried Eucheuma until mid 1988 when it withdrew from Fiji.

Table 4. Annual dried Eucheuma exported from 1984 to 1988.

The company also had plans to construct a processing plant to extract semi refine carrageenan (SRC). There were several reasons for Coast Biologicals withdrawal. In the first place political events of 1987, but also the bad weather, the fluctuation of New Zealand dollar against the US currency, trade bans, and the farmers diversion in to the short lived beche-de-mer “boom” fishery. Farm gate prices paid by Coast Biologicals ranged from F$ 350 to F$ 550 per metric tonne(mt) depending upon the moisture content. The lowest graded seaweed was 35% and top grade 10 to 15% moisture.

With liaison services provided by the FAO/South Pacific Aquaculture Development Project, the financial support provided by the New Zealand Government, and with substantial effort of the Fiji Fisheries Division, the National Marketing Authority and the FMC Corporation, Marine Colloids Division, Fiji's Eucheuma industry was encouraged through 1988 and 1989 and now looks set to expand once more. In the interim, the National Marketing Authority of Fiji with the support of the Fiji Fisheries Division, has been purchasing and exporting Eucheuma to FMC, Copenhagen (Litex) in Denmark. The price offered to farmers at the end of 1988 was F$ 350/mt dry weight (35% moisture) and FOB Suva US$ 450. However, after further consultation with the present buyers, farm gate price was increased to F$ 450/mt and FOB Suva at US$ 600/mt.

Research and Training

From the Fisheries Division's viewpoint, further research is most urgently required on Fiji's seaweed especially with regard to the assessment of more proficient culture and propagation methods of phycocolloid-containing species, both introduced (Eucheuma spp.) and indigenous (Gracilaria, Gelidium etc.). Culture of these commercially valuable species to produce an essentially non-perishable dried product presents an interesting development prospect for outlying islands particularly where transport difficulties hamper most conventional fisheries.

Given the relative importance of seaweeds as food, biological, processing and marketing studies of the most important species, particularly Caulerpa racemosa, would be useful if staff and facilities are available.

Beyond these applied aspects, there remains in Fiji as in most other developing countries, a dearth of knowledge on the consistency of the resource and its exploitable size for some indigenous seaweeds. The taxonomic identity of the commercially important species is uncertain. The algae flora of Fiji remains imperfectly catalogued and virtually nothing of the chemical or pharmacological nature has been studied on Fijian seaweeds.

Given the usual constraints of limited funds and technical expertise that Fiji, together with other developing countries face, such work would probably be given relatively medium priority.

Availability of Facilities

Fiji has an advantage in having a regional university located in Suva. Facilities for basic research and in particular chemical and pharmacological work is adequate and the general logistic support is good. Given the general availability of finance and the existing priorities, the University of the South Pacific can probably serve as a suitable base for visiting scientists.

The Fisheries Division itself could assist overseas experts with logistical support (vessel etc.) and could undertake basic research on its own on seaweed.

Bibliography

Annual Reports, 1982–1988. Fisheries Division, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Suva, Fiji.

Chapman, V.J., 1971. Marine Algae of Fiji. Rev. Algol. N.S., 10: 164–171.

Chapman, V.J., 1977. Bot. Mar., 20: 161–165.

Dickie, G., 1876. J. Limn, Soc. London Bot., 15: 446–445.

Howe, M.A., 1912. Science, II 35, 837.

Singh, A., Booth, W., Ray, U., Zuker, W.H. and Nielsen, S.A., 1975. Investigation of marine plants. School of Natural Resources University of the South Pacific.

Yasumoto, T. et. al., 1984. Seafood Poisoning in Tropical Regional Tohoku University.

KIRIBATI

by

James Uan

Fisheries Officer,
Kiribati Fisheries Division,
Tarawa, Kiribati

Introduction

Since the introduction of Eucheuma seaweed in 1977, from Hawaii, full commercialization was attained in 1986 following numerous trials on farming methods and marketing. The species cultured are Eucheuma alvarezii and Eucheuma spinosum both yielding kappa and iota carrageenan respectively. Subsequently only E. alvarezii was concentrated upon due to the very slow growth of E. spinosum. With the establishment of ten potential sites in the main Gilberts groups, six of them have proven commercial farming viability. These are, Beru, Aranuka, Abemama, South Tarawa, Abaiang and Butaritari were where most of the exported came from. In other four sites Maiana, Nonouti; Tab North and Tab South, Onotoa; and North Tarawa, a growth monitoring programme is still carried out. There were setbacks in the past in both marketing and farming due to insufficient knowledge and limited experience in this new industry. However, now that this venture has gained social acceptance, and overseas markets have been secured, it is encouraging to see as another income generating activity for the Kiribati people.

Farming

The method used is the monoline system where 30 × 200 g seedlings spaced 20 cm apart are tied with raffia twine onto a 7 m line of 91 kg monofilament. The lines which have loops tied at both ends are attached to stakes measuring 0.5 m in length and 3 cm in diameter. Thirty of these 7 m lines are planted out in a week to form a “block” so within a 10- week growing period 10 of these blocks would be planted out giving a total number of 300 lines or equivalent to 0.1 ha. This was the farm size that the Fisheries Division was recommending to the seaweed farmers, but in some cases this was not always possible.

At Abaiang some farmers have agreed to help each other in planting out their 300 lines. In this way it was possible to obtain a constant weekly income of A$ 24.00 to A$ 27.00 from the harvest of 30 lines.

Harvesting on the 11th week of farming involved total removal of the plants from the line, transferring them to the drying platforms/racks by either canoes, punts or rafts and then sun drying for five consecutive days. After this time the seaweed obtained a moisture content ranging between 25% and 30% and ready to be sold.

Table 1 shows what should actually be spent for a 300-line farm.

For a seaweed farmer on an outer island, the costing would be about 50% less as part of the materials indicated in Table 1 would be provided by the Kiribati Fisheries Division.

A revised costing for a seaweed farmer on an outer island is indicated in Table 2.

Table 1. Estimated costs for the construction and running of a typical 300-line or 0.1 hectare seaweed farm.

(*) Total costs excluding boat/canoe.

Production

Table 3 outlines the production from the six islands together with the number of farmers involved (indicated in parenthesis). The total production from all six islands from 1985–1988 was 165.2 mt. In 1989, the total production was 159.4 mt up till the end of September mainly from the three producing islands. It is anticipated that this would surpass 200 mt by the end of 1989. The present high production rate is attributed to the fact that no seasonality was observed on Abaiang, the main producing northern island and to the higher number of farmers working in bigger sized farms.

The other three producing islands of Aranuka, Butaritari and Beru showed a marked effect of seasonality which resulted in a loss of interest and a very low production. Moreover, in most cases farmers were not consistent in their farming activity as some of them tend to farm whenever the need for money arises. This trend can be seen from the observation of a wide number of farms.

Table 2. Estimated costs for the construction and running of a typical 300-line or 0.1 hectare seaweed farm on an outer island.

(*) Total costs excluded nylon, tarpaulin, drying racks and the boat or canoe.

Growth Monitoring Programme

The purposes of the Growth Monitoring Programme are to try to identify the variation in the seaweed growth rate over seasonal periods and assess which locations on the islands are suitable for farming seaweed. This involves the establishment of trial plots along the islands coasts consisting of 5 lines each 7 m in length as in farming method. Periodic visits are made to record growth, epiphyte infestation, grazing, and other general observations. After these trials have been carried out, the Fisheries Division will then able to advise farmers on best growing sites, seasons etc.

Since 1985 there has not been any substantial data collected so seasonality was determined from the farmers monthly production. Generally this gives a fair idea of the poor growth season which is March to August and good growth season from September to November.

Table 3. Annual seaweed production (mt) from six islands. In parenthesis is indicated the number of seaweed farmers. The data for 1989 refers to the seaweed production up till the end of September.

The Growth Monitoring Programme is still ongoing and it was just recently revived enabling the yearly patterns to be compared.

Marketing

After harvesting, the seaweed is spread out onto sarlon shade drying racks which are elevated 0.5 m above the ground for sun drying. This process takes 5 days. Prior to exporting, seaweed is compact in bales using a modified manual wool press. A bale is 0.6 m³ in volume and weighs between 360 and 400 kg; a rather clumsy size which requires 5 to 6 strong men to handle.

After compacting, the bales are transferred to containers for shipping. In a 6 m container it is possible to fit 31 of these bales. The unutilized space is filled with more seaweed packed in small polypropylene sacks weighing 35 kg each. With the present loading method, it is possible to store 17.3 mt in a 6 m container.

During 1985, two 1-tonne shipment trials of wash dried Eucheuma alvarezii were shipped to Copenhagen and Boston, for US$ 1,600 and US$ 1,300 respectively, Handling and freight costs from Tarawa were expensive for the volume shipped (3 m³), being at A$ 1,186 and A$ 1,196 to marketing destinations.

In late 1986, further marketing contacts were made with a New Zealand Company, the Coast Biological Ltd. They agreed to purchase Kiribati raw seaweed for US$ 550 to US$ 650 per tonne depending on moisture content which should have been ranged between 20% and 35%. The lower the moisture content the higher the price. A total of 108.623 mt valued at NZ$ 100,371 was exported during the contract period. This consisted mostly of raw dried seaweed. Unfortunately, this company pulled out from the Pacific so further shipments were cancelled.

In the early 1989, the Kobenhavns Pektinfabrik based in Denmark, was contacted again after the trial shipment of 1985 earlier mentioned to see if they would be still interested in acquiring more seaweed from Kiribati. Their reply was affirmative and during the year two shipments were made for a total of 114.973 mt with future ones planned to be shipped on a three months basis.

Current CIF price from this company is US$ 625 per mt. Costs of freight to this company is just a little below the selling price which results in a very minimal return for the exporter (the Kiribati Government in this case).

Another company, the FMC Marine Colloids Division, Danish Branch, was also approached and samples were sent for comparative analyses for possible future marketing outlets and their results still to come.

Constraints

There are several limiting factors that were experienced ever since seaweed farming started in Kiribati. The main factor being the epiphytic (algal) infestation of the whole plants resulting in stunted growth and “ice-ice” or whitening of thalli intersection which causes the disintegration of the plant.

Other ones include man made causes as a result of fishing activities either shellfish or finfish on seaweed beds.

Another problem which cannot be controlled is the weather. In Kiribati, the unpredictable westerly winds destroy, at times, 90% of all the farm plots of a particular island. Fortunately this situation does not apply to all the producing islands.

With regards to marketing, the main problem encountered is the securing of a reliable buyer which would guarantee constant purchases.

In second instance, there is a need for constant information on current market structure especially concerning price fluctuations so as to keep abreast with the world marketing situation. Up-to-date product analyses from different institutions are also necessary to enable comparison of the results obtained by the buyers.

Future Prospects

With the establishments of seaweed farms on 10 islands in the Gilbert Group, future plans would include the setting of other seaweed farms on islands of the Line Group.

Presently 500 farmers are involved in seaweed cultivation, but with very little output owing to small size of the farms and the sporadic involvement in farming. Thus some sort of incentive would be necessary to encourage farmers to work full time. This would mostly be related with a rise in the price of dried raw seaweed.

Once a substantial amount of production would be achieved in Kiribati (about 1,000 mt per annum), then the possibility of constructing a processing plant for semi refined carrageenan could be looked into. There is enough fresh water within the country to be utilized for this purpose.

Another venture which could also be attempted would be the manufacturing of certain food items which could be derived from carrageenan.

Conclusions

The seaweed farming venture in Kiribati has proved to be an income generating activity at the subsistence level. At this early stage of development some successful objectives have been already attained, but especially a lot of experience have been gained.

Just like any new venture, what matters most is learning from direct experience. So if the benefits from this new form of resource exploiting have been shared by many individuals already, it would be interesting to see the impact on the national economy when its future expansion will be accomplished.

References

Why, S.J., 1987. Eucheuma seaweed farming development; 1985–1987. Fisheries Division, Kiribati.

NEW CALEDONIA

by

Claire Garrigue

Seaweed Expert, ORSTOM,
Noumea, New Caledonia

Introduction

New Caledonia is located in the South western Pacific between 2° and 23°30' S Lat. and 164 to 167° E Long. (Fig. 1). With its 16,890 km² of land surface and surrounded by a 24,000 km² lagoon, it is one of the biggest islands in the Pacific region.

Figure 1. Geographic location of the New Caledonia in the South Pacific region.

Seaweed Recorded from New Caledonia

A few scientists have studied the New Caledonian algae: Kuetzing (1863 to 1869), Gepp (1922), Catala (1950), May (1953, 1966), Denizot (1965, 1968), Tsuda and Garrigue (1989). Since 1984, ORSTOM is making an inventory of seaweeds all around New Caledonia.

shallow waters. In spite of this, a high diversity of seaweed species has been observed. About 350 species have been recorded and a catalogue has been published (Garrigue and Tsuda, 1989). The green algae, especially the ones belonging to the genera Caulerpa and Halimeda are important. A collection of seaweed is kept at ORSTOM, Noumea. We can increase our knowledge if we decided to work on coastal line environments such as mangroves, fringing reefs and sandy beaches where we can find some species of seaweeds presenting and economic interest.

Chemical Studies on Seaweed

In programs on the natural products of marine origin, carried out by ORSTOM and CNRS (National Centre for Scientific Research), some seaweed species have been studied, mainly some Cyanophyceae (personal communication D. Laurent).

Caulerpin, a chemical compound extracted from Caulerpa has been studied in relation with the ecology of the genera (Laurent et al., 1985).

At present, there is also another research program, carried out by ORSTOM and INSERM (National Institute for Health and Medical Research), which focuses on ciguatera research for folk remedies screenings.

Utilization of Seaweeds

Very little information is available on edible seaweeds. One species only (Caulerpa racemosa) is recognized as edible by Melanesian people, but it is rather uncommon in the diet especially when compared to diets of other Pacific islands. Caulerpa racemosa is eaten with coconut, without any particular preparation.

Seaweed Culture

At the moment, there is no on-going program on seaweed culture or development in New Caledonia, although there is a biological and socio-economic potential for seaweed farming.

Bibliography

Catala R., 1950. Contribution a l'ètude ècologique des ilots coralliens du Pacifique Sud. Bull. Biologique, 3: 234–310.

Denizot M., 1965. Algues marines de la Nouvelle-Calèdonie. 1-Apiohnia laete-virens Harvey et 2-Bellotia simplex nov. sp. Cahiers du Pacifique, 7: 65–68.

Denizot M., 1968. Les algues floridèes encroutantes (a l'exclusion des Corallinacèes). Thèse Doct. ès Science, Univ. Paris. 370pp.

Garrigue C. and Tsuda R., 1989. Catalog of Marine Benthic Algae from New Caledonia. Micronesica 21: 1–2.

Gepp A., 1922. Marine algae. In R.H. Compton (ed.) : A systematic account of the plants collected in New Caledonia and Iles des Pins. Part 3, Cryptogames. Jour. Linn. Soc. Bot. London 46: 45–46.

Kuetzing F.T., 1863a. Diagnosen und Bemerkungen zu Drei und Siebenzig neuen Algenspecies, Nordhausen, 19pp.

Kuetzing F.T., 1863b. Tabulae Phycologicae oder Abbildungen der Tange. 13 Band, Nordhausen, Kohne.

Kuetzing F.T., 1864. Tabulae Phycologicae. 14 Band, Nordhause, Kohne.

Kuetzing F.T., 1865. Tabulae Phycologicae. 15 Band, Nordhausen, Kohne.

Kuetzing F.T., 1866. Tabulae Phycologicae. 16 Band, Nordhausen, Kohne.

Kuetzing F.T., 1867. Tabulae Phycologicae. 17 Band, Nordhausen, Kohne.

Kuetzing F.T., 1868. Tabulae Phycologicae. 18 Band, Nordhausen, Kohne.

Kuetzing F.T., 1869. Tabulae Phycologicae. 19 Band, Nordhausen, Kohne.

Laurent D., Garrigue C., Bargibant G., Menou J.L., Tirard P., 1985. Rèpartition bathymètrique des Caulerpes (Chlorophyces) et corrèlation avec la prèsence de caulerpine. Proc. 5th Int. Coral Reef Congress, Tahiti. 1985.

May V., 1953. Some marine algae from New Caledonia collected by Mrs R. Catala. Contr. from the N.S.W. National Herbarium 2 (1): 38–66.

May V., 1966. Further records of algae from New Caledonia collected by Mrs. R. Catala. Contr. from the N.S.W. National Herbarium 4 (1): 17–18.

PALAU

by

Toshiro Paulis

Acting Director,
Division of Marine Resources,
Koror, Palau

Introduction

The Republic of Palau (Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands) is located in the Western Tropical Pacific at about Lat. 7°–30' N. and Long. 134°–35' E. and approximately 900 km East of the Philippines Islands, and 1500 km West of Guam. The Palau Archipelago consists of numerous central islands ranging geologically from volcanic origin to uplifted limestone. These are encircled by a 500 km long barrier reef encompassing a lagoon with an area of 1500 km². The reef in most places exhibits a steep face that slopes away to the great oceanic depths, but there are a few re-entrants in the reef that provide semi-sheltered deep bays with less-pronounced bottom slopes than the fore reef face. There are reef flats around the main island of Babeldaob, Koror, the Rock Islands and Peleliu which may be suitable for seaweed farming.

To the north there are two small coral atolls and the extensive Valasco Bank system. To the South in close proximity is the Island of Angaur, and further south are the six other islands collectively called the South West Islands. The district center, Koror, is centrally located with over half the population (approximately 8,000 souls) of the Islands. It is the major landing area for commercial marine and fishery products. All villages actively involved in commercial fishing are within 55 km by water-way from Koror.

The original Trusteeship agreement is supposedly to end in the near future upon the approval and implementation of the Compact of Free Association with the United States, but the Compact has not been ratified yet by the Palauan people although the new government has assumed the major executive functions from the Trust Territory Government.

At the present time, exploitation of Palau's marine resources provide a substantial portion of the Republic's economic base. This has largely involved commercial fishing on a large scale for tuna, and on a much smaller scale for reef fishing, by independent local fishermen.

Palau Government's Division of Marine Resources also has a mariculture center known as Micronesia Mariculture Demonstration Center (MMDC) with function of research, demonstration, and development of aquaculture programmes that would provide economic benefits to the country. Programmes presently undertaken by the MMDC include species such as giant clam, Trochus, Turtle, and rabbitfish. To date there has been no effort to investigate or to experiment and develop cultivation programme for a possible seaweed industry.

Seaweed

There has been no farming of seaweed in Palau that I know of. Though, seaweed (Eucheuma sp.) is growing, seasonally in small amounts in certain areas of the reef flat around the islands. This resource is totally unexploited since local residents do not use the seaweed both as a food item nor for other uses.

A study/survey and experimental work on seaweed undertaken in the early 1960s in the former Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, by Prof. Max Doty of the University of Hawaii included Palau. The report is perhaps available at the Suva-based FAO/South Pacific Aquaculture Development Project office or at the University of the South Pacific Library in Suva.

Statistical data or general information on the present situation of seaweed farming in Palau and eventual development and constraints are available.

Prospective

There is a growing interest in seaweed farming in Palau. However, we feel the need of knowing more on its economic feasibility before starting a pilot programme.

SOLOMON ISLANDS

by

Michael T. Smith

Seaweed Farming Project Manager
Fisheries Division, Munda,
Solomon Islands

Introduction

Traditionally, the utilization of seaweeds in Solomon Islands has been limited to occasional collection of fresh algae, principally Caulerpa sp., for use as vegetables. Technical information relating to indigenous species is scarce hence with Eucheuma farming well established in the Philippines and development in Fiji and Kiribati underway, the Government of Solomon Islands (S.I.G.), Fisheries Division decided to follow the same course. A survey of potential seaweed farming areas was carried out in 1985 by Mr. S. Why in conjunction with the United Kingdom, Overseas Development Administration (O.D.A.). It was concluded that many of the reefs surveyed were suitable for Eucheuma farming, particularly those around the Munda and Gizo areas in Western Province.

In 1987 with funding and a Technical Cooperation Officer provided by O.D.A. the Seaweed Farming Project was initiated by the Fisheries Division, S.I.G. At this time Coast Biologicals Ltd. offered a market outlet in the Pacific and as they were concentrating their efforts on the species Eucheuma alvarezii this was chosen as the species to be introduced to Solomon Islands.

Seaweed for seedstock was obtained from Fiji, this stock having been imported from Tonga in 1984 (Luxton et al., 1987), flown to Honiara and kept in quarantine in raceways at the International Centre for Living Aquatic Resources Management (ICLARM), Coastal Aquaculture Centre. The initial import consisted of 14 kg and was later followed by 2 further consignments of similar size.

Farming Method

Off-bottom culture is practised with monofilament lines holding the thalli hooked on to a framework made of steel posts and galvanized steel wire. The height above the seabed varies from about 1 m in sheltered areas to 0.5 m in more exposed areas where tall posts would be easily bent over. Stretch in the wire and monofilament lines generally results in the thalli resting on the seabed in the latter case.

The basic farm unit consists of three 10 m wires and 6 posts occupying an area of 20 m² and accommodating 60 lines each with 30 to 40 thalli. Recommended farm size is 300 lines but in practise few farms have attained this size, the majority consisting of one or two 60 line units. Drying racks have been constructed on-shore from a timber frame with a slatted bamboo top and covered with discarded bait netting obtained free from Solomon Taiyo Ltd. Each has a drying area of between 25 m² and 45 m².

Seaweed Farming

A second survey by Fisheries Division pinpointed the Vonavona Lagoon (lying between Munda and Gizo) as the most promising area, with extensive sandy reefs to the northwest and southeast of the lagoon. The initial reception area for the seaweed following quarantine was in the southeast Vonavona an area with good shelter and lush growth of sea and turtle grasses, Thalassia hemrichii, Cymodocea rotunda and Enhalus acoroides. It soon became apparent that this site was not suitable, having insufficient water movement and problems due to grazing by juvenile siganids. Trial plantings continued in the southeast Vonavona area over a range of sites with differing physical characteristics but, with one exception where growth was poor, all trials were subject to grazing by siganids.

After 8 months the total biomass of Eucheuma had been increased to approximately 150 kg and the continuing grazing was causing some concern over the project's future. The turning point came with a trial at Rarumana to the northeast of the Vonavona lagoon. The trial was located on the inner side of the barrier reef, about 3 km off-shore, which consisted of white sand and was clean of other seaweeds. Water movement was high and an instantaneous daily growth rate was generally around 4.5%. Perhaps more important, no incidence of grazing occurred and the biomass of seedstock was rapidly increased.

With sufficient stocks of Eucheuma available, the first commercial farms were set up at Rarumana in June of 1989 and trials could be carried out in new areas. Through August and September the number of farms in Rarumana was increased to 19 and harvest from the first farms were purchased. Production rose to 1.2 tonnes of dry seaweed in November but declined in December and with the Christmas break and cyclonic weather in January and early February little re-planting has taken place. However, all farmers have seedstock remaining and given more settled weather, farms should quickly be back into production. The area under cultivation reached 0.4 ha in October and total production over the last 4 months of 1989 was 3 mt largely resulting from one growing period and harvest.

Several new areas are now under investigation including the Shortland Islands, Ontong Java, Marovo Lagoon and more trials in southeast Vonavona. Table 1. lists trials and growth parameters (*: maximum). Where daily growth is high and yield relatively low this indicates a small seed size was used. Later trials are based on an average seed size of 100 g.

Constraints

Grazing by siganid fish has posed problems in most areas. Small amounts of seaweed being used for trials may have exaggerated this problem. Trial farms are now being set up in areas which were previously grazed to re-assess the problem.

At present, all commercial production is based in Rarumana which is an exposed site and susceptible to storm damage.

Few farmers have expanded their farms to the recommended 300-line size and planting tends to be carried out periodically rather than continuously resulting in a sporadic and reduced production.

With low levels of production, accumulation of sufficient seaweed for commercially viable shipment is difficult.

Although showing interest, carrageenan producers have responded poorly to samples sent for analysis. To date only one company has replied with results.

Table 1. Results of growth trials.(*: maximum result)

Prospects

High growth rates have been achieved in several areas and commercial acceptability to local people has been demonstrated in Rarumana.

Overseas prices for Eucheuma are currently strong while copra and cocoa (principal alternative sources of income in rural areas of Solomon Islands) prices have fallen steadily over the last year.

Increases in production provided by expansion in Rarumana and development of new areas over the next year, should provide sufficient dried seaweed for commercial exports on a regular basis.

Solomon Islands have many areas in other Provinces which are likely to be suitable and once sufficient infrastructure is in place, these areas can be developed.

Conclusions

At present, the small number of farms and low production make it difficult for the industry to become fully commercial. With limited manpower, the project effort is concentrated in the Western Province. Once commercial viability can be demonstrated here, development should quickly spread through other provinces.

The technology involved and the flexibility of planting regimes allow seaweed farming to fit in with lifestyles in the rural areas of Solomon Islands where time must be available for fishing, gardening and community work.

References

Luxton D.M., M. Robertson & M.J. Kindley, 1987. Farming of Eucheuma in the south Pacific islands of Fiji. Hydrobiologia 151/152: 359–362.

TONGA

by

Ulungamanu Fa'anunu

Fisheries Officer,
Tonga Fisheries Division,
Tongatapu, Tonga

Introduction

While in the early days the seaweed industry has traditionally relied on the exploitation of naturally growing, or wild, seaweeds to fill its raw material requirements, nowadays the expanding demands for seaweed products and the rising costs for its processing in industrialized countries, requires advances in seaweed culture techniques. Seaweed farming in the Kingdom of Tonga is a recent endeavor, dating from 1982.

The “Seaweed Farming Project” started in Tonga with a consulting contract by Dr. Luxton of Coast Biologicals Ltd. of New Zealand funded by the Commonwealth Secretariat in December 1981. As a result of his investigation six areas in the Vava'u Group have shown potentials for the setting up of trial plots (Fig. 1).

From June 1982, pilot scale trials of seaweed were conducted in Vava'u, Tonga, with financial assistance provided by the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Cooperation (CFTC). Preliminary cultivation trials by using 2 to 6 lines of Eucheuma spinosum and E. cottonii brought from Kiribati, in 1982, showed, over a period from September through November, growth rates equal to or greater than those reported from well-established commercial farms in the South China Sea Region.

From mid July 1983 through June 1984, six farms operated on a full commercial basis in Vava'u while more research, also funded by CFTC, was done to ascertain the economic viability of commercial seaweed farms. The latter showed promises with encouraging growth rates indicating good potential for seaweed farming ventures in the Vava'u Group.

Toward mid 1984, a joint-venture between the Tonga Government and Coastal Biologicals Ltd. was established to supervise local production, purchase of raw dried material, and co-ordinate shipping and processing of seaweed overseas. Shareholders was 60% for the Coastal Biologicals Ltd. and 40% for the Tonga Government. It was objective of the Government to offer its shareholders to the seaweed farmers sometime in the future.

Seaweed Farming

The number of seaweed farms in the Vava'u Group operating on a fully commercial basis gradually increased from 6 during 1983–1984 to 36 in 1985–1986. Despite much effort given by the Government of Tonga and the Coastal Biologicals Ltd., after 1986 the number of seaweed farmers decreased (Table 1). The reasons for this were related to the heavy grazing of rabbit fish which resulted in a serious loss of product, insufficient amount of seeds to be planted after the rabbit fish season, and seaweed marketing problems.

Figure 1. Sites selected for seaweed grow-out trials in the Vava'u Group, Tonga.

Thus the project “Raw Dry Eucheuma Harvest” for Vava'u seaweed farms, supervised by the Managing Director of the Coastal Biologicals Ltd., was not achieved. As can be seen in Table 3, in Year 3 (1985), the projected number of farms was 90, with a total of 22.5 ha planted. Instead there were only 36 farms of 100 m² each, for a total of 3,600 m² planted (Table 1). The estimates given in Tables 2 and 3 below are based on 5 harvests per year and a total dry weight per hectare of 40 mt. Each farmer shown is operating on 2,500 m² (0.25 ha).

There were only 18 farms instead of the 126 estimated for 1986–1987. The constraint was mainly due to rabbit fish grazing on seaweed over the period January to April. Some farmers ceased farming seaweed and since no counter action was found, the farmers harvested all the seaweed before the rabbit fish season, and planted new weed in April. At the beginning of 1986, this involved the importing of seaweed from Fiji at high cost and low survival rate. Consequently the farmers started off the year 1986 with insufficient seeds and were able to harvest only once in December 1986, instead of the four harvests necessary to achieve the expected profit.

Table 1. Annual production and total sale of dried seaweed with respect to number of farmers.

(*) Fisheries Division seaweed plot.

In January 1986, 6 sites were tested for best growth rate and an experimental plot was established by Fisheries Division in Fanga'uta Lagoon, Tongatapu (Fig. 2) aimed at the following:

1. assess seaweed farming viability in Fanga'uta;

2. provide seedlings to the Vava'u farmers; and

3. promote seaweed farming in Tongatapu.

Contrary to expectation, owing to the lower water temperature in Tongatapu compared to that of Vava'u, seaweed growth rate was good. The Fisheries Division decided to increase the number of plots from 2 to 800 in January 1987. During that time there was no indication of rabbit fish grazing. Unfortunately, prior to the shipping of weed seeds to Vava'u in March 1987, half or more of the plots were infected and destroyed by “ice-ice” disease. The disease also caused a total loss of two newly started farms owned by two local fishermen.

The outbreak of the disease was believed to be caused by siltation and the dropping of water salinity during the heavy rains of January and February 1987. The same situation occurred again in September 1987, resulting in the total loss of the remaining seaweed.

The disease free seaweed was shipped and given to the Vava'u farmers free of charge, to enable them to start off again after the rabbit fish season. Once again only few fortunate farmers were able to manage through the year 1987 but with insufficient seedlings being able to harvest only once in December 1987 with little or no profit.

Marketing

Coast Biologicals Ltd. of New Zealand, bought the entire production from 1983 to 1985 at T$ 0.60, T$ 0.45 and T$ 0.25 per kg for seaweed graded A, B and C respectively.

In March 1988, the selling price for the seaweed produced during 1986 and 1987 was increased to T$ 0.65, T$ 0.55 and T$ 0.45 per kg for grade A, B and C respectively.

Table 2. Projected raw dried Eucheuma seaweed harvest for Vava'u, Tonga Workplan.

Table 3. Projected raw dried Eucheuma seaweed harvest for Vava'u. The number of farmers involved and the total number of hectares under cultivation is also given.

In June 1988, Coast Biologicals Ltd. pulled out owing to the little volume produced in Tonga with respect to the projected volume and weight.

Only the seaweed produced from 1983 to 1985 had been shipped to New Zealand whereas the production from 1986 to date is still stored in Vava'u.

Present State of Seaweed Farming and Production

The maximum yield was obtained in 1984 (Table 1). The following year, 16 more farmers started a new farm. However, the total production was about half compared to that of 1984. The poor yield of 1985 resulted in a decrease of the number of farmers operating in 1986. Again the trend of 1985 was repeated in 1986 and the Coastal Biologicals Ltd. did not buy any of the 1986 production and most of the farmers were forced in 1987 to stop farming.

In 1988, the Tonga Fisheries Division started its own seaweed plot with 3 full time laborers which were reduced to 1 in 1989 due to marketing problems after the withdrawing of Coast Biologicals Ltd.

At present, the Tonga Fisheries Division is maintaining its seaweed plot with the intention to revive seedling for further trials if most or all constrains will be solved.

Constrains and Development Potential

In February 1988, twenty of the former seaweed farmers were interviewed by fisheries extension officers, to identify constraints and problems encountered in their operation.

Figure 2. Fanga'uta Lagoon, Tongatapu. The six sites indicated were tested by the Tonga Fisheries Division for best growth rate.

Constraints and problems, as listed below, need to be overcome if the seaweed industry in the Kingdom is to be established and developed:

1. Rabbit fish grazing on seaweed result in reduction of production and income;

2. Insufficient supply of seedlings as these are over-exploited prior to the rabbit fish season;

3. Seaweed farming became a very unstable means of livelihood because of market uncertainty, supply of seeding and others;

4. Biological and environmental factors such as fouling, diseases, bad weather, low water temperature, etc. are out of control;

5. Seaweed farming is not economically attractive when compared with other forms of subsistence fisheries such as hand and line fishing, shellfish and others.

Summary

In Vava'u, the number of farms and amount of seaweed produced fall very short of the projected figures.

The farmers were making little or no profit. On February 8, 1984 an updated budget was presented to the Director of Agriculture, Forest and Fisheries. In this report it was projected that there will be very little money earned by seaweed farmers, T$ 67.00 during the first year of operation and T$ 381.00 during the second, if depreciation costs of boat and true interest rate on loans are omitted.

The rabbit fish grazing causes serious problems in farming seaweed and proper solutions have not been identified yet.

In Nukuleka, if on the one hand seaweed has shown good growth rate and the incidence of grazing was negligible, on the other hand the break-out of “ice ice” disease caused serious damages to the farms.

TUVALU

by

Timothy Gentle

Principal Fisheries Officer,
Tuvalu Fisheries Division,
Funafuti, Tuvalu

Introduction

With a population of less than 8,000 souls and a total land area of approximately 21 km², Tuvalu, formerly the Ellice Islands, is one of the worlds smallest countries. The Tuvaluan people are Polynesians with a proud seafarming culture. Tuvalu has basically a subsistence economy and outside the Public Service (the largest employer in the country), almost all incomes come from copra production and remittances sent from relatives working overseas, particularly young men engaged on foreign merchant ships. Per capita income is estimated at about A$ 350 per year and Tuvalu is thus classified as a Least Developed Country (LDC).

The Tuvalu Government places a priority on the development of marine resources, but at present there are no export fisheries although the Japanese aid pole and line vessel “Te Tautai” has generated some income fishing in the zones of Fiji and Solomons (there is a shortage of baitfish in Tuvalu waters). Projects to establish small scale fisheries to export chilled deep water snapper, dried fish (dried flying fish and tune jerky) and smoked yellowfin are planned for implementation in the coming year. In addition, giant clams (Tridacna derasa) are being grown on a trial basis and the possibility of establishing pearl culture is being investigated.

Seaweed Culture

A preliminary small scale experiment (funded by the FAO Regional Aquaculture Project) was carried out in 1977 using Eucheuma cottonii introduced from Kiribati. Although this Eucheuma grew well in Funafuti Lagoon (the biggest lagoon in the main island of the group with the largest population), the experimental plantings were lost with the onset of the westerly season. The experiment therefore, had to be abandoned after only about three months. Another problem noted was interference of the experimental plantings by gill net fishermen who complained that the Eucheuma plots had been established in their traditional fishing area.

Future Prospects

An important constraint to establishing commercial seaweed culture in Tuvalu, is transportation costs to overseas buyers. The Tuvalu Fisheries Division will therefore negotiate with the Forum Line with the aim of obtaining a reduced shipping cost on its container ship. In fact, this container ship service has only recently been established, servicing Marshalls, Kiribati and Tuvalu, and at present the ship reportedly carries almost nothing on the return trip.

Should these negotiations be successful, the Tuvalu Fisheries Division intends to reestablish a pilot Eucheuma project, concentrating initially at Funafuti. Because of the relatively deep lagoon, and the shortage of suitable areas for off-bottom culture, it is proposed to carry out Filipino-style floating frame culture. Carrying out this style of deeper water culture will avoid conflicts with gill net fishermen who fish only in shallower areas. In addition, the use of the floating frame method will allow plants to be easily shifted to different areas in the lagoon in order to find good growing sites.

Culture trials will be carried out in the trade wind season (from March to September) to avoid problems with the westerly winds. During the westerly season it will be necessary to establish a seed farm in the south of the lagoon in an area sheltered from the westerlies near to the new settlement of Funafala. Consideration will be given to extending seaweed culture to the outer islands should it prove viable in Funafuti.

Eucheuma farming could make an important contribution to the national economy, particularly in the outer islands. It is felt that this activity could be particularly attractive to women as a means of earning income and, should Eucheuma culture prove viable, efforts will be made to promote it through women's associations and in collaboration with the ILO project on small business development for women. However, it is considered unlikely that people will choose to take up Eucheuma farming as a full time occupation but will grow it only on a part time basis because of other community and family commitments (tending to crops and livestock, fishing, etc.). On the assumption that Eucheuma culture does prove viable in Tuvalu, a realistic rough estimate for possible total production would be of the order of 50 mt of dried product per year based on 100 people culturing seaweed, each producing 500 kg of dried product over a growing season of 7 months.